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Personality
Theory, Research, and Assessment
Defining Personality: Consistency
and Distinctiveness
 Personality
Traits
– Dispositions and dimensions
 The
Five-Factor Model
– Extraversion
– Neuroticism
– Openness to experience
– Agreeableness
– Conscientiousness
Table of Contents
Psychodynamic Perspectives
Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory
– Structure of personality
• Id - Pleasure principle
• Ego - Reality principle
• Superego - Morality
– Levels of awareness
• Conscious
• Unconscious
• Preconscious
– Conflict
• Sex and Aggression
• Anxiety
• Defense Mechanisms
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Freud on Development:
Psychosexual Stages
 Sexual
= physical pleasure
 Psychosexual
stages
–Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital
• Fixation = Excessive gratification or frustration
• Overemphasis on psychosexual needs during
fixated stage
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Other Psychodynamic Theorists
 Carl
Jung
– Analytical Psychology
• Personal and collective
unconscious
• Archetypes
• Introversion/Extroversion
Table of Contents
Other Psychodynamic Theorists
 Alfred
Adler
– Individual Psychology
• Striving for superiority
• Compensation
• Inferiority complex/overcompensation
• Birth order
Table of Contents
Other Psychodynamic Theorists

Karen Horney
– Viewed anxiety as a powerful motivating force
– Environmental & social factors important
• as important as unconscious sexual conflict
– Neurotic trends
• Irrational strategies for coping with emotional
problems
Table of Contents
Other Psychodynamic Theorists

Erik Erikson
– Eight stages of personality development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Identity vs. role confusion
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Ego integrity vs. despair
Table of Contents
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Evaluating Psychodynamic
Perspectives
Pros:
 Insights
regarding
– The unconscious
– The role of internal conflict
– The importance of early childhood experiences
Table of Contents
Evaluating Psychodynamic
Perspectives
Cons
– Poor testability
– Inadequate empirical base
– Sexist views
Table of Contents
Humanistic Perspectives
 Carl
Rogers
–Person Centered Theory
• Self-concept
– Conditional/unconditional positive regard
– Incongruence and anxiety
 Abraham
Maslow
–Self-actualization theory
–Hierarchy of needs
• The healthy personality
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Evaluating Humanistic
Perspectives
 Highlight
importance of person’s subjective
view of reality
 Attention on ingredients of healthy personality
 Criticized for:
weak research support
poor testability
overly optimistic view of human nature
Table of Contents
Trait Theories

Traits differ like dependency, aggressiveness,
or anxiety
 “Big Five” central traits
–
–
–
–
–
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability
Culture, intellect, openness
Table of Contents
Biological Perspectives
 Eysenk’s
theory
– 3 higher order traits
– Extraversion, neuroticism & psychoticism
• Determined by genes
 Twin
studies
– Novelty seeking & genetics
 The
evolutionary approach
– Traits conducive to reproductive fitness
Table of Contents
Are the “Big Five” Traits
Universal?

Evidence of big five traits across
cultures

Findings suggest a genetic basis
Table of Contents
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Table of Contents
Evaluating Trait Theories
Unlike others, can study scientifically
 Merely descriptive
 Statistical averages of populations
rather than individuals
 Disagreement over minimum traits to
describe all human behavior

Table of Contents
Evaluating Biological Perspectives
 Pros
– Convincing evidence for genetic influence
 Cons
– Conceptual problems with heritability estimates
– Artificial carving apart of nature and nurture
– No comprehensive biological theory
Table of Contents
Social-Cognitive Learning
Theories

Behavior guided by thought, expectancies,
learning & environment
– Expectancies
• Person’s anticipations in a situation or as a
result of behavior
– Performance standards
• judge own behavior by individually determined
standards
Table of Contents
Social-Cognitive Learning
Theories

Self-Efficacy
– Expectancy that one’s efforts will be
successful

Locus of control
– Expectancy whether reinforcement under
internal or external control
Table of Contents
Evaluating Social-Cognitive
Learning Theories
Affirms role of cognition in personality
development
 Focuses on conscious behavior &
experience
 Can be studied scientifically
 Led to many useful therapies

Table of Contents
Behavioral Perspectives
Skinner’s
views
– Conditioning and response tendencies
– Environmental determinism
Bandura’s
views
– Social leaning theory
•
•
•
•
Cognitive processes and reciprocal determinism
Observational learning
Models
Self-efficacy
Mischel’s
views
– The person-situation controversy
Table of Contents
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Evaluating Behavioral
Perspectives
 Pros
– Based on rigorous research
– Insights into effects of learning and
environmental factors
 Cons
– Over-dependence on animal research
– Fragmented view of personality
– Dehumanizing views
Table of Contents
Personality Assessment

Personal interview
 Direct observation
 Objective tests
– Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
– Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI-2)

Projective tests
– Rorschach test
– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Table of Contents
Contemporary Empirical
Approaches to Personality Traits
 Marvin
Zuckerman
– Sensation Seeking
 Mark
Snyder
– Self-monitoring
 Markus
and Kitayama
– Independence vs. interdependence and culture
Table of Contents