Download The Origin of Species

Chapter 22
Descent with Modification:
A Darwinian View of Life
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 22-1
This handstander beetle illustrates the three broad observations that
Scientists like Darwin sought to explain: the many ways organisms are
suited to their environments; the many shared characteristics (unity of
life) that organisms have; and the rich diversity of life.
Overview: Endless Forms Most Beautiful
• A new era of biology
began in 1859 when
Charles Darwin
published The Origin of
Species
• The Origin of Species
focused biologists’
attention on the great
diversity of organisms
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• Darwin noted that current species
are descendants of ancestral
species
• Evolution can be defined by
Darwin’s phrase descent with
modification. It can also be
defined as a change in the
genetic composition of a
population over time.
• Evolution can be viewed as both
a pattern and a process
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Concept 22.1: The Darwinian revolution challenged
traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by
unchanging species
• To understand why Darwin’s ideas were
revolutionary, we must examine them in
relation to other Western ideas about Earth and
its life
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Fig. 22-2
Individuals in the dark blue bars had a tremendous impact on Darwin’s thinking.
Linnaeus (classification)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lamarck (species can change)
Malthus (population limits)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Lyell (modern geology)
Darwin (evolution, natural selection)
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
American Revolution
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1800
1900
1750
1850
1795 Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
1798 Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
1809 Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution.
1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
1837 Darwin begins his notebooks.
1844 Darwin writes essay on descent with modification.
1858 Wallace sends his hypothesis to Darwin.
1859 The Origin of Species is published.
Scala Naturae and Classification of Species
• The Greek philosopher
Aristotle viewed species as
fixed and arranged them on
a scala naturae. His ideas
later coincided with biblical
accounts of creation.
• The Old Testament holds
that species were
individually designed by
God and therefore perfect
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Aristotle’s “ scale of nature”
• Carolus Linnaeus interpreted
organismal adaptations as
evidence that the Creator had
designed each species for a
specific purpose
• Linnaeus was the founder of
taxonomy, the branch of
biology concerned with
classifying organisms. He also
developed the system of
binomial nomenclature, for
naming organisms.
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Ideas About Change over Time
• The study of fossils
helped to lay the
groundwork for
Darwin’s ideas
• Fossils are remains or
traces of organisms
from the past, usually
found in sedimentary
rock, which appears in
layers or strata
Video: Grand Canyon
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Fig. 22-3
Layers of deposited
sediment
Younger stratum
with more recent
fossils
Older stratum
with older fossils
• Paleontology, the study of fossils,
was largely developed by French
scientist Georges Cuvier
• Cuvier advocated catastrophism,
speculating that each boundary
between strata represents a
catastrophe, such as a flood, that
destroyed many of the species
living at that time.
• These species would then be
replaced by immigration of new
species. He opposed the idea of
evolution.
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• Geologists James Hutton and Charles
Lyell perceived that changes in Earth’s
surface can result from slow continuous
actions still operating today
• Lyell’s principle of uniformitarianism
states that the mechanisms of change are
constant over time
• This view strongly influenced Darwin’s
thinking. It suggested that the Earth was
much older than previously thought; and
that similar slow changes may occur in
biological organisms too
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Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution
•
Lamarck hypothesized that species
evolve through use and disuse of
body parts and the inheritance of
acquired characteristics
•
The mechanisms he proposed are
unsupported by evidence
Lamarck was the first
person to propose a
mechanism as to
“how” living things
could change over
time.
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Fig. 22-4
Lamarck’s theory was known as “Acquired Characteristics”.
However, acquired traits cannot be inherited. Ex: This bonsai
tree was trained to grow as a dwarf by pruning. Its seeds will
still produce normal sized offspring. Lamarck’s theory does
not fit with the testable science of genetics.
Concept 22.2: Descent with modification by natural
selection explains the adaptations of organisms and
the unity and diversity of life
• As the 19th century dawned, it was generally
believed that species had remained
unchanged since their creation
• However, a few doubts about the permanence
of species were beginning to arise
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Darwin’s Research
• As a boy and into adulthood,
Charles Darwin had a consuming
interest in nature
• Darwin first studied medicine
(unsuccessfully), and then
theology at Cambridge
University
• After graduating in 1831, he took
an unpaid position as naturalist
and companion to Captain
Robert FitzRoy for a 5-year
around the world voyage on the
Beagle
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The Voyage of the Beagle
• During his travels on the Beagle, Darwin
collected specimens of South American plants
and animals
• He observed adaptations of plants and
animals that inhabited many diverse
environments
• Darwin was influenced by Lyell’s Principles of
Geology and thought that the earth was more
than 6000 years old
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• His interest in geographic distribution of
species was kindled by a stop at the
Galápagos Islands near the equator west of
South America
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Video: Galápagos Islands Overview
Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual
Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual
Video: Galápagos Sea Lion
Video: Soaring Hawk
Video: Galápagos Tortoises
Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana
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Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation
• In reassessing his observations, Darwin
perceived adaptation to the environment and
the origin of new species as closely related
processes
• From studies made years after Darwin’s
voyage, biologists have concluded that this is
indeed what happened to the Galápagos
finches
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Fig. 22-6
(a) Cactus-eater
(c) Seed-eater
(b) Insect-eater
• In 1844, Darwin wrote an essay on the origin of
species and natural selection but did not
introduce his theory publicly, anticipating an
uproar
• In June 1858, Darwin received a manuscript from
Alfred Russell Wallace, who had developed a
theory of natural selection similar to Darwin’s
• Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species
and published it the next year, with Wallace’s
approval
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The Origin of Species
• Darwin developed two main ideas:
– Descent with modification explains life’s
unity and diversity
– Natural selection is a cause of adaptive
evolution
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Descent with Modification
• Darwin never used the word evolution in the
first edition of The Origin of Species
• The phrase descent with modification
summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity of
life
• The phrase refers to the view that all
organisms are related through descent
from an ancestor that lived in the remote
past
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• In the Darwinian
view, the history of
life is like a tree
with branches
representing life’s
diversity
• Darwin’s theory
meshed well with
the hierarchy of
Linnaeus
The first phylogenetic tree of organisms, sketched by
Darwin in one of his famous notebooks. It suggests that
all of life might be interrelated. Notice the “I think” in the
upper left-hand corner
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Fig. 22-8
Hyracoidea
(Hyraxes)
Sirenia
(Manatees
and relatives)
Moeritherium
Barytherium
Deinotherium
Mammut
Platybelodon
Stegodon
Mammuthus
Elephas maximus
(Asia)
Loxodonta
africana
(Africa)
Loxodonta cyclotis
(Africa)
34
24
Millions of years ago
5.5
2 104 0
Years ago
Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and
Adaptation
• Darwin noted that
humans have
modified other
species by
selecting and
breeding
individuals with
desired traits, a
process called
artificial selection
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Fig. 22-9
Terminal
bud
Lateral
buds
Cabbage
Brussels sprouts
Flower
clusters
Leaves
Kale
Cauliflower
Stem
Wild mustard
Flowers
and stems
Broccoli
Kohlrabi
• Darwin then described four observations of
nature and from these drew two inferences
• Observation #1: Members of a population often
vary greatly in their traits
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• Observation #2: Traits are inherited from parents
to offspring
All the Simpson
kids have huge
eyes which they
inherited from
their parents.
• Observation #3: All species
are capable of producing
more offspring than the
environment can support
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Spore
cloud
• Observation #4: Owing to lack of food or other
resources, many of these offspring do not
survive
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• Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits
give them a higher probability of surviving
and reproducing in a given environment tend to
leave more offspring than other individuals
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• Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals
to survive and reproduce will lead to the
accumulation of favorable traits in the
population over generations
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• Darwin was influenced by Thomas
Malthus who noted the potential for
human population to increase faster
than food supplies and other
resources
• If some heritable traits are
advantageous, these will accumulate
in the population, and this will
increase the frequency of individuals
with adaptations
• This process explains the match
between organisms and their
environment
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Natural Selection: A Summary
• Individuals with certain heritable characteristics
survive and reproduce at a higher rate than
other individuals
• Natural selection increases the adaptation of
organisms to their environment over time
• If an environment changes over time, natural
selection may result in adaptation to these new
conditions and may give rise to new species
Video: Seahorse Camouflage
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• Note that individuals do not evolve;
populations evolve over time
• Natural selection can only increase or
decrease heritable traits in a population
• Adaptations vary with different environments
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Concept 22.3: Evolution is supported by an
overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
• New discoveries continue to fill the gaps
identified by Darwin in The Origin of Species
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Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change
• Two examples provide evidence for natural
selection: the effect of differential predation on
guppy populations and the evolution of drugresistant HIV
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Predation and Coloration in Guppies : Scientific
Inquiry
• John Endler has studied the effects of
predators on wild guppy populations
• Brightly colored males are more attractive to
females
• However, brightly colored males are more
vulnerable to predation
• Guppy populations in pools with fewer
predators had more brightly colored males
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Fig. 22-13
EXPERIMENT
Predator: Killifish; preys
mainly on juvenile
guppies (which do not
express the color genes)
Experimental
transplant of
guppies
Pools with
killifish,
but no
guppies prior
to transplant
Guppies: Adult males have
brighter colors than those
in “pike-cichlid pools”
Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on adult guppies
Guppies: Adult males are more drab in color
than those in “killifish pools”
RESULTS
12
Number of
colored spots
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source
population
Transplanted
population
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source
population
Transplanted
population
Fig. 22-13a
EXPERIMENT
Predator: Killifish; preys
mainly on juvenile
guppies (which do not
express the color genes)
Guppies: Adult males have
brighter colors than those
in “pike-cichlid pools”
Experimental
transplant of
guppies
Pools with
killifish,
but no
guppies prior
to transplant
Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on adult guppies
Guppies: Adult males are more drab in color
than those in “killifish pools”
Fig. 22-13b
RESULTS
12
Number of
colored spots
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source
Transplanted
population population
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source
Transplanted
population population
• Endler transferred brightly colored guppies
(with few predators) to a pool with many
predators
• As predicted, over time the population became
less brightly colored
• Endler also transferred drab colored guppies
(with many predators) to a pool with few
predators
• As predicted, over time the population became
more brightly colored
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The Evolution of Drug-Resistant HIV
• The use of drugs to combat HIV selects for
viruses resistant to these drugs
• HIV uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to
make a DNA version of its own RNA genome
• The drug 3TC is designed to interfere and
cause errors in the manufacture of DNA from
the virus
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• Some individual HIV viruses have a variation
that allows them to produce DNA without errors
• These viruses have a greater reproductive
success and increase in number relative to the
susceptible viruses
• The population of HIV viruses has therefore
developed resistance to 3TC
• The ability of bacteria and viruses to evolve
rapidly poses a challenge to our society
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• Natural selection does not create new traits,
but edits or selects for traits already present
in the population
• The local environment determines which traits
will be selected for or selected against in
any specific population. Evolution, in a sense,
depends on the time and the place.
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The Fossil Record
• The fossil record provides evidence of the
extinction of species, the origin of new
groups, and changes within groups over
time
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• The Darwinian view of life predicts that
evolutionary transitions should leave signs in
the fossil record
• Paleontologists have discovered fossils of
many such transitional forms
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Fig. 22-16
(a) Pakicetus (terrestrial)
(b) Rhodocetus (predominantly aquatic)
Pelvis and
hind limb
(c) Dorudon (fully aquatic)
Pelvis and
hind limb
(d) Balaena
(recent whale ancestor)
Homology
• Homology is similarity resulting from common
ancestry
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Anatomical and Molecular Homologies
• Homologous structures are anatomical
resemblances that represent variations on a
structural theme present in a common ancestor
Human
Cat
Whale
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Bat
• Comparative embryology reveals anatomical
homologies not visible in adult organisms
Pharyngeal
pouches
Post-anal
tail
Chick embryo (LM)
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Human embryo
• Vestigial structures are remnants of features
that served important functions in the
organism’s ancestors
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• Examples of homologies at the molecular level are
genes shared among organisms inherited from
a common ancestor: Such as the nearly universal
genetic code shared by all organisms.
Homologies and “Tree Thinking”
• The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary
tree of life can explain homologies
• Evolutionary trees are hypotheses about the
relationships among different groups
• Evolutionary trees can be made using different
types of data, for example, anatomical and
DNA sequence data
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Fig. 22-19
Branch point
(common ancestor)
Lungfishes
Amphibians
1
Mammals
2
Tetrapod limbs
Amnion
Lizards
and snakes
3
4
Homologous
characteristic
Crocodiles
Ostriches
6
Feathers
Hawks and
other birds
Birds
5
Convergent Evolution
• Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar, or
analogous, features in distantly related groups
• Analogous traits arise when groups independently adapt
to similar environments in similar ways
• Convergent evolution does not provide information
about ancestry
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Fig. 22-20
Sugar
glider
NORTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Flying
squirrel
Biogeography
• Darwin’s observations of biogeography, the
geographic distribution of species, formed an
important part of his theory of evolution
• Islands have many endemic species that are
often closely related to species on the nearest
mainland or island
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• Earth’s continents were
formerly united in a
single large continent
called Pangaea, but
have since separated
by continental drift
• An understanding of
continent movement
and modern distribution
of species allows us to
predict when and
where different groups
evolved
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What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life?
• In science, a theory accounts for many
observations and data and attempts to explain
and integrate a great variety of phenomena
• Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection integrates diverse areas of biological
study and stimulates many new research
questions
• Ongoing research adds to our understanding
of evolution
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Fig. 22-UN1
Observations
Individuals in a population
vary in their heritable
characteristics.
Organisms produce more
offspring than the
environment can support.
Inferences
Individuals that are well suited
to their environment tend to leave
more offspring than other individuals
and
Over time, favorable traits
accumulate in the population.
Fig. 22-UN2
Fig. 22-UN3
You should now be able to:
1. Describe the contributions to evolutionary
theory made by Linnaeus, Cuvier, Lyell,
Lamarck, Malthus, and Wallace
2. Describe Lamarck’s theories, and explain why
they have been rejected
3. Explain what Darwin meant by “descent with
modification”
4. List and explain Darwin’s four observations
and two inferences
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5. Explain why an individual organism cannot
evolve
6. Describe at least four lines of evidence for
evolution by natural selection
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