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Chapter 1 THAILAND AND EVANGELIZATION Introduction This chapter provides the reader with a snack view of Thailand. It locates this land on the globe, describes its topography, the people, their history, religion and the growth of the Catholic Church. The word ‘Thai’ (ไทย) means ‘freedom’ in the Thai language and therefore ‘Thailand’ signifies the ‘land of freedom’. It was never colonized by foreign powers. It has an area of 514,343 square kilometres, approximately the size of France.1 It has a total population of 63,927,708 2 with Tai, Lao, Khmer, Chinese and Malay forming the major ethnic groups of the population. The land is unique and picturesque in many ways. Thailand was officially known as Siam, until May 11, 1949.3 1. The Kingdom of Thailand The Kingdom of Thailand or Siam 4 is a country in Southeast Asia, bordering Laos and Cambodia to the east, the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia to the south, and the Andaman Sea and Myanmar to the west and to the north. Earlier it was, a buffer state between French and British colonial possessions. Siam, ‘the land of the White Elephant’ or the country of the Muang Thai lies between 4° and 21° north latitudes, and between 97° and 106° east longitudes.5 Cfr. WIKIPEDIA, Thailand, in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand, (18 October 2005), 1; LEPOER B., Geography, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/ thailand /thailand 5.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 2 Cfr. Appendix 4, Table 5: the year 2004. 3 Cfr. SIAM.COM LLC, Siam, in http://www.siam.com/2005, (21 January 2006), 1. 4 ‘Sayam’, from which ‘Siam’ comes, was the name for Thailand in the Szechwan dialect of Chinese. 5 Cfr. BILZ J., Siam, in KNIGHT K., The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIII, New York, in http://www.yushanth.org.tw/lib/The%20Catholic%20Encyclopedia/cathen/13765 aPP.htm, (21-January 2006), 1. 1 20 1.1 The Land The southward extension into the Malay Peninsula gives Thailand a long coastline on the Gulf of Thailand and on the Andaman Sea. The heart of the country, the fertile and thickly populated central plain, is dotted with numerous paddy fields, entirely flat and rarely more than a few feet above sea level. It is watered by the Chao Phraya and lesser rivers and is elaborately veined by a system of canals (called klongs - คลอง) for irrigation and drainage. Bangkok and Ayutthaya, the old capital, are in that basin.6 Most of North-Eastern and Eastern Thailand is occupied by the Korat plateau, which is cut off from the rest of the country by highlands and the Phetchabun Mountain. It is a hilly, dry and generally poor region, where the main occupation of the population is raising of livestock. Chief towns are Nakhon Ratchasima (Korat), Udon Thani, and Ubon Ratchathani. Peninsular Thailand in the south (which includes Phuket and other offshore islands) is largely mountainous and covered with jungles. It is the principal source of rubber and tin that make Thailand a major world producer of both. Chief towns of the peninsula are Hat Yai and Songkhla, the second largest port of the country. Thailand has a tropical and monsoonal climate. It has a rainy, warm, and cloudy southwest monsoon from mid-May to September, as well as a dry, cool northeast monsoon from November to mid-March. The southern Isthmus is always hot and humid.7 The kingdom of Thailand is divided into 76 provinces (changwat - จังหวัด, singular and plural), which are grouped into 5 groups of provinces (North-17, East-7, South-14, North-East-19 and Central-19). Each province is divided into smaller districts - as of 2000 there were 795 districts (amphoe - อำเภอ), 81 sub-districts (king amphoe - กิง่ อำเภอ).8 1.2 History Little is known of Thailand’s prehistory. The available evidence is so scant that not much can be assumed either. Some research scholars believe 6 Cfr. LEPOER B., Geography of Thailand, in http://reference.allrefer.com/countryguide-study/thailand/thailand5.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 7 Cfr.WIKIPEDIA, Geography of Thailand, in http://encycl.opentopia.com/ term/ Thailand #History, (8 October 2005), 1. 8 Ibid. 21 that there was human occupation in parts of Thailand right from the Stone Age onwards. Skeletons dating from then have been discovered in Kanchanaburi Province. Mysterious rock paintings were found in cliffs near the Thai-Laotian-Kampuchean border as well as at Ko Hian in Phan Nga. Besides estimating that they are at least 3,000 years old, scientists know next to nothing of the artists.9 1.2.1 First Settlers The first genuine settlements—where people lived in groups, practiced agriculture, made pottery, and wove cloth—were on hillsides. By 2000 B.C. there were several of these throughout the country. The most important were two in the extreme northeast at Non Nok Tha 10 and Ban Chiang. It is generally accepted that the Ban Chiang settlement started around 3500 B.C. By 1000 B.C., it was a complex culture that also produced outstanding ceramics. In its last period, from 300 B.C. to 300 A.D., it achieved a high degree of craftsmanship in painted pottery, bronze and iron tools, 11 and bronze and glass jewelry. Much of this was discovered when burial sites were dug up, for the citizens of Ban Chiang buried their dead along with large amounts of goods.12 1.2.2 The Origins of Thais The Tai (ethnic group)13, a people who originally lived in south-western China, migrated into mainland Southeast Asia over a period of many 9 Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, in HEW S. (Eds.), Cultures of the world, Singapore, Welpac Printing & Packaging Pte Ltd., 1991, 19; LEPOER B.,Historical Setting, in http://reference.all refer.com/country-guide-study/thailand/thailand12.html, (15 March 2006),1. 10 Cfr. FARANG, Thailand (Siam) History as understood, in http://www.csmngt.com / thailand_history.htm, (1 October 2005), 1. Pottery shards bearing the imprint of both grains and husks of rice were discovered at Non Nok Tha near Korat dating from at least 4000 B.C. (6000 years ago).The pottery sherds found at the Non Nok Tha site are amongst the world's oldest. 11 Ibid. History books generally attribute the first Iron Age culture to the Hittites of ancient Turkey Mesopotamia. Thai iron objects are just as old as anything the Hittites produced. 12 Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand,19; LEPOER B., Early History, in http://reference. allrefer. Com /country-guide-study/thailand/thailand13.html, (15 March 2006),1. 13 Cfr. LEPOER B., Thailand, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/ thailand/thailand69.html, (15 March 2006),1; TERWIEL B., The Tai of Assam and Ancient Tai Ritual, Volume I: Life-cycle Ceremonies, SAHAI SACHCHIDANAND (Ed.), Gaya, The South East Asian Review Office,1980,1-28. The Tai (ไต,ไท) ethnic group a category or group of people considered to be significantly different from others in terms of cultural (dialect, religion, traditions, etc.) and sometimes physical characteristics (skin color, body shape, etc.) which have been recognized as ‘Tai”. Such as the Shan, Kamti, Lue, Lao, Neua, Black Tai, White Tai, Red 22 centuries. The first mention of their existence in the region is a 12 th century A.D. inscription at the Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, which mentions that the sayam, or ‘dark brown’ people were vassals of the Khmer monarch.14 There are conflicting opinions of the origins of the Thais (Tai Siam = Thais).15 It is presumed that about 4,500 years ago Thais originated in northwestern Szechuan in China and later migrated to Thailand along the southern part of China. They split into two main groups. One settled down in the North and became the kingdom of ‘Lan Na’ and the other one went down further south, got defeated by the Khmers later and became the kingdom of ‘Sukhothai’.16 However, this version of history is challenged by the archaeological excavations in the village of Ban Chiang in the Nong Han District of Udorn Thani province in the Northeast. From the evidence collected there, from bronze metallurgy, it now appears that the Thais might have originated here in Thailand itself and later scattered to various parts of Asia, including China.17 The controversy over the origin of the Thais shows no sign of definite conclusion as many more theories have been put forward and some even go further to say that Thais were originally Austronesian rather than Mongoloid. Tai, Tho, Chung Chai and Thai. Commonly recognized The Tai ethnic groups include Tai Siam (Thailand). ‘Tai’, the core Thai--the Central Thai, the Northeastern Thai (Thai-Lao), the Northern Thai, and the Southern Thai--spoke dialects of one of the languages of the Tai language family. The peoples who spoke those languages--generically also referred to as Tai--originated in southern China, but they were dispersed throughout mainland Southeast Asia from Burma to Vietnam, Laos and some groups in the Northeast of India (Tai Ahom, Assamese Tai). 14 Cfr. LEPOER B., Historical setting, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guidestudy/thailand/thailand 12. html, (15 March 2006), 1. The name Sayam or Siam could have originated simply like a reference to the colour of this particular people, not connected then to its freedom from other groups. 15 Cfr. LEPOER B., Buddhist Doctrine and Popular Religion, in http://reference. all refer. com /country-guide-study/thailand/thailand69.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 15 Cfr. SERGE K., Thai History, in http://www.simply-thai.com/Thailand_Chronology_ Thai_History.htm , (21 January 2006), 1. It was conventional in the 1980s to refer to Taispeaking peoples in Thailand as Thai (ไทย) with a regional or other qualifier, e.g., Central Thai. There were, however, groups in Thailand in the late twentieth century who spoke a language of the Tai family but who were not part of the core population. Cfr. LEPOER B., Buddhist Doctrine and Popular Religion, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/thailand/ thailand69.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 16 Cfr. SERGE K., Thai History, in http://www.simply-thai.com/Thailand_Chronology_ Thai_History.htm , (21 January 2006), 1. 17 Cfr. FARANG, Thailand (Siam) History as understood, 2. Early Chinese people learned how to make bronze from the Thai. The word for copper in several dialects of Chinese is ‘tong’, the same word used in the oldest Southeast Asian languages. The Bronze Age community, 3600 BC, of Ban Chang covered a hill & was continuously occupied for more than 3000 years. Graves dated to 3600 B.C. have produced bronze bracelets, bells and spearheads. There is a comprehensive museum at the Ban Chang site. The hamlet of Ban Chang is near Udorn Thani, in the northern part of the Eastern Region of Thailand. 23 Whatever the outcome of the dispute the fact remains: by the 13th century AD the Thais had already settled down within Southeast Asia.18 1.2.3 Khmer Influence In the 8th century, Buddhist missionaries from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) introduced Theravada Buddhism to the Mons. The Mons embraced Buddhism enthusiastically and conveyed it to the Khmers and the Malays of Tambralinga (Nakhon Si Thammarat). The two Indian religious systems of Hinduism and Buddhism existed side by side without conflict in Suwannaphum – สุวรรณภูม ิ or Suvarnabhumi (the Golden Land). Hinduism continued to provide the cultural setting in which Buddhist religious values and ethical standards were articulated. Although Buddhism was the official religion of the Mons and the Khmers, in popular practice it incorporated many local cults.19 From the 9th to the 11th century, the central and western area of Thailand was under the influence of a Mon civilization called Dvaravati. Besides the Mons, the Dvaravati embraced also the Khmers who later on settled in southern Burma. Dvaravati was an Indianized culture and it had its centres in Nakhon Pathom, Khu Bua, Phong Tuk and Lawo (Lopburi – ลพบุร)ี . Theravada Buddhism remained the major religion in this area. By the 12 th century, Mon held influence over central Thailand. Khmer cultural influence was brought in the form of language, art and religion. The ‘Sanskrit’ language entered in Mon-Thai vocabulary during the Khmer or Lopburi Period. The architecture in ‘Angkor’ was also constructed according to the Khmer style. However, the Khmer cultural dominance did not control the whole area but exerted power through vassals and governors.20 1.2.4 Lan Na Period The ‘Lan Na’ kingdom originated in ‘Chiang Saen’ on the Mae Kok River. Its first leader King Mengrai ascended the throne in 1259.21 He extended the 18 Cfr. INTERNET AUNET CENTER ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY OF THAILAND,The origins, in http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand/thai_his/origin.html , (12 November 2005), 1. 19 Cfr. LEPOER B., The Mon and the Khmer, in http://reference.allrefer.com/countryguide-study/thailand/thailand14.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 20 Cfr. INTERNET AUNET CENTER ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY OF THAILAND, Khmer Influence, in http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand/thai_his/khmer.html, (12 November 2005), 1; LEPOER B., The Mon and the Khmer, 2. 21 Cfr. SERGE K., Thai History, in http://www.simply-thai.com/ Thailand_ Chronology Thai_History.htm, (2 January 2006), 1. In 1262 - Prince Mengrai of Nanchao, after having 24 kingdom from the borders of Laos to Lamphum and successfully captured the ancient Mon Harupinjaya stronghold. 22 King Mengrai also founded a new capital in Chiang Mai, located along the river Ping. Lan Na kingdom flourished for over 200 years. Art and literature flourished especially in the middle of 15 th century during the period of King Tilokoraj. The 8th world synod of Theravada Buddhism was held at Chiang Mai in this period. After the death of King Tilokoraj, the kingdom suffered from internal conflicts. Furthermore Lan Na weakened because of wars with Sukhothai's successors.23 1.2.5 Sukhothai Period (1238-1378) Sukhothai was the first Thai kingdom. It was founded in 1238 by two Tai governors, Khun Bang Klang Thao (Si Inthrathit) and Khun Pha Muang who rebelled against the Khmers and brought independence to the region. Sukhothai period was considered to be a golden age of Thai culture. During that time in history, everybody could say that; ‘There are fishes in the water and rice in the fields’. The boundary of Sukhothai stretched from Lampang and Vientiane in the north to the Malay Peninsula in the south.24 After the death of Khun Pha Muang in 1279, Ramkhamhaeng (12791317), the third son of Si Inthrathit, ascended to the throne. King Ramkhamhaeng organized a writing system which became the basis for writing and eventually developed to be the modern Thai alphabet.25 Sukhothai developed strong friendly ties with neighbouring countries. It absorbed elements of various civilizations with which they came into contact. Thai maintained and advanced their cultural contacts with China. Extensive trade was established also with Cambodia and India.26 escaped the wrath of Kublai Khan, establishes the Lanna Thai Kingdom with himself as king. To serve as his capital, he founds the town of Chiang Rai. 22 Ibid., 2. In 1283 - King Mengrai of Lannatai conquers the Mon Kingdom of Haripungaya (present-day Lamphun), making it a long lasting part of his realm. Later kingdoms of the Mons will all be located at the western side of the mountain range that today separates the territories of Burma and Thailand. 23 Cfr. INTERNET AUNET CENTER ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY OF THAILAND, Lan Na Period, in http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand/thai_his/lanna.html, (12 November 2005), 1. 24 Cfr. LEPOER B., Sukhothai, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/ thailand/thailand17.html, 1987, (15 March 2006),1. 25 Cfr. INTERNET AUNET CENTER ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY OF THAILAND, Sukhothai Period (1238-1378), in http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand/thai_his/sukhothai.html 1999, (12 November 2005), 1. 26 In 1347- King Lithai (King Tammaraja I) concentrates rather on religious than political matters, a fact further contributing to the loss of political power of Sukhothai. Tammaraja, a name he acquires posthumously, is a religious rather than political title. In 1378 - King Tammaraja II of Sukhothai is forced to become a vassal of the King of 25 1.2.6 Ayutthaya Period (1350-1767) Ayutthaya, the capital of the Thai Kingdom was found by U-Thong King (King Rama Tibodi I) in 1350. Ayutthaya as an island at the confluence of three rivers, the Chao Phraya, the Pasak, and the Lopburi and surrounded by rice terraces. It is easy to see why the Ayutthaya area was settled prior to this date since the site offered a variety of geographical and economic advantages. The Thai kings of Ayutthaya became powerful in the 14th and 15th centuries, taking over U-Thong, Lopburi, and Ayutthaya. King U-Thong and his immediate successors expanded Ayutthaya's territory, especially northward towards Sukhothai and eastward towards the Khmer capital of Angkor.27 The society during the Ayutthaya period was strictly hierarchical. There were, roughly, three classes of people with the king at the top of the scale. At the bottom of social scale were commoners and the slaves.28 In the early 16th century, the Europeans visited Ayutthaya, and a Portuguese embassy was established in 1511. Portugal's powerful neighbour Spain was the next European nation to arrive in Ayutthaya, towards the end of the 16th century. The early 17th century saw the arrival of two other north European groups: the Dutch merchants who set up trade in the south at Pattani in 1601 and the British traders who came to Ayutthaya in 1612. The French arrived in 1662. European rivalry for trade and port privileges came to a climax under reign of King Narai the Great (1656-1588).29 In April 1767 Burmese soldiers put the capital to flames, and destroyed everything, including temples, manuscripts, and religious sculpture. However the Burmese could not hold the kingdom for even two years. Phraya Taksin, a Thai general, promoted himself to be the king in 1769. He ruled the new capital of Thonburi on the bank of Chao Phraya River, opposite Bangkok. Thais regained control of their country and thus scattered themselves to the provinces in the north and central part of Thailand.30 Ayutthaya. This marks the end of the independent Thai Kingdom of Sukhothai after 140 years of existence. 27 Cfr. LEPOER B., The Ayutthaya Era1350-1767, in http://reference.allrefer.com/ country -guide-study/thailand/thailand17.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 28 Cfr. LEPOER B., Social and Political Development, in http://reference.allrefer.com/ country-guide-study/thailand/thailand12.html, (15 March 2006),1. Siam adopts the Khmer system of slavery as well as the concept of absolute monarchy. 29 Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, 23.; LEPOER B., Contacts with the West , in http:// reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/thailand/thailand21.html, (15 March 2006),1. 30 Cfr. INTERNET AUNET CENTER ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY OF THAILAND, Ayutthaya Period (1350-1765), in http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand/thai_his/ayutthaya.html, (12 November 2005), 1. 26 1.2.7 Ratanakosin Period The Chakri dynasty was inaugurated on April 6, 1782 with the coronation of Rama I or King Buddha Yot Fa Chulalok. He moved the capital across the Chao Phraya River from Thonburi to a small village known as ‘Bangkok’ and established new laws to rule the country. Under his reign, Thailand covered all areas of present day Laos, parts of Burma, Cambodia and the Kedah province in Malaysia.31 Rama IV or King Mongkut (Phra Chom Klao), who reigned from 1851 to 1868, lived as a Buddhist monk for 27 years. During his monastic period, he could speak many languages including Latin and English. He also studied western sciences and adopted the discipline of a local Mon monk. Under his reign, he created new laws to improve women’s and children's rights, opened new waterways and roads and created the first printing press. Rama V or King Chulalongkorn, Rama IV's son, continued on the throne from 1868 to 1910. He started to reform the traditional legal and administrative customs and practices. Under the reign of Rama V, Thailand developed relations with European nations and the USA. He introduced schools, roads, railways, and Thailand's first post office. He even established civil service system. In 1892, Rama V changed the administration of Siam to a form of cabinet government with 12 ministers.32 In 1886, Siam lost some territory to the French and the British. After that King Chulalongkorn declared Thailand as an independent kingdom on the 23rd of October, making this day a national holiday. Every year this national holiday is celebrated in commemoration of this event and people lay wreaths in memory of the king they called ‘Phra Piya Maharaj’ Rama VI or King Vajiravudh, reigned from 1910 to 1925. During his short reign, he initiated the westernization of Thailand and introduced the primary school education. The period 1925-1935 was of Rama VII or King Prachadhipok, Rama VI's brother. He opted for democracy. This revolution developed the constitutional monarchy along British lines, with mixed military and civilian group in power. Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, 24-25. Cfr. LEPOER B., Chulalongkon’ s Reforms, in http://reference.allrefer.com/countryguide-study/thailand/thailand26.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 31 32 27 Rama VIII or King Ananda Mahidol, a nephew of Rama VII, ascended the throne in 1935 but was assassinated under mysterious circumstances in 1946. His brother King Bhumipol Aduldej succeeded as Rama IX until today.33 2. People and Politics of Thailand The Tai (Siamese), Lao, Khmer and Malay are Thailand’s four major ethnic groups with their respective dialects and corresponding to the four major geographic regions. The presence of Chinese population is seen mainly in the cities. The northern continental highland, home of the northern Tai, is also occupied by the Shans and various indigenous hill tribes. In the east is the water-hungry Khorat plateau, home of the north-eastern Thai-Lao or Thai Isan and Khmer groups. Stretched south lies the rich, isolated peninsula where Malay comprises the local population.34 The central plain, home of the central Thai, is occupied by the dominant ethic group from whom came the official language. The region acts as a powerful unifying force in preserving Thailand as a national unit.35 David K. Wyatt’s book Thailand: A Short History (1984), offers the best summary of recent thinking: The modern Thai may or may not be descended by blood from the latearriving Thai. He or she may instead be the descendant of still earlier Mon or Khmer inhabitants of the region, or of much later Chinese or Indian immigrants. Only over many centuries has a ‘Thai’ culture, a civilization and identity, emerged as the product of interaction between Thai and indigenous and immigrant cultures.36 The Thai people are described as a polite, hospitable, obliging, lighthearted, pleasure and feast-loving people, as gifted gold and silversmiths, 33 Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, 26-27; INTERNET AUNET CENTER ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY OF THAILAND, Ratanakosin Period (1782- ), in http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand /thai_his/ratanakosin.html , (12 November 2005), 1. 34 Cfr. LEPOER B., Society in http:// reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/ Thailand /thailand6.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 35 Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, 42-49. Ethnic and Regional Groups: Four regional categories make up core Thai population: Central Thai (32 percent); Thai-Lao (30 percent); Northern Thai (17 percent); and Southern Thai (5 percent). Largest minority consists of Chinese (11 percent), followed by Malay (3-4 percent), and Khmer (1 percent). Remaining minority groups, including numerous hill tribes, together constituted no more than 2 percent of the population. 36 Cfr. MILLER T., Thailand, in MILLER T., SEEN W. (Eds.), Southeast Asia: the garland Encyclopedia of world music, volume 4, New York and, Garland Publishing, Inc., 1998, 219,224333; WONG D., Popular Music and Cultural Politics in MILLER T., SEEN W. (Eds.), Southeast Asia: the garland Encyclopedia of world music, 95-101. 28 possessing great taste for art and skill as painters, decorators, and carvers in wood, stone, plaster, and mosaic. Although Thais have an intense love of freedom and individuality, they have been accustomed to strong central and paternalistic rule. Both individually and politically they are perceived to be non-aggressive, polite, and restrained.37 During World War II Thailand was in a loose alliance with Japan; following the conclusion of the war, Thailand became an ally of the United States. Thailand then saw a series of military coups d'état, but progressed towards democracy from the 1980’s onward. The country now enjoys an enlightened constitutional monarchy. The king is still considered sacred and above criticism, and must be a Buddhist. He is the chief of the state, head of the armed forces, and the defender of all faiths. Thailand’s unifying slogan is, ‘Nation, Religion, and King.’ Stability is maintained by central government control through a strong network of civil servants from governors of the 76 provinces through district officers to community leaders (kamnan - กำนัน ), and village headmen (phu-yai-ban - ผู ้ใหญ่บ ้ำน ). Restraint and ability to maintain friendly neutrality between major powers and also with bordering countries is a characteristic of Thai foreign policy.The official calendar in Thailand is based on the Buddhist Era, which is 543 years ahead of the western calendar. For example, the year 2000 AD is equal to the year 2543 BE.38 2.1 Culture Thailand's origin is traditionally tied up with the short-lived kingdom of Sukhothai founded in 1238, after which the larger kingdom of Ayutthaya was established in the mid-14th century. Thai culture was greatly influenced by both China and India. Thailand is located in Indochina, the land between India and China. According to orthodox history, it was believed that Thai people used to live in the south of China long time ago. However, in terms of culture, Thai people have been influenced by India rather than China. Why so? M.R. Kukrit Pramoj, one of the great Thai scholars, remarks: Why haven’t the Thai people been influenced by Chinese culture (except some small matters)? Why have they been mostly influenced by Indian culture? 37 So it was on June 24. 1932, that almost seven hundred years of absolute monarchy ended in a bloodless coup organized by middle-class civil servants and military officers. 38 Cfr. KREUTZ S., Religion, in http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13765a.htm, (23 October 2005), 1. 29 I suppose that this is so because Chinese culture is too rigid for the Thai people who are flexible and don’t like strict rules. Indian culture is more flexible. We have adopted Indian culture from two ways: Hinduism and Buddhism.39 Over the centuries Thai national identity evolved around a common language and religion and the institution of the monarchy. Although the inhabitants of Thailand are a mixture of Tai, Mon, Khmer, and other ethnic groups, most speak a language of the Tai family. A Tai language alphabet, based on Indian and Khmer scripts, developed early in the 14th century. 40 Later in the century a famous monarch, the king Ramathibodi made Theravada Buddhism the official religion of his kingdom, and Buddhism continued into the 20th century as a dominant factor in the nation's social, cultural, and political life. Finally, the monarchy, buttressed ideologically by Hindu and Buddhist mythology, was a focus for popular loyalties for more than seven centuries.41 Contact with various European powers began in the 16th century but, despite continued pressure as stated earlier, Thailand is the only Southeast Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power, though Western influence, including the threat of force, led to many reforms in the 19th century and major concessions to British mercantile interest were granted.42 In the late 20th century monarchy remained central to national unity.43 Thai with its own alphabet is the national language of Thailand. However, there exist many regional dialects. In certain areas people speak Cfr. PRAMOJ K., “Culture” in Inculturation, the Proceedings of the Conference of the Catholic Priests in Thailand, 19-23 October 1981, Saengtham College Sampran, no. 3.1; SRIWARAKUEL W., Christianity and Thai Culture, the Proceedings of the Conference of the Catholic Priests in Thailand, 13 October 2005, Sampran, [unpublished matter], 1-20. 40 Cfr. SERGE K., Thai History, 2. The Thai alphabet invented by King Ramkhamhaeng draws on Sanskrit and Pali (both languages of Indian origin) as well as the written languages of the Burmese and the Khmers, both of which are also Sanskrit and Pali based. But not only are the letters of neighbouring languages used to provide for a written Thai language. Terms from Pali, Sanskrit and the immediate neighbouring languages are also integrated into Thai which otherwise is quite different from Burmese and the Khmer language. 41 Cfr. O'NEIL D., Cultural Anthropology Terms, 2002-2005, in, http://anthro.palomar. edu / tutorials/ cglossary.htm # diffusionhttp: // anthro.palomar.edu / tutorials / cglossary. htm # diffusion, (14 November 2005), 1. Subculture: a regional, social, or ethnic group that is distinguishable from other groups in a society. Members of a subculture often share a common identity, food tradition, dialect or language, and other cultural traits that come from their common ancestral background and experience. Subcultures are most likely to exist in complex, diverse societies. 42 Cfr. HIGH BEAM RESEARCH, Thailand: History, in http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/ world / A0861512.html, (6 November 2005), 1. 43 Cfr. LEPOER B., Historical Setting, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guidestudy/thailand/thailand12.html, (15 March 2006), 2. 39 30 predominantly Isan-อีสำน or Khmer. Local trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese and as a consequence there is substantial tension between Thais and Chinese. Other substantial minorities include the Muslim Malays (Jawi, Arabic), concentrated in the southern peninsula; the hill tribes of the north; the Khmers, or Cambodians, who are found in the southeast and on the Cambodian border; and the Vietnamese, chiefly recent refugees who live along the Mekong River. While the ethnic minorities generally speak their own languages, Thai is the official tongue; English predominates among the Western languages. Although English is widely taught in schools, proficiency is low. Thai government emphasizes on education, both formal and non formal.44 The standard greeting in Thailand is a prayer-like gesture called ‘wai, ไหว’้ . Touching someone's head or pointing with the feet are considered unacceptable. Stepping over someone, or over food, is also considered insulting. Books and other documents are considered the most revered of secular objects therefore one should not slide a book across a table or place it on the floor. The king of the constitutional monarchy is extremely respected and revered. It is illegal to insult the Royal Family. 2.2 Economy of Thailand For centuries Thailand’s economy relied almost solely on agriculture. But the 1960s saw industry as the way of economic modernization, and Thailand quickly became a newly industrialized nation. Its economic growthrate of 11% was the highest in the world in 1990. Income per person per year was U.S $1000, thus making the nation economically the fifth Asian Tiger. Bangkok in the 1900’s was one of the mega-giant metropolitan city of the whole of Asia. Urban growth has almost run out of control. It is the only megalopolis with no mass transit system. Valiant work is being done to create aerial expressways since it is too late for inner-city underground networks. In 1997 an economic crisis uncovered financial weaknesses and forced the 44 Cfr. LEPOER B., Society, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/ thailand/thailand6.html, (15 March 2006), 2. Languages: More than 85 percent of population speak dialect of Thai (a member of Tai language family); most prevalent are Thai-Lao, spoken in Northeast, and Central Thai, which is official language taught in schools and used in government. Other languages spoken by members of ethnic minorities include Chinese (chiefly Teochiu- แต ้จิว๋ ), Malay, Karen, and Khmer. Smaller groups speak Tai languages such as Tais, Shan, Lua, and Phutai. Many minority peoples, especially Chinese, Indians, also speak Thai. 31 government to float the currency. Prior to 1997 the US dollar cost 25 baht. After the crisis the exchange rate was 1: 56 in January 1998; and the economy contracted by 10.2% that same year. The crisis spread and contributed to the Asian financial crisis.45 Thailand entered a recovery stage in 1999, expanding 4.2% grew to 4.4% in 2000, largely due to strong exports - which increased about 20% in 2000. Growth was damped by softening of global economy in 2001, but picked up in the subsequent years due to strong growth in China and various domestic stimulation programmes promoted by Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, popularly known as Thaksinomics. Tourism contributes significantly to the Thai economy, and the industry has benefited from the Thai bath’s depreciation and Thailand's stability. Tourist arrivals in 2002 (10.9 million) reflected a 7.3% increase from the previous year (10.1 million). Thailand’s economy growth in 2003 was estimated to be around 6.3%, and at 8% to 10% in 2005.46 2.3 Politics of Thailand The 1997 Constitution states that the king is the head of the state and his sovereign power comes from the people. An addition to the Constitution was promulgated on 11th October 1997. The king has little direct power under the constitution but he is the anointed protector of Thai Buddhism and a symbol of national identity and unity. The present monarch enjoys a great deal of popular respect and moral authority, which on different occasions has been used to resolve political crises. The head of the government is the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the king from among the members of the lower house of parliament, usually the leader of the party that can organise a majority coalition government.47 The bicameral Thai parliament is the National Assembly (rathasapha รัฐสภำ) which consists of a House of Representatives (sapha phuthaen ratsadon -สภำผู ้แทนรำษฎร) of 500 seats and a Senate (wuthisapha - วุฒส ิ ภำ) of 200 seats. Members of both houses are elected by popular vote. The House of Representatives is elected by electoral district, the Senate is elected by the Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, 35-37. Cfr. HIGH BEAM RESEARCH, Thailand: History, 2. 47 Cfr. CHULARAT A. (Trans.), Thailand Constitution 1997, in http://www.oefre.unibe.ch /law/icl/th00000_.html, 2004, (1 April 2006), 1. 45 46 32 province. Members of House of Representatives serve a four-year term, while Senators serve a six-year term. The law court system (san, ศำล) has three layers, the highest judicial body being the Supreme Court (sandika, ศำลฎีกำ) whose judges are directly appointed by the monarch.48 2.3.1 The Building of a Modern State In the 19th century, the authority of Bangkok was at last established over the North of Siam, and relations with the West were resumed; Siam signed commercial treaties with Great Britain (1826) and the United States (1833). The independence of the kingdom was threatened, however, when Great Britain extended its sway to Malaya and Burma, and France carved out an empire in Indochina. By opening their posts to European trade, by bringing in Western advisers, by strengthening the central administration as against the hereditary provincial chieftains, and by playing off British against French interests, the Siamese managed to stay free. Even so, the establishment of Siam's boundaries meant the surrender of its claims to Laos (1893) and parts of Cambodia (1907) and of its suzerainty over Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu (1909), on the Malay Peninsula. The Westernization of Siam took place under an absolute monarchy and was chiefly the work of Mongkut (reigned 1851–68), or Rama IV, and his son Chulalongkorn (reigned 1868– 1910), or Rama V. Siam became a constitutional monarchy in 1932, when a bloodless coup forced Prajadhipok (reigned 1925–35), Rama VII, to grant a constitution. 2.3.2 Phibul and Pridi The two young leaders of the coup, Phibul Songgram and Pridi Phanomyong, both educated in Europe and influenced by Western ideas, came to dominate Thai politics in the ensuing years. In 1934 the first general elections were held; a year later Prajadhipok abdicated, and a council of regency chose Ananda (reigned 1935–46) as Rama VIII. Phibul Songgram, a 48 Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, 32; WIKIPEDIA, Politics of Thailand, in http://encycl. Opentopia.com/term/Thailand#History, (8 October 2005), 1. 33 militarist, became premier in 1938. He changed the country's name from Siam to Thailand in 1939 and instituted a programme of expansion.49 Pridi Phanomyang became premier in the post-war government, while Phibul was briefly jailed as a war criminal. Pridi restored the name Siam as a repudiation of Phibul's policies. Inflation, corruption in government, and the mysterious death (1946) of King Ananda all contributed to the overthrow (1947) of Pridi's government by Phibul. Pridi fled the country and in 1954 appeared in Beijing as the professed leader of the Communist ‘Free Thai’ movement, allegedly representing numerous Thais still in Yunnan, China.50 Under Phibul's military dictatorship, the name Thailand was again adopted. Bhumibol Adulyadej, Rama IX, was crowned king in 1950 after a four-year regency. Thailand signed (1950) a technical and economic aid agreement with the United States and has received huge military grants from the United States and was the seat (1954–77) of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. The country, apprehensive over its proximity to China, remained consistently pro-Western in international outlook.51 2.3.3 Modern Thailand King Bhumibol Adulyadej proclaimed an interim constitution in 1959. A new constitution was finally promulgated in 1968. The country's economy in the 1960s continued to boom, spurred by a favourable export market and considerable U.S. aid. The nation's foreign policy was closely geared to the U.S. presence in Southeast Asia and its economy became increasingly dependent upon U.S. military spending and subsidies. Thailand became one of the founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967.52 In addition, the security of the country appeared threatened by the spread of the Vietnam War into Cambodia and Laos and by growing insurgencies, chiefly Communist led. The increasing economic and security problems prompted a coup in November 1971. 49 Cfr. LEPOER B., Pridi and the Civilian Regime, 1944 - 1947, in http://reference. allrefer.com/country-guide-study/thailand/thailand30.html, (15 March 2006), 1; LEPOER B., World War II, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/thailand/thailand29.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 50 Cfr. LEPOER B., World War II, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/ thailand/thailand29.html, (15 March 2006), 2. 51 Cfr. HIGH BEAM RESEARCH, Thailand: History, 3. 52 Cfr. CMU, Thailand, in http://www.cmu.org.uk/stats/99seaf_tha.htm, (7 October 2005), 1. 34 In October 1973, King Bhumibol Adulyadej appointed Sanya Thammasak as Thanom's successor, giving Thailand its first civilian premier in twenty years. A new constitution was promulgated in October 1974. Over the next few years the civilian government made little headway in establishing its authority. In 1976, the military took control of the government once again. 53 After that, the military held power almost continuously until the early 1990s.54 While from late 1970s, Thailand's political concerns were dominated by pressures resulting from warfare in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia and serious unrest in Myanmar (Burma), Thailand also experienced a massive influx of refugees from these countries. From 1975 onward, Thailand was a way station for Hmong from Lao refugees immigrating to the United States under its resettlement programme. The Khmer Rouge used Thailand as a staging area after they were driven out of Cambodia by the Vietnamese and internal fighting within the Cambodian government in 1977 sent a new flow of refugees into Thailand. 55 In March 1980, General Prem Tinsulanonda became Prime Minister with the support of younger officers of the armed forces and civilian political leaders.56 In the September 1992 elections, parties opposed to the military won a majority, and government. Chuan In Leekpai January became 1995, Prime parliament Minister approved of a a coalition package of constitutional reforms that lowered the voting age to 18, guaranteed equal rights for women, and reduced membership in the military-dominated senate. New elections were held in July 1995, after Chuan's government fell because of a land-reform scandal; the Chart Thai (Thai Nation) party won a slight majority, and Banharn Silpa-archa became Prime Minister, heading a sevenparty coalition. His government collapsed on December 1996, and he was succeeded by Chavalit Yongchaiyudh. A new constitution was approved in 53 Cfr. LEPOER B., Thailand in Transition, in http://reference.allrefer.com/countryguide-study/thailand/thailand31.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 54 Cfr. LEPOER B., Military Rule and Limited Parliamentary Government 1976- 83, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/thailand/thailand32.html, (15 March 2006),1. 55 The Catholic Church in Thailand took on to her responsibility the refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Burma. So the Church in Thailand assisted the government to relieve and help them by organizing COERR (Catholic Office for Emergency Relief and Refugees) in the Year 1975. These many efforts are aimed to protect the moral values of life and to face the urgent problems created by the influx of refugees from Indochina. 56 Cfr. LEPOER B., Prem in Power, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study / thailand/thailand33.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 35 September 1997.57 Elections in 2001 and 2005 resulted in a victory for the Thai Rak Thai party (Thais Love Thais; TRT) and Thaksin Shinawatra of the TRT became prime minister. 3. Religion According to the last census (2000) 94.6% of Thais are Buddhists of the Theravada tradition. Muslims are the second largest religious group in Thailand at 4.6%. Most of them are ethnic Malays and they are mostly concentrated in the south, where they form a strong majority in four provinces. Christians, mainly Catholics, represent 0.75% of the population. A tiny but influential community of Sikhs and some Hindus also live in the country's cities.58 3.1 Pre-Buddhism Ancient Tai-Thais belief is ‘Khwan - ขวัญ’59 a vital spirit that sometimes possesses lifeless things. Thais believe there are 32 Khwans in the human body, and the most important one is the head.60 This Khwan is said to be very sensitive to bad behaviour, and the slightest insult will make it leave. It can only be called back with a special ritual.61 All such beliefs were absorbed into the newly-adopted stated religion of Buddhism.62 Between the 13th and 15th 57 Cfr. CHULARAT A. (Trans.), Thailand Constitution1997, in http://www.oefre.unibe.ch /law/icl/th00000_.html, 2004, (1 April 2006), 2. 58 Cfr. WIKIPEDIA, Thailand, in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand , (18 October 2005), 1. 59 Cfr. LEPOER B., Buddhist Doctrine and Popular Religion, in http://reference. allrefer. com /country-guide-study/thailand/thailand69.html (15 March 2006), 2. The propitiation of an individual's khwan (body spirit, guardian spirit, life soul) remains a basic feature of Thai family rites. Any ceremony undertaken to benefit a person, animal, or plant is referred to as the making of khwan. On important occasions, such as birth, ordination into the priesthood, marriage, a return from a long journey or the reception of an honoured guest, a khwan ceremony is performed. 60 Cfr. TERWIEL B., The Tai of Assam and Ancient Tai Ritual, Volume I: Life-cycle Ceremonies, SAHAI SACHCHIDANAND (Ed.), Gaya, The South East Asian Review Office,1980, 73-76, 84-86. 61 Ibid. 74-75. This accounts for Thai sensitivity about being touched or hit on the head. When a person is dejected or lethargic the Thai say: ‘khwan haai - ขวัญหำย’ or his/her life-force ่ วัญ), ‘riak khwan has disappeared’. Calling and welcoming the ‘khwan’ (Suu khwan - สูข เรียกขวัญ (calling the khwan)’, the ritual which is needed to make people and social feel secure and confident, to set the mind peace. 62 Cfr. LEPOER B., Buddhist Doctrine and Popular Religion, 3. The world of the Thai villager (and that of many city folk as well) is inhabited by a host of spirits of greater or lesser relevance to an individual's well-being. Although many of these are not sanctioned by Buddhist scripture or even by Buddhist tradition, many monks, themselves of rural origin and essentially tied to the village, are as likely as the peasant to accept the beliefs and rituals associated with spirits (Phi - ผี, Chawthi - เจ ้ำที,่ Praphom - พระภูม)ิ . 36 century, the Sangha became the central religious institution in Thai society. By the time of King Mongkut, many non-Buddhist practices had crept in. Under King Chulalongkhorn, a standard system of education for monks was created and, in 1902, the Sangha was united under one leadership.63 3.2 Presence of Buddhism in Thailand Buddhism was first introduced into Thailand as Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism in about 329 B.C., later in about 700 A.D., Mahayana Buddhism came.64 However, in 1000 A.D. Theravada was re-introduced from Burma. In 1253 A.D., Thai Buddhist Monks went to Ceylon and brought back with them the Pali scripts. They also invited the Ceylonese Monks to Thailand. Ever since then all Kings of Thailand embraced Theravada Buddhism which then became the National Religion. 65 Theravada Buddhism has come to be the state religion of Thailand. Up to a few years ago the Buddhist monasteries were the only establishments for education, which were restricted to the male population only. Though Buddhism is the acknowledged religion of the state and towards it the Government allows some $20,000,000 yearly, all other religious creeds are granted full liberty of worship, nor does anyone incur disabilities on account of his religious beliefs. The king, being the highest ‘supporter of the doctrine’, appoints all religious dignitaries.66 63 Cfr. GOODMAN J., Thailand, 68. Buddhism probably reached its height under the reign of King Li Thai (1347-1374) of Sukhothai (King Ramkhamhaeng’s grandson) as it was during his reign that the first Buddhist didactic literary work was written and it was known as the ‘Tribhumikatha’. Though the centuries Buddhism has been the main driving force in Thai cultural development. Thais of all classes subscribed to Buddhist doctrine. Although Buddhism is proclaimed as the state religion, all Thais are endowed with full religious freedom, 64 Even though no concrete evidence can be found as to when and where Buddhism was actually established in Thailand, it is presumed that Buddhism was first brought to the country during the 3rd century B.C. when Tharavada Buddhist missionaries led by Venerable Sona and Uttara were dispatched by the Buddhist Indian emperor Asoke and visited Suwannaphum – สุวรรณภูม ิ or the present Nakhon Pathom. Once it was introduced, Buddhism became widely accepted and gained a permanent ground in the peninsula. 65 Cfr. KREUTZ S., Religion, 2. 66 Ibid., 3. 37 3.2.1 The Supreme Patriarch ั ฆรำช) is the head of The Supreme Patriarch or Sangharaja (สมเด็จพระสง the order of Buddhist monks in Thailand. The position is formally approved by the King of Thailand, although the actual selection is made by senior clergymen. It was first established in 1782 at the founding of the Chakri dynasty by King Rama I. The Supreme Patriarch has legal authority to oversee both Thailand's Theravada sub-orders, the Maha Nikaya and the Thammayut Nikaya, as well as the small minority of Mahayana Buddhists in the country. He is assisted by a Supreme Sangha Council, which is led by the Sangha Nayaka (literally ‘director of the sangha’). In the event that the position of Supreme Patriarch is vacant, the Sangha Council also nominates candidates for a successor to the king. There has been recent discussion about reforming the Thai Sangha's leadership structure, including a 2002 proposal which would have moved many of the Sangha Council's and the Supreme Patriarch's powers to a new executive council.67 3.2.2 Thai Interpretation of Buddhism Buddhism, though often described as a religion for rationalists and intellectuals, plainly developed not only along the line of wisdom (prajna ปั ญญำ) but also along that of compassion (karuna - กรุณำ) and to be liberated means ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Nibanna’ – ‘นิพพำน’-—the stage of cessation of suffering.68 In the type of Buddhism followed in the southern countries of Ceylon, Thailand and Burma, a meditation on Metta-เมตตำ, or the sending forth of loving-kindness to the whole world, is practiced daily by the monks. 69 This practice has its origin in an early scripture known as ‘The Discourse on Universal Love’ in which the Buddha is quoted as saying: Ibid. Cfr. SIVARAKSA S., Buddhism and Social Values, in PITTMAN D. - HABITO R. (Eds.), Ministry and Theology in Global Perspective: Contemporary Challenges for the Church, Michigan, William B. Erdmann Publishing Co., 1996, 485-486,488. Buddhism works best in small communities. In Siam (Thailand) you can see many temples where monks live. Although the monks also compromise, they lead a celibate life and spend their time meditating on the truth. Of course, they also work on indigenous medicine, they teach and so on; the stress is always on the individual in community, with a harmonious natural surrounding. 69 Cfr. NANCY R., Three Ways of Asian Wisdom: Hinduism, Buddhism and Zen and their significance for the West, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1966, 122-123; FERNANDO A., Buddhism Made Plain : An Introduction for Christians and Jews, Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 1985,16. 67 68 38 As a mother, even at the risk of her own life, protects and loves her child, her only child, so let man cultivate love without measure toward the whole world, above, below, and around, unstained, unmixed with any feeling of differing or opposing interest. Let a man remain steadfast in this state of mind all the while he is awake, whether he be standing, walking, sitting or lying down. This state of mind is the best in the world.70 Thai Theravada Buddhism is its own blend. The Thais adopted the essence of philosophy, of the simple argumentation about cause and effect and re-incarnation, and the sets of commandments. 71 They also brought in the important features of the Indian culture with its Brahminic rites without dropping the beliefs and practices of animism. This syncretism is the basis of its receptivity to religious discussion. But it is not to be confused with spiritual responsiveness.72 3.2.2.1 King Lithai’s Sermon (1347-1374) King Lithai’s Sermon on the Three Worlds, seeks to make the spiritual dimension of Buddhism more accessible to the laity.73 The text reveals a mutual proximity and influence of ruler and subjects. The King was not only a political leader but an ethical teacher. Spiritually, the monkhood was placed even higher than the king: when the monk sat on the stone slab, the sovereign remained on the floor, with his subjects, listening to the sermon, as is still the custom today.74 Lithia inserts into a cosmological framework legends about Buddhist deities, descriptions of heavenly realms and hellish beings and other elements which, though not always compatible with Theravada orthodoxy, could serve to communicate the Dharma to those who possessed only a minimum of Cfr. NANCY R., Three Ways of Asian Wisdom, 123. In Thai thinking, the ideas of merit and demerit so essential to the doctrine of karma are linked linguistically to those of good and evil; good and merit are both bun (บุญ); evil and the absence of merit are bap (บำป). The Theravada idea of karma (and the Thai peasant's understanding of it) charges the individual with responsibility for good and evil acts and their consequences. Thai do not rely solely on the accumulation of merit, however gained, to bring that improved state into being. Other forms of causality, ranging from astrology to the action of spirits of various kinds, are also part of their outlook. 72 Cfr. SRITANDON N., The Church in Thailand, in ATHYAL S. (Ed.), Church is Asia Today: Opportunities and Challenges, Singapore, The Asia Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, 1996, 238-265; BUNNAG J., The Way of monk and the Way of the World: Buddhism in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, in BECHERT H. - GOMBRICH R. (Eds.), The World of Buddhism, London, Thames and Hudson, 1984, 168-169. 73 Cfr. REYNOLDS F. - REYNOLDS M., Three Worlds According to King Rung: A Buddhist Cosmology, Berkeley, Asian Humanities Press, 1982; NA-RANGSI SUNTHRON, Buddhism in Thai Culture in YOSHINORI TAKEUCHI (Ed.), Buddhist Spirituality: India, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early Chinese, London, SCM Press LTD., 1994,109 74 Cfr. SIVARAKSA S., Thai Spirituality and Modernization, in YOSHINORI TAKEUCHI (Ed.), Buddhist Spirituality: India, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early Chinese, London, SCM Press LTD, 1994,112. 70 71 39 Buddhist learning. The cosmological scheme is correlated with the more psychologically oriented analysis of consciousness and material factors that are constitutive of Theravada doctrinal orthodoxy and with Theravada conceptions of human social order and hierarchy. But these texts became problematic for many thoughtful Buddhists when they were exposed to Western science and ideology.75 3.2.2.2 King Mongkut (1804 - 1868) Buddhist monk, Mongkut won distinction as an authority on the Pali Buddhist scriptures and became head of a reformed order of the Siamese sangha. Thai Buddhism had become heavily overlaid with superstitions through the centuries, and Mongkut attempted to purge the religion of these accretions and restore to it the spirit of Buddha's original teachings. Mongkut’s twenty-seven years as a Buddhist monk not only made him a religious figure of some consequence but also exposed him to a wide array of foreign influences. Blessed with an inquisitive mind and great curiosity about the outside world, he cultivated contacts with French Roman Catholic and United States Protestant missionaries. He studied Western languages (Latin and English), science, and mathematics. His lengthy conversations with the missionaries gave him a broad perspective that greatly influenced his policies when he became king in 1851. He was more knowledgeable of Western ways than any previous Thai monarch.76 He felt the need to go beyond Lithai’s Three Worlds. He believed that if Thai Buddhist were to survive the Western imperialism they must 1) Return to the original teaching of the Buddha, beyond the Three Worlds and 2) Reinterpret Ramkamhaeng’s message in the light of Theravada Buddhism, so that the king would be a dhamma raja (Righteous King) rather than a deva raja (God King).77 He held that the king had the right to rule as long as he was Cfr. SIVARAKSA S., Thai Spirituality and Modernization, 113. Cfr. BUNNAG J., The Way of monk and the Way of the World, 160; LEPOER B., Mongkut 's Opening to the West, in http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/thailand/ thailand25.html, (15 March 2006), 1. 77 Cfr. SIVARAKSA S., Buddhism and Social Values, 488. Regarding the state: the Buddha said the state or the king is like a snake: keep them at arm’s length but you cannot get away from them; do not kill them as that would be violent. Handle the state as you handle the snake: be kind and cautious. If you want to deal with the snake, go behind it, not front of it. 75 76 40 righteous, and that if the people did not want him on the throne, they had the right to remove him.78 3.2.2.3 The Venerable Phra Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (1906-1993) He was not interested in ceremonial details and going beyond the literary message in the Pali Canon, he was able to grasp the essential teachings of Buddha. He also studied Christianity and Islam in the spirit of dialogue without any feeling of superiority or inferiority. He was very much admired by Thai Christians and Muslims alike. Yet his influence on the monkhood, of all sects, is tremendous. Both scholars and meditation masters look up to him as a very important guru, although he only claims to be a Good Friend (kalayanamitta- กัลยำณมิตร). 79 In conclusion it can be said that Buddhist ceremonies are an integral part of every government and most public functions. The king supports all religions, and past constitutions have given freedom for Thais to choose any religion. They must have a religion, and animism is not recognized as a religion. This ‘laissez faire’ attitude was not questioned while 95% of Thai have understood implicitly that: “to be a Thai is to be a Buddhist.” But today there is less religious complacency. The changes probably reflect a new social acceptability of change in religion due to intercultural marriages. 3.3 Catholicism The happy blend of Hindu, Buddhist and Animist culture of the people made Thailand sufficiently open to the entry and growth of the Catholic Church. 3.3.1 Entry of the Catholic Church into Thailand The Nestorian Christians were perhaps the first missionaries to set foot in Thailand (Siam) between 525 - 800 A.D. before the arrival of the western missionaries.80 Cfr. SIVARAKSA S., Thai Spirituality and Modernization, 113-114. Cfr. SIVARAKSA S., Thai Spirituality and Modernization, 117; BUNNAG J., The Way of monk and the Way of the World, 160. 80 Cfr. PHILIP T., East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia, Siam (Sornau), in http://www.religion-online.org/ showchapter.asp?title=1553&C=1365, (10 November 2005), 1. In Marco Polo’s day, the trade routes from Baghdad to Peking were lined with Nestorian 78 79 41 Roman Catholic priests accompanied an embassy of Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1511. 81 We owe the first historical record of an attempt to introduce Christianity to John Peter Maffei who states that in 1550 a French Franciscan, Bonferre, hearing of the great kingdom of the Peguans and the Siamese in the East, went on a Portuguese ship from Goa to Cosme (Peguan), where for three years he preached the Gospel, but without any result. In 1552 St. Francis Xavier, writing from Sancian to his friend Diego Pereira, expressed his desire to go to Siam, but his death on 2 December, 1552, prevented him. In 1553 several Portuguese ships landed in Siam, and at the request of the king three hundred Portuguese soldiers entered his service. In the following year two Dominicans, Fathers Hieronymus of the Holy Cross and Sebastian de Cantù, joined them as chaplains. In a short time they established three parishes at Ayutthaya and converted some fifteen hundred Siamese. Both missionaries, however, were murdered by the pagans (1569), and were replaced by Fathers Lopez Cardoso, John Madeira, Alphonsus Ximenes, Louis Fonseca (martyred in 1600), and John Maldonatus (d. 1598). The first resident Catholic missionaries arrived in 1567 and entered Ayutthaya. They were warmly received but de Cruz and two other missionaries were killed by the Burmese in 1569. Franciscan missionaries first arrived in 1582. In 1606 the Jesuit Balthasar de Sequeira at the request of the Portuguese merchant Tristan Golayo set out and the first Jesuit reached Siam in 1607. In 1624 Father Julius Cesar Margico, came to Ayutthaya and gained the favour of the king. A subsequent persecution, however, stopped the propagation of the Faith 82 and no missionary entered till Siam was made a vicariate Apostolic by Alexander VII on 22 August, 1662. Soon after, Mgr Pierre de la Motte-Lambert, Vicar-Apostolic of Cochin China, arrived at Ayutthaya, accompanied by Fathers De Bourges and Deydier. 83 By 1662, there was a churches; the Muslim persecutions of AD 699 and 813 did not check the zeal of these earliest missionaries. The mission was carried out by Persian, Indian and Chinese missionaries and traders. Before the arrival of western powers, the commercial and cultural influences of China and India were very widespread in other Asian countries. China and India met in Indo-China. By far, South India exercised the greatest influence in South East Asia. For centuries, St. Thomas Christians carried out missionary work both inside and outside India. 81 Cfr. VANAROTSUVIT V., A History of the Thai Catholic Church, Sampran, Saengtham College Press, 1990, 9. It may be 1567 or 1568. 82 Cfr. METZLER J., Propaganda Fide Congregation in SUNQUIST W.(ed.) A dictionary of Asian Christianity , Grand Rapids, Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2001, 676-678; Cfr. NIGHT K., Siam, in http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03712a.htm, (8 October 2005), 1. 83 The French missionaries established the Missions Etrangeres de Paris in 1660. The arrival of the first batch of the French missionaries happened by accident: a group on its way to China and Vietnam stopped over in Ayutthaya on hearing of the serious persecution in those countries. 42 Christian community of roughly 2,000 people in Ayutthaya, served by one Spanish and 10 Portuguese priests.84 In August 1662, the Catholic Missions Étrang Eeres de Paris (MEP)85 sent three missionaries to Ayutthaya, including Pierre Lambert de la Motte,86 who was an apostolic vicar as well looking after a Christian community of 2,000; and in 1664, a second apostolic vicar, François Pallu,87 also was sent to Ayutthaya along with a group of companions. In 1664, the French missionaries in Ayutthaya held a synod in which it was agreed, among other things, to open a seminary.88 In 1669, a papal bull, Speculatores, was issued giving the apostolic vicars full authority over all Catholics in Ayutthaya, which they had not had before. That same year the mission opened its first hospital, and in the ensuing years the work of the mission prospered so that by 1674 there were roughly 600 Thai Catholics. There were many more Catholics of other nationalities in the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, including Vietnamese, Portuguese, and Japanese Christians.89 In 1688, however, the apparently proCatholic King Narai of Ayutthaya was deposed and the new king, Phra Phetraja, engaged in a severe oppression of Christianity. From that point onwards, the church suffered under several periods of repression and Catholic missionaries were closely regulated in their work.90 Matters improved with the establishment of the Chakri Dynasty in 1782, and in 1785 King Phra Phutthayotfa (Rama I) invited Catholic missionaries to return to Siam. Catholicism began to grow, slowly, with about 2,500 Catholics in Siam in 1802 and roughly 3,000 by 1811. In 1838 Mgr. Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix was consecrated as bishop of Siam, and in 1841 the Vatican established the Mission of Oriental Siam, including Siam and Laos 84 Cfr. CHUMSRIPHAN S., A Brief History of the Catholic Church in Thailand, in CATHOLIC PRESS OF THAILAND (Ed.), 2004 Thailand: The Catholic Directory, Bangkok, Assumption Printing Press, 2004, 4-10. 85 Cfr. CHARBONNIER J., Paris Foreign Missions Society (MEP), in SUNQUEST W. (Ed.), A dictionary of Asian Christianity, 636-638. 86 Cfr. LOMAX C. (Trans.), Memoirs of the Paris Foreign Mission Society (MEP), De La Motte, Pierre Lambert in SUNQUEST W. (Ed.), A dictionary of Asian Christianity, 231-232. 87 Cfr. DO HUU A., Memoirs of the Paris Foreign Mission Society (MEP), HAMLIN J. (Trans.), Pallu, Francois, in SUNQUEST W. (Ed.), A dictionary of Asian Christianity, 633-634. 88 Cfr. CHUMSRIPHAN S., Synod of Ayutthaya, 1664, in SUNQUEST W. (Ed.), A dictionary of Asian Christianity, 810-811. 89 In Thailand Buddhism and politics have always been closely linked. This is also true of present time. The Thai people feel a sense of uniqueness because of Buddhism. To be Thai means to be Buddhist; foreign elements are for the foreigners or the non-Thai (which include Vietnamese, Laotian, Cambodian, Japanese, and Portuguese). 90 Buddhism was used to mobilize the Thai people against Christianity and the missionaries who were accused of destroying Buddhism. This let the Buddhist monks and the people to support King Phra Phet-raja. 43 with Pallegoix as its apostolic vicar.91 By 1875, the Siam Mission had roughly 10,000 Christians, 20 European missionaries, and 8 Thai priests. From this point onwards, the mission work continued to grow rapidly. In 1885, it established its first modern Western-style school in Bangkok, Assumption College. St. Louis Hospital was founded in 1898. After 1910, Catholic work began to spread quite rapidly into new areas of the country, particularly in northern Siam. In 1983 Archbishop Michael Michai Kitbunchu was appointed by Pope John Paul II as Thailand's first cardinal and was also made a member of the Congregation for the Evangelization of People.92 In1984 on the 10th of May, His Holiness Pope John Paul II came for a short visit to Thailand; this gave a wonderful opportunity to all the faithful to welcome him and to see and closely feel his presence.93 In 1989 A.D. Pope John Paul II beatified the 7 Thai Martyrs in Rome and on March 5, 2000 Fr. Nicolas Bunkerd Kitbamrung was declared Blessed.94 3.3.2 Profile of the Church To describe the Catholics in Thailand in detail is a risky procedure. It is too easy to give the impression of a cohesion and importance which it does not have. If we were to ignore the geographical dispersion of the Church, there would be no reason why Thailand should have more than one diocese, and even that diocese should not be very important. So in all that follows the reader should keep at the back of his mind that we are talking about a microchurch.95 In 1970, Thailand had 144,460 Catholics among a total population of 29,192,757 = 0.64%. In 1990, Thailand had 228,672 Catholics among a total population of 55,237.060=0.53 %. In 2004, Thailand had 298,009 Catholics among a total population of 63,927,708=0.55%. So the Catholic Church, with 91 Cfr. LOMAX C. (Trans.), Memoirs of the Paris Foreign Mission Society (MEP), Pallegoix, Jean Baptists, in SUNQUEST W. (Ed.), A dictionary of Asian Christianity, 632-633. 92 Cfr. EAB (Episcopal Archives Bangkok), The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Thailand (CBCT), Extraordinary Meeting, 17-19 May 1983, 6. 93 Cfr. EAB, The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Thailand, Ordinary Meeting, 7-10 February 1984, 3. On the occasion of the Papal Visit to Thailand, the love and reverence shown towards His Holiness should reflect the union of the local Church with His Holiness, the Pope in an ever increasing degree. 94 95 Cfr. CHUMSRIPHAN S., A Brief History of the Catholic Church in Thailand, 4-14. Cfr. LEPOER B., Mongkut 's Opening to the West, 2. 44 0.55%, came third on the list of religious groups, after the Buddhists (95%) and the Muslim (4%), and was followed by other Christians, the Brahmins, Sikhs, the Hindus, etc.96 The Catholics are numerically a very small minority; nevertheless in the educational field the Church has a definite importance . On the other hand the Church has not made its mark in all the other fields of national life, intellectually, culturally, politically, economically, and even - which is far more serious - spiritually. 97 The failure to make an impact on national life is also explained by the way the Christian population is scattered all over the place. Christianity could not find its proper insertion in the social, political and cultural life of the Buddhist nation. Moreover, since these Catholic groups come from a background that is not properly Thai, it is hardly astonishing that Catholic influence counts for very little. A good portion of the Catholic population belongs to the Chinese, Vietnamese, Laos and other tribal ethnic groups. This is also reflected when it comes to the group of the clergy. Finally it should be noted that only very recently an official government statement referred to Christians as ‘Thais’. One should not make too much of this, since the government is far more concerned with applying the name Thai to the Muslims who were inclined toward separation than to the Christians. It is nevertheless the first time that the adjective ‘Thai’ has been applied to the followers of non-Buddhist ‘foreign’ religions. 3.3.3 Ecclesiastical Organization The division of the ecclesiastical territories was designed to leave a homogeneous clergy (local or foreign) in a particular area. This has led to a certain isolationism in these dioceses, and has brought about a local individualism which does not encourage exchange. By the middle of the 20th century, since the Catholic Church in Thailand had grown considerably and had indicated even to greater growth in the future, the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide erected the two 96 Cfr. Appendix 4, Statistic of Catholic Church in Thailand, Table1-5; Appendix 5, The Growth of the Catholic Church in Thailand (1662-2004). 97 Some leading Catholic schools and organizations are worth mentioning: Assumption University (St. Gabriel Brothers), St. Gabriel School (St. Gabriel Brothers), Don Bosco Technical School (Salesians), Mater Dei College (Ursulines), St. Joseph School (St. Paul de Chartres Sisters), The Catholic Students Center, The Catholic Teachers Association of Thailand, The Catholic Education Council of Thailand, The Catholic Council of Thailand for Development, CBCT (1st: 25-27 September 1956) etc. 45 ecclesiastical provinces of Bangkok and Tharae Nongsaeng with John Gordon and Angelo Pedroni as the Apostolic Vicars. Thus on December 18, 1965 Thailand received its first Archbishops.98 The Ecclesiastical Province of Bangkok is made up of: The Metropolitan See of Bangkok (Formerly an Apostolic Vicariate) with the following Suffragan Dioceses: 1) Ratchaburi, created on Dec. 18, 1965. Previously it was erected an Apostolic Vicariate on April 3, 1941. 2) Chanthaburi, created on Dec. 18, 1965. Formerly it was erected an Apostolic Vicariate on October 18, 1944 and was assigned to the native clergy. 3) Chiangmai, created on Dec. 18, 1965. It was erected an Apostolic Prefecture in 1960.99 The Ecclesiastical Province of Tharae-Nongsaeng includes: The Archdiocese of Tharae-Nongsaeng which was created by the Bull Qui in fastigio of December 18, 1965. It was erected an Apostolic Vicariate on Dec. 21, 1950. The Suffragan Dioceses are 1) Ubon Ratchathani, created on Dec. 22, 1965, by the decision of the Holy See. It had been erected an Apostolic Vicariate on May 7, 1953. 2) Nakhon Ratchasima, created on Dec.18, 1965. Formerly it was erected an apostolic Vicariate on March 22, 1965. 3) Udon Thani, created on Dec. 18, 1965. Previously it was erected an Apostolic Prefecture on May 7, 1953.100 Later two other dioceses were erected: 1) Nakhon Swan was erected on February 25, 1967, and became the suffragan diocese of Bangkok Metropolitan. 2) Surat Thani was created on June 26, 1969 and was assigned to the Salesian Congregation. The Diocese also became a suffragan diocese of Bangkok.101 3.3.4 The Growth of the Catholic Church in Thailand It is not easy to measure the growth of the Catholic Church in Thailand on the basis of diocesan statistics. Three of the present dioceses were for a 98 Cfr. CHUMSRIPHAN S., A Brief History of the Catholic Church in Thailand, 10; SRITANDON N., The Church in Thailand, in ATHYAL S.(Ed.), Church is Asia Today: Opportunities &Challenges, 238-265. 99 Cfr. CHENEY D., Chanthaburi, in http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dchnt. html, (15 April 2006), 1; CHENEY D., Catholic Church in Thailand, in http://lox2. lox info.co.th /~thcatcom/, (15 April 2006), 1. 100 Cfr. CHENEY D., Ubon Ratchathani, in http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/ dubon.html, (15 April 2006); CHENEY D., Udon Thani, in http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ diocese/dudon.html ; CHENEY D., Catholic Church in Thailand, http://lox2.loxinfo.co.th /~th catcom/ , (15 April 2006), 1. 101 Cfr. CHENEY D., Nakhon Swan, in http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ diocese/ dnakh.html , (15 April 2006), 1. 46 long time under the Vicariate Apostolic of Laos, and little is available as regards statistics from there. The rate of conversion in Thailand is very slow. The number of catechumens is always less than one hundred, even in the best of dioceses. To calculate the growth of the Catholic Church in Thailand, one may simply take the birth-rate of the country and then add some tens of adult conversions each year.102 Even here one has to be careful because of the mobility of the population. A number of Catholics from the provinces leave their villages and seek their fortune in Bangkok or elsewhere. This internal mobility is an important factor in Thailand, especially in the last three decades. Usually these Catholics are still on the census list of their original parish, but they may well be included in that of the parish they belong to at present. In fact, if we compare the figure of 1950 with those of 1970 and the latest 2004, we reach practically the same percentage: 1950: 82,910 Catholics in a population of 18,000,000 = 0.46%. 1970: 144,460 Catholics in a population of 29,192,757 = 0.64%. 1980: 191,909 Catholics in a population of 44,578,734 = 054%. 1990: 228,672 Catholics in a population of 55,237,060 = 0.52 %. 2000: 268,185 Catholics in a population of 63,336,980 = 0.52 %. 2004: 298,009 Catholics in a population of 63,927,708 = 0.55%. The statistics show that between the years 1950 and 2000 growth was only 0.06%. So it seems that the growth of the Catholic Church in Thailand goes hand in hand with the increase of the population. 103 Apart from the birth-rate, the growth of the Catholic community is due mainly to mixed marriages, except in the Northeast, as the Catholic partner is usually strong enough to stipulate the conversion of the other. For a long time the ecclesiastical authorities were rather rigid on this point, but today it is much easier to obtain a dispensation.104 After the second Vatican Council in 1965, Catholics sought to contextualize rituals and practices to parallel those in Buddhist temples. They borrowed many Buddhist terms including the name ‘temple’ (wat, วัด) for the 102 Cfr. Appendix 4, Statistic of Catholic Church in Thailand, Table1-5; Appendix 5, The Growth of the Catholic Church in Thailand (1662-2004). 103 Ibid. 104 Cfr. KREUTZ S., Religion, in http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13765a.htm, (23 October 2005), 1. 47 church, causing a negative reaction from Buddhists. 105 They did not emphasise evangelism. The growth was not among the central Thais, but rather, among the northern tribal groups, Thai-Lao, Chinese in Bangkok, and Vietnamese immigrants. 4. State and Catholic Church Buddhist pragmatism determines the relation of the state with other religions including the Catholic Church. 4.1 The Law of the Land The 1997 Constitution did not pronounce Buddhism as the state religion of Thailand. But the Buddhist nature of the state was guarded by a clause which postulated that only a Buddhist could be the king of Thailand.106 At the same time the Constitution protected all religions. It gave equality of status to all persons, whatever their origin or religion. All are free to profess any religion, any religious belief, or belong to any religious sect, and to practice the worship linked with it, on condition that there is no interference with civic duties, public order and morality.107 In 1969 diplomatic relations were established between Thailand and the Vatican, although its representative is not the dean of the diplomatic corps, and therefore only has the rank of Pro-Nuncio. The Church is also assured of the right to build and manage its schools once the Ministry has given permission. Both state schools and private schools are subject to exactly the same control. Parish priests and their assistants are exempt from military service, and it is up to the ecclesiastical superior to notify the authorities of this fact in each individual case. Religious teaching has been allowed on the school 105 Cfr. EAB, The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Thailand, Ordinary Meeting, 26-29 May1981, 8-9; Ordinary Meeting, 14-17 December 1982, 4. Problem affecting the Church in Thailand: The Catholic Church in Thailand has been accused and attacked by a group of defenders of the Buddhist Religion, saying that the Catholic Religion has a plan for absorbing Buddhism and using religious dialogue as a screen, that religious dialogue intends to subvert Buddhism, that we are falsifying the teaching of Buddhism and using vocabulary and things of Buddhism, etc.. 106 Cfr. CHULARAT A. (Trans.), Thailand Constitution1997, 2. The Constitution 1997, Chapter II, Section 9 [] The King is a Buddhist and Upholder of religions. 107 Ibid. 5-10. The Constitution 1997, Chapter I Section 5 [] The Thai people, irrespective of their origins, sexes or religions, shall enjoy equal protection under this Constitution. Chapter III Section 30 [] All persons are equal before the law and shall enjoy equal protection under the law. Men and women shall enjoy equal rights…. religious belief. 48 premises, but must take place outside school hours even in confessional schools. In 1993 this practice has been officially changed. On the part of the government, the department for religious matters is a sector of the Ministry of Education, and is responsible for the relations with all religions, and therefore also with the Church. Here there has been some confusion, but with the setting up of the Episcopal Conference this confusion is gradually being cleared up. 4.2 The Reality The actual state of affairs corresponds to the situation in law. The Church in fact makes full use of what the Constitution and the laws have granted it. Thus Catholic schools, like the private schools, are subsidized in certain cases by the Ministry. The Church also receives the symbolic contributions which the Department of Religious Affairs gives to the various religions in proportion to their membership. On the other hand, the importance of these facts should not be exaggerated. The tolerance is real, and here the official attitude reflects that of the average Buddhist who considers that all religions are good since they contribute to a higher morality in society. But this becomes only a kind of sympathy where the relations are influenced by personal friendship, which happens to be the case with many who have been educated in Catholic colleges. This tolerance makes it more regrettable that the Church is so little involved in the life of the nation, and even seems content to let things rest there. It may well be that the Church is tolerated because it keeps in the background, and that a more active commitment might look like an attempt to increase its influence, particularly since so far it has not proved that it is seriously interested in the country. But perhaps the bad impression would be given only if the Church acted as a power-structure. It would be a different matter if the Church's image reflected its spiritual message. 5. Recent Theological Musings on Thai Evangelization Evangelization in Thailand is more than three hundred years old, though there were never more than a few thousand Catholics till near the end of the 20th century. 49 5.1 Brief Survey of Church Presence Here in this section, reference is made only to a few facts which deserve particular consideration. 5.1.1 Indirect Evangelization It is interesting to note that the work of evangelization in Siam began indirectly. The first converts in Thailand were not Thais (or Siamese) but refugees or immigrants from the neighbouring countries of Southeast Asia, Chinese or Anamneses (Vietnamese) who came from districts where Confucians and Mahayana Buddhists lived peacefully together. When Mgr. de la Motte and his companions arrived they no doubt found an already existing community of some two thousand Catholics, but in fact these Catholics lived on the fringe of the local society, even if they were Asians or descendants from Portuguese mercenaries at the court of Ayutthaya who had married Chinese, Anamneses or Cambodian women. Moreover, it was to these troops that the missionaries who preceded Mgr. de la Motte had been sent. 5.1.2 Chinese Priority Again, Mgr. de la Motte himself had been sent not so much to evangelize the Kingdom of Siam as to set up a seminary where Chinese and Annamites could be trained for the apostolate in their country of origin. He did in fact establish such a seminary in Ayutthaya, the capital. But it could not stay there for long because the city suffered a Burmese invasion a century later. And so it moved from place to place till it finally settled down in Penang (Malaya), where it still remains today.108 As the ‘General College’ (the name by which the Seminary was known) had only a small staff, it is understandable that the mission to the Siamese took second place after the training of the seminarians. The clergy of the General College’ became the new nucleus around which the Catholic community could gather, and although it slowly progressed, the new converts were Chinese and Anamneses, as before. 108 Cfr. CHUMSRIPHAN S., A Brief History of the Catholic Church in Thailand, 13. The college continued to exist until the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767; It was founded again at Hondas in Cambodia, than at Virampatnam in India until 1808, and then at Penang in 1809. 50 5.1.3 Strong Theravada Buddhism Another feature which marked the beginnings of the mission was its lack of success among the Theravada Buddhists of Siam, in spite of the hopes raised by the short-lived courtship between the court of Ayutthaya and that of Versailles, when King Narai (1657-1668) hoped to obtain French military aid against Dutch aggression. As long as Christians limited their proselytism to Chinese or Anamneses, the Buddhists were tolerant enough but as soon as Christianity threatened to become a challenge to Buddhism, the relations became very cool. On some occasions this turned even to violence when the alliance between the Church of Siam and the great powers (France particularly) began to appear a threat to the independence of the nation. Because Catholicism succeeded with the ‘foreigners’ but failed with the Buddhists, it was from the start seen as a foreign religion: it was not only brought to Siam by Western foreigners but succeeded only with Asian foreigners. And this is by and large still the impression one gets today.109 5.1.4 Single Ethnic Effort For about 250 years missionary and pastoral work in Thailand was in the hands of missionaries who were almost exclusively French. Besides, it was these who were in charge of the formation of local priests in the Penang seminary. Thus in many respects the Church in Thailand today is a faithful reflection of the Church as it used to be in France.110 Cfr. SRIWARAKUEL W., Christianity and Thai Culture, 1-20. Ibid. ‘III. No Inculturation: The Case of Catholicism in Thailand’, The Ideal Garden is to the Gospel as the local landscape is to the local tradition. From history of landscape architecture, there were two styles of landscaping: English and French. The English style will adapt the Ideal Garden to the local landscape, but the French style will do the opposite, namely, adapt the local landscape to the Ideal Garden. In fact, both ways are logically and factually possible even though the French style is more difficult. It happened that the missionaries in Siam chose to follow ‘the French style’ probably because they believed that the Gospel could never change. At this point they perhaps misunderstood the idea of the permanence of the Gospel. Of course, the ‘substance’ of the Gospel will never change, but its ‘form’ can be changed and appropriated. Water is always water no matter it is in the form of ice, liquid or gas. So is the Gospel. The missionaries did not make this distinction, so they tried to westernize Thai people with their dos and don’ts. The Western tradition is like ice (more rigid) whereas the Thai culture is like water (more flexible). To make the Gospel in the form of ‘water’ is easier than to make the Thai culture in the form of ‘ice’ the missionaries did the opposite. That is the reason why they could convert only the expatriates, the slaves, the sick, the poor and those who were occupied the margins of the society. 109 110 51 5.1.5 Peripheral Effort Even today there are two facts that point towards the continuation of the foreign image. On the one hand, there have been some missionary successes among the people that live in the mountains and are ethnically different from the Siamese, and on the other hand, there has been an increase in foreign missionaries who, expelled from China at the time of the Communist revolution, were only too glad to find in Thailand the same kind of Chinese as those they had so recently left behind. This continued the missionary preoccupation with the non-Thai minorities.111 5.2 Future Challenges to Evangelization Christianity has been in Thailand for more than three hundred years, its message has not however penetrated the hearts of the Thai people fully. Many reasons have been given till now. However, in order to arrive at a more complete picture of the Catholic Church in Thailand, some existential difficulties encountered in the work of evangelization today are highlighted in this section.112 They are more on the level of feelings and of social character rather than on the level of religion as such. Some of them will be singled out with a brief indication of the socio-economic and political background.113 The Church has a duty to proclaim the Gospel to all people. John Paul II had emphasized on this service to humanity: that is, the proclamation of the Good News to all men. The correct methodology of mission work requires missionaries to respect the recipients of the Good News. The Gospel Proclamation must not be given with force; on the contrary, it must be given because the recipient is willing to receive the truth and Faith. In our present time, the Church wants to reserve and preserve all the good in other religions, 111 Cfr. Thailand in Transition, The Church in a Buddhist Country, in “Pro Mundi Vita ”, 48 (1973), 17-18. 112 Cfr. EAB, The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Thailand, The Future plan of Thailand on Inter-religious Dialogue, Ordinary Meeting, 6-8 May1980, 14-16; EAB, The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Thailand, Future plan of Thailand on Inculturation, Ordinary Meeting, 26-29 May1981, 8-9. 113 Cfr. Appendix 3, Letters to Pope John Paul II: regarding the intrusion of the Roman Catholic Church onto Buddhism (in Thailand); EAB, The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Thailand, Problem affecting the Church in Thailand, Ordinary Meeting, 14-17 December 1982, 4. 52 not to destroy it, but only make it more perfect by purification. When this is done, the Good News will strike root in all cultures.114 5.2.1 Foreign Image of the Church As mentioned earlier, Christianity in Thailand remains the religion of the minority and is looked upon as a religion of the foreigners, a foreign religion. 115 The historical fact that, in the nearby countries, Christianity entered together with the colonial thrust of the European countries aggravates the situation. The effort of evangelization with its original aim of converting to the institutional Catholic Church is thus seen as the effort of colonizing the country by a foreign power. Therefore, the idea that evangelization is a threat to the sovereignty of the nation itself is used as a pretext to hinder the effort of evangelization. It seems to be the time that the Church has to struggle to free herself from this historical burden, from the stigma of being foreign to the eyes of both her children and the Thai people, and from the scars of being attached to alienating structures.116 5.2.2 Cultural Gap From the cultural point of view, Christianity that is known in Thailand is of Western garb, understanding and religiosity. This brings with it certain difficulties of comprehension for the Thai people. The fact that Western categories are used in expressing the teaching of Jesus and in stating its theological interpretation creates a cultural gap between the evangelizer and his audience. Thus evangelization is seen as an intellectual colonization, which is not less dangerous than the political one. The fact that the liturgy till Vatican II was in Latin complicated the matter all the more. The use of 114 Cfr. EAB, The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Thailand, Ordinary Meeting 26-29 May1981, 5-6. 115 Cfr. SRIWARAKUEL W., Christianity and Thai Culture, 3-5. Thai people call Chinese ‘Jeck - เจ๊ก; Jeen - จีน’ they call the Indians ‘Khaeg - แขก’ They call all the Europeans ‘Farang ฝรัง่ ’. However, the word ‘Khaeg’ refers not only to the Indians but also the Parkistanis, the Bangladesh people, the Ceylonese, the Nepalese, the Malays, the Persians, the Arabs and all peoples in the Near East and the Middle East (except Jews), and the Africans (Khaek Deom แขกดำ). The Thai people do not see Buddhism as an ‘imported’ or a foreign religion but as innate. Both Buddhism and Christianity were ‘imported’ to Thailand, but Buddhism has never been ‘alien’ to the way of life of the Thai people because of its very effective inculturation. 116 Cfr. VIVAT S. - BANCHONG J., Buddhism and Evangelization, in The Far East: Culture, Religions, and Evangelization., Roma, Dicastero per le Missioni Salesiani, 1989, 50-51; AMALADOSS M., Beyond Inculturation: Can the Many be One?, Delhi, Vidyajyoti Education & Welfare Society/ISPCK, 1998, 11-16. 53 vernacular in liturgy did not change much of this situation. Because what has been done so far is only to transplant another mentality and way of thinking and living (considered as universal truth) to a soil in which it can hardly grow.117 5.2.3 Evangelization as Threat to Buddhism Evangelization with the aim of converting people to the institutional Church constitutes a threat to Buddhism itself. Thus instead of living together in a community of plurality of faith, we live in constant tension between different Creeds. Each considers all others as potential enemies. Thus there is no real dialogue of life, and the faithful of each Creed shut themselves in their own community without any sharing of particular values and spirituality that they believe in and live. We live in a religious ghetto, even though on the social level we might be friends and collaborators. In other words, there seems to be an urgent need to come closer to a point of living together in an openness that respects the other's belief and practices. It would mean that the Church needs to emerge from self-centeredness towards a maturity, which urges her to reach out to all Buddhist brothers and sisters.118 5.2.4 Identification of Religions with Culture One cannot understand Thai culture without having knowledge of Buddhism. Buddhism indeed bears influence on the people's outlook of life, their values, behaviour, politics, development, judgments as well as their formulation. It has been closely intertwined and thus identified with the Thai culture and even the whole Thai nation. By this same token, Christianity has been seen as Western culture. Christian formation as well as their life-style is associated with the Western system. As a matter of fact, Catholic schools and institutes are known for their teaching of Western languages. Even the names of these institutions have a western tinge. As a consequence, the Thai people, consciously or unconsciously, are afraid of being Christian because of the fear of losing their being Thai, both in its existential and relational aspects. During the colonial 117 Cfr. VIVAT S. - BANCHONG J., Buddhism and Evangelization, 51; AMALADOSS M., Beyond Inculturation: Can the Many be One?, 13-14, 61-65. 118 Cfr. VIVAT S. - BANCHONG J., Buddhism and Evangelization, 51-52. 54 period, in the process of conversion the people may have opted for ‘foreign’ symbols as a means of identifying themselves with the group in power, especially as a gesture against the local political elite.119 5.2.5 Indifference towards other Religions The prevalent attitude in Asia, particularly in the Thai society, is that all Religions are the same. It implies that they are all one in their essential contents, although each expresses them in his own particular way which is largely due to each one's historical and cultural background. Such attitude is also seen in expressions like: ‘All Religions are equal’, ‘All are good’, ‘All have the same aim in so far as they all are expressions of man's quest for the eternal, and all teach people to be good’. As a consequence, there is a strong conviction that man should be faithful to the traditional religion in which he was born. Conversion to another faith is considered a betrayal. Moreover, there is the belief that Buddhism, in its essential contents, is the one true religion, universal and eternal, valid for all times. Buddhists will easily claim that the essential teaching of Christianity can find a place within this universal religion.120 5.2.6 Division among Christians Besides the negative relationship between the Buddhists and Catholics, there remain several problems both within the local Church in Thailand and the Universal Church. The prominent one seems to be that of the division that exists among the various Christian denominations, all of whom claim to follow Christ who brings peace, love, and unity. This contradiction of life has become even more palpable to the Thai people in today’s world where communication is as fast as lightning. And indeed, if divided Christendom is the source of weakness for the West, it is a sin and a stumbling block for the Thai people who value peace and harmony above all else. The principal and most immediate need is to change the attitudes and beliefs of Church leaders, to help them understand more fully that the progress and stability of the Church depend on the people, the masses who 119 Cfr. AMALADOSS M., Beyond Inculturation: Can the Many be One?, 11-12. 120 Ibid. 41-44. 55 are still oppressed and manipulated: the Church does not work for the poor but with the poor, learning from them their needs and their vision.121 Conclusion The geographical position of Thailand invited interaction by various peoples and cultures. It made them spontaneously open to one another and taught them how to share their life in all its complexity for mutual benefit. They were fortunate to fight together against outside aggression but they never locked horns against each other for selfish ends. In cementing the various peoples together religion played a major role. A combination of Hinduism and Buddhism without at the same destroying the beliefs of the Animists evolved a religion that was at once morally attractive and socially progressive. Thais are a people of freedom, who not only kept foreign aggressions at bay but were also able to decide freely. It is this atmosphere of freedom that made Christian religion welcome at least among some people, even though Theravada Buddhism coming from Sri Lanka was accepted as the state religion. This peaceful, accommodative and outgoing community character evolved through centuries of co-existence of various peoples and religious groups has enabled Thailand to make a leap towards all round progress and prosperity with confidence. 121 Cfr. ANGAUMETHANGKUR D., Catholicism and Thailand, in http://www. nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/List-of-Thailand_related-topics, (21 January 2006), 2; Appendix 19, Interviews with priests and brother.