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THE ROMANIAN ACADEMY
GEORGE BARIŢIU INSTITUTE OF HISTORY CLUJ NAPOCA
DOCTORAL THESIS
THE BENEFICIAL POLICY LED BY THE AVIGNON PAPACY IN
TRANSYLVANIA (1309-1377)
-Abstract-
COORDINATOR
PROFESSOR DR. NICOLAE EDROIU
(associate of the Romanian Academy)
PH.D.CANDIDATE
RAZVAN MIHAU NEAGU
CLUJ-NAPOCA
2013
Table of contents
Introduction
1.Brief terminological explanations
2) The Popes of Avignon and Europe
2.1) The transfer of the papal headquarters from Rome to Avignon
2.2) The regime of Avignon
2.3) The beginning of the administrative and fiscal centralisation process during the leadership of
Pope John XXII
2.4) The policy of the popes of Avignon in Italy
2.5) The popes of Avignon and the Hundred Years War
3) The Holy See and Hungary during the leadership of the Angevine kings
3.1) The imposition to the throne of Hungary of Carol Robert of Anjou
3.2) Carol Robert of Anjou and the Church of Hungary
3.3) The ties between Louis of Anjou and the Holy See
4) The Holy See and the voivodeship of Transylvania in the 13 th-14th centuries. Patrimonium Sancti
Petri
4.1) The meaning of the phrase Patrimonium Sancti Petri
4.2) The feudal relations between the papay and the states
4.3) Saint Peter’s Patrimony in Transylvania
5) Mechanisms of distributing prebends in the bishopric of Transylvania in the 14 th century
5.1) The jurisdictional competence of the bishop of Transylvania. The territory of the diocese.
5.2) Diocese of Transylvania in the 14th century. Avignon popes involvement in the appointment of
bishops in Transylvania.
5.3) The Cathedral Chapter. A fundamental institution of an episcopal church.
5.4) The Chapter of the Church of Transylvania.
5.5) The beneficial policy of the popes of Avignon in Hungary. General considerations.
5.6) The papal intervention in the church of Transylvania.
5.7) The popes of Avignon and the appointment of canons, archdeacons and parsons.
5.8) The factors involved in the granting of ecclesiastical benefits in the diocese of Transylvania.
5.9) The intellectual preparation of the clergy in Transylvania in the 14th century.
5.10) The provenance of the canons and archdeacons appointed by the papacy in Transylvania in the
14th century.
5.11) The practice of nepotism and appointments made in the Church of Transylvania.
5.12) The clergymen with benefits in the diocese of Transylvania who were appointed in the
Hungarian ecclesiastical hierarchy in the 14th century.
5.13) The popes of Avignon and the positions of archdeacons and parsons in the diocese of
Transylvania. The expectative graces.
5.14) Considerations regarding the beneficial policy of the Avignon popes in the Transylvanian Saxon
Church.
6) The beneficial policy led by the popes of Avignon in the bishopric of Oradea.
6.1) The Bishopric of Oradea in the14th century. The involvement of the papacy.
6.2) The internal organisation of the chapter of Oradea.
6.3) The beneficial policy led by the popes of Avignon in the diocese of Oradea.
6.4) The origin and the education of the canons and of the dignitary members of the chapter of Oradea
in the 14th century.
6.5) The involvement of the various factors in the granting of ecclesiastical benefits in the diocese of
Oradea.
7) The bishops of Cenad and the papacy of Avignon. The involvement of the papacy in the diocese of
Cenad in the 14th century.
7.2) The bishops of Cenad during the Avignon papacy.
7.3) The involvement of the popes of Avignon in the bishopric of the Cenad.
8) A possible theoretical pattern for the mechanisms of granting ecclesiastical benefices in the dioceses
of Transylvania, Oradea and Cenad.
9) The popes of Avignon and the schismatic world.
9.1) The popes of Avignon and the Byzantine Empire.
9.2) The Holy See and the Romanians in the 14th century.
9.3) A firm method of eliminating the schism: the crusade.
9.4) The status of the Romanians in Transylvania after fourth crusade.
9.5) Attempts to convert the Romanians in the 13th century.
9.6) The Hungarian dynastic crisis at the end of the 13th century and the 14th century and its religious
avatars.
9.7) The popes of Avignon, the crusade against the schismatics and the mendicant missionarism
among the Romanians.
9.8) UrbanV, Gregory XI and the Romanians.
9.9) Catholic dioceses founded by the popes of Avignon in territories inhabited by Romanians: The
bishopric of Milcovia and the bishopric of Siret.
9.10) The Romanians’ reaction to the policy led by the Holy See: resistance or conversion?
9.11) Remarks on the ecclesiastical lives of the Romanians in the 14th century.
9.12) The Romanians in Transylvania and the legislation of king Louis of Avignon.
10) The papal taxation and the bishoprics of Transylvania in the 14th century.
10.1) The papal taxation and the legation of Cardinal Gentile.
10.2) The issue of free benefits incomes.
10.3) The tithes and other papal taxes.
10.4) Other pontifical taxes.
Conclusions
Bibliography
Table of contents
Key words: papacy; bishopric; bishop; chapter; canon; archdeacon; Transylvania; Oradea; Cenad;
beneficial policy; royalty; crusade; Romanians.
Introduction
The topic of this doctoral thesis represents an absolute novelty for the Romanian historiography. The
beneficial policy of the papacy of Avignon in Transylvania in the 14th century is an issue meant to recover
the ecclesiastical history of Transylvania. Had it not been for this approch, the history Transylvania would
be incomplete. The title of the thesis is in fact the synthesis of my entire endeavour. Against the European
background, in which the papal hierocracy theorised by papal Innocent III or Innocent IV, was losing ground
to the supereminence of the laic authorities, the French popes supplied this handicap through the elaboration
of a centralising policy focused on the aspects regarding the internal organisation of the church, especially
on those regarding the various ecclesiastical positions, as well as the fiscal aspects. The Avignon period of
the papacy represents a special chapter in the history of the Western Christianity, when the pontifical throne
was held only by the popes of French origin.They demonstrated extraordinary competence in transforming
the church and adapting it to the European tendencies. Thus, the French popes brought to a climax a
tendency shaped in the second half of the 13th century, allowing their own appointments in the major
ecclesiastical positions (archbishop, bishop, archdeacon, parson, rector of various altars in cathedral or
collegial churches). The members of a cathedral chapter (the canons) were also allowed to obtain a dignity in
this forum (provost, canon, lecturer, cantor). All these ecclesiastical dignities were paid, as their titulars
received remuneration. Obviously, the most important ones belonged to the archbishop and to the bishop,
but the other ecclesiastical dignities also had high incomes, out of which the most significant one was the
canonic prebend. The possesor of such an income was not limited to a singular position of this kind, but in
most cases be was also entitled to another canonship or to even more and implicitly to as many prebends in
other dioceses. The ecclesiastical benefits were distributed by all the French popes, but in the case of
Transylvania the first appointments that were kept are from the times of pope John XXII, the second pope of
Avignon.
1. Brief terminological explanations
The first chapter of the thesis is meant to clarify the meaning of the term ecclesiastic benefit
(beneficium), which is less known in the Romanian historiography. This term originates in classical Latin,
but in the Middle Ages it was taken over in the ecclesiastic language, and it comprises the sum total of
territorial properties at the exclusive disposal of an abbey or of a bishop; on the other hand, the term also
refers to any ecclesiastic position to which a permanent income is attached. In the Avignon epoch of the
papacy, the French pontiffs assumed their almost exclusive right to concede ecclesiastic benefits, and in the
documents there often appears the word collatio, which refers to the pope’s right to beneficence, to concede
ecclesiastic benefits. Another key word of the papal documents, which presents the beneficial policy is
provisio. This term points at the pope’s or the local bishop’s right to appoint in the positions of vacant
ecclesiastic benefits.
2. The popes of Avignon and Europe
This chapter is meant to present a brief history of the Avignon papacy. We analysed the political–
ecclesiastical background against which pope Clement V had to transfer his residence from Rome to
Avignon, in the South of present-day France. Starting from Clement V (1305-1314), successively held the
papal positions a series of popes of French origin: John XXII (1316-1334), Benedict XII (1334-1342),
Clement VI (1342-1352), Innocent VI (1352-1362), Urban VI (1362-1370) and Gregory X (1370-1378).
These popes proved a singular competence in conceiving and applying a centralised mechanism of
governement of the Roman Church mainly based on two aspects: the beneficial policy and the fiscal policy.
This type of government was applied throughout the territory of societas Christianorum, including Hungary
and Transylvania. The process of administrative and fiscal centralisation started in the times of pope John
XXII who is regarded as the founder of the regime of Avignon. The French popes were an active presence in
the European policy of the 14th century. They had a series of conflicts with emperors Henry VII of
Luxemburg and Louis IV of Bavaria and played an important role during the Hundred Years War.
3. The Holy See and Hungary in the times of the Angevine Kings
Approaching the ecclesiastical history of Transylvania without reference to the context of Hungary
would be incomplete. The aim of this chapter is to present the relations between Avignon and the Angevine
papacy, as well as the way in which these relations affected Transylvania. The major aim of the internal
policy led by the Angevine king was the consolidation of the reign and the elimination of the last opponent
forces. After he left the throne, the relations with the church progressively deteriorated, as the monarch
wished he could impose his close acquaintances in the highest positions of the Hungarian hierarchy. With
regard to this, he aimed especially at the loyalty of his relatives. Thus, after the death of archbishop Toma
(1321), Charles Robert of Anjou imposed his brother-in-law, Boleslaw of Toszck, as archbishop of
Esztergom and primate of Hungary (1321-1328); in 1328, Mieszko of Bytom, the queen’s brother, was
appointed bishop of Nitra and subsequently, starting with the year 1334, bishop of Veszprém. An illgitimate
son of Chares, Coloman, was imposed by his father, in 1337, as bishop of Győr. Charles Robert of Anjou’s
successor, his son Louis I of Anjou, also called the great in historiography, is considered to be a real
champion of the church. This statement is partially true, as the king displayed a remarkable religious
behaviour, but the relations with the Holy See did not lack asperities because of his claims over the kingdom
of Naples and over his campaigns in Italy with the aim of subduing it. Louis I of Anjou’s attitude accounted
for the assassination of his brother Andrew, in 1345, during a plot in which the Naples royal house was also
involved. Despite this tensionate moment between Avignon and Buda, a great number of emissaries
circulated during the reign of Louis I of Anjou, as the two courts were in permanent contact.
4. The Holy See and the Voivodeship of Transylvania in the 13 th and 14th centuries. Patrimonium
Sancti Petri.
This chapter approaches the issue of the temporal possessions of the church, seen from the perspctive
of the feudal-vassal relations. The phrase Saint Peter’s Patrimony (Patrimonium Sancti Petri) refers to the
territorial possessions of the Apostolic See, its nominal possessions and thus to those of the pontiff. The first
concrete materialisation of Saint Peter’s Patrimony in Transylvania was reperesented by the Cistercian
monachism, the order established in Transylvania in two places with strong Orthodox features: Igriş and
Cârţa. The attention of the papacy in Transylvania also focused on the Saxon area, newly colonised
(especially the province of Sibiu). Thus, in 1191, in a document issued at Rome on December 20th pope
Celestin III strenghtens the free Saxons Prepositure as an autonomous ecclesiastical organism, freed from
under the authority of the bishopric of Transylvania and directly placed under the pontifical authority,
represented by the archibishop of Esztergom. During the times of Innocent III we also mention the presence
in Transylvania of the religious order of the Teutonic knights, in Ţara Bârsei, between 1211-1225, which
makes the Romanian territory a part of the crusades actions. On the other hand, the presence of the teutonic
knights in Ţara Bârsei reveals the hierocratic pressures experienced by Transylvania, in complete agreement
with the general policy of pape Innocent III. The religious military order was one of the three constitued
after the classical crusades in order to care for the pilgrims and ensure their safety on ther way to Jerusalem.
In the 13th century there appear in Europe two new orders of monks: the Franciscans and the Dominicans.
The two were devoted to itinerary sermons, aspiring towards vita vera apostolica. We should also mention
that both the orders of military monks and the mendicant orders are exempt, meaning that they directly
depend on the Holy See, serving its interests. Thus, any possession they had anywhere belonged to the
papacy. In the period of Avignon papacy, Saint Peter’s Patrimony undergoes a change. Thus, it was
transformed by the papacy, under the form of taxes.
5. The mechanism for distributing the prebends in the bishopric of Transylvania in the 14th century.
In the diocese of Transylvania the french popes intervened regardind appointments of bishops and
member of the catedral chapter. Starting with the year 1320, the bishopric of Transylvania was shepherded
by the reperezentatives of the Szécsy of Rimászecs family. This family was one of the most influential in
medieval Hungary, and its members stood out especially during the Angevine dynasty. This important clan
was looked up to by the royal court. Andrew Szécsy shepherded the bishopric of Transylvania between
1320-1356, followed by his nephew, Dominic (1357-1368). In the times of bishop Andrew, pope John XXII
passed a bull trough which he reserved his right to appoint the bishop of Transylvania. However, the two
reprezentatives of the Szécsy family were elected in the chapter of Alba Iulia, confirmed only by the pope.
Dumitru was the next bishop of Alba Iulia (1368-1376). He was the most important bishop of Transylvania
in the 14th century. We are founding this statement on the fact this hierarch was made cardinal (1378), the
highest dignity of the Roman Church, after that of pope, becoming even archbishop of Esztergom and
primate of Hungary. Dumitru was the first bishop of Transylvania for the election of whom the cathedral
chapter did no longer play any role, as his appointment was the result of pope Urban’s will. This fact was
based on the act of reservation of 1325. After the transfer of Dumitru to Zagreb, pope Gregory XI named as
bishop of Transylvania the parson of Cristian, Goblin (1376-1386). Goblin’s appointment was the result of
the pope’s will. The involvement of the French popes in the bishopric of Transylvania focused on the
appointments made in the chapter. Thus, the popes of Avignon appointed canons, chapter dignitaries
(provosts, cantors, lecturers etc.) as well as archdeacons. The first pope to appoint a canon in the cathedral
chapter of Alba Iulia was John XXII in 1320. All in all, this pope appointed eight canons, but the beneficial
policy was overtaken by this follower, Clement VI, who appointed thirteen canons. Innocent VI continues
the active beneficial policy of this predecessor, intervening at the level of the Transylvania chapter by
appointing seven canons between 1356-1362. Over the period of time ruled by pope Urban V, the internal
documents mention only two new canons. A new forceful intervention of the papacy in the chapter of Alba
Iulia was registered in the times of Gregory XI, the last pope of the classical period of the Avignon papacy.
He appointed ten canons between 1371-1377. In the granting of ecclesiastical benefits in the diocese, the
following factors were involved: the pope, as the supreme power (who granted or confirmed) various
ecclesiastical positions (archbishops, bishops, cardinals etc.) and the Hungarian political personalities
belonging to the central government (king, queen, the jude of the court etc.) or to the local one (the voivod of
Transylvania). The benefits granted in the church of Transylvania were given by the pope as a result of a
request or of a wish from the part of various highly regarded personalities who desired to reward in their way
the most loyal servants. Thus, the canonship or archdeaconship received was to become a reward for the
fidelity towards the person asking for the pope’s benefit. On top of the list of such persons who were asking
for ecclesiastical benefits for their loyal acquaintances or relatives, was the king of Hungary. Both Charles
Robert of Anjou and his son Louis were directly involved in these appointments. As a general rule, the
appointed ones were subdued to the king of Hungary.
6. The beneficial policy led the popes Avignon in the bishopric of Oradea
As for diocese of Transylvania the beneficial policy in the diocese of Oradea focused on the
appointment of bishops and member of the cathedral chapter. On October 8th 1325, John XXII reserved his
right to appoint the bishops of Oradea and Györ. The first bishop of Oradea appointed by a french pope was
Dumitru of Futak (1345-1372). After the long period of time spent on the episcopal see of Oradea, a new
bishop was appointed, namely Dominic Bebek (1373-1374), who was transferred here by the pope, from
Cenad. Between 1374-1375, the diocese of Oradea was led by bishop Benedict. Besides the name, there
remained extremely little information about him. The last bishop of Oradea, whose leadership overlept with
the Avignon period of papacy, was Emeric Czudar (1376-1375). He originated in a renowned family of
medieval Hungary and was appointed bishop of Oradea by pope Gregory XI. Similarly to the situation in the
bishopric of Transylvania, the first appointment of a canon in the diocese of Oradea took place on July 2nd
1320, being made by pope John XXII. This pope appointed nine canons in Oradea, registered in the
documents issued by the pontifical chancery. From the times of the pontiff Benedict XII we have few
documents to attest the appointments of canons. The most intense beneficial policy in the diocese of Oradea
was led by pope Clement VI, who appointed 23 canons. The next pope of Avignon was Innocent VI, who
appointed 6 canons. Urban V did not stand out through a large-scale beneficial policy in Oradea. Thus, from
his times were left only 2 internal documents which mention the appointment of a canon in Oradea. The last
pope of Avignon, Gregory XI made, in his turn, only two appointments in the position of canon in Oradea.
As in the case of the diocese of Transylvania, at Oradea were appointed canons only the inhabitants,
especially of the kingdom of Hungary, although there were also some of foreign origin, out of whom stood
out the ones of Italian origin. The ecclesiastical benefits in the bishopric of Oradea were given by the French
popes at the intervention of some extremely influential persons, both laic and ecclesiastical, whose desire
was to reward their close relatives with such positions that granted financial benefits. In many cases in which
ecclesiastical persons intervened, the main issue was the distribution of religious benefits to close relatives.
7. The bishops of Cenad and the papacy of Avignon. The involvement of the papacy in the diocese of
Cenad in tne 14th century.
During the Avignon epoch of papacy eleven bishops took turns at the leadership of the diocese of
Cenad. The leadership of these hierarchs was, as a general rule, brief, and they were transferred in similar
positions in other dioceses (one to Zagreb, two to Veszprém, one to Calocea, and one to Oradea). Six of the
eleven bishops ended their leadership and their mission, in the town on river Mureş. As to the ethnical origin
of the bishops of Cenad we should mention that out of the eleven ones, eight were Hungarian, one was
Italian, another one Spanish (French) and supposedly, one was a Saxon from Braşov. On the basis of these
considerations we can state that in the 14th century the diocese of Cenad was one of transition of various
hierarchs who successively led the diocese. This was not a singular case at the time. A similar situation was
that of the French diocese of Viviers. In the case of the bishopric of Cenad, the intervention of the French
popes did not register major proportions. However, the papal interventions were present, influencing the
activity of the diocese, which was therefore integrated into the general governance mechanism of the church
and was developed by the French popes. The first canons mentioned in documents as being appointed by a
pope at Cenad was Nicholas. He was imposed on February 25th 1333 by pope John XXII. During the
Avignon period of papacy, according to the registered documents, we can state that the French pontiffs
appointed, confirmed or supported in the diocese of Cenad the following positions: 6 canons, 6 archdeacons,
a lecturer in the chapter, they conferred 3 dignities, without mentioning their nature, and they allowed an
exchange of canonships. We should also mention that the statistical figures are not absolute, as they are the
result of the investigation founded on the document preserved in Romania.
8. A possible theoretical pattern for the mechanism of granting ecclesiastical benefits in the dioceses of
Transylvania,Oradea and Cenad.
The beneficial policy of the Avignon papacy is the expression of the centralisation of the
ecclesiastical control at the level of the pontiff. This control aimed at comprising the whole Christian world
(Christianitas), but it was far from being an absolute control in which the decision of appointing someone in
an ecclesiastical position should be taken exclusively by the pope. This fact was even more acute at the
borders of Christianitas, in Hungary, where in the process of ecclesiastical appointments the laic and
ecclesiastical factors were deeply involved. The three dioceses,which today correspond to Romanian
territories (Transylvania, Oradea and Cenad) were perfectly integrated in the Western Christian system
conceived by the French popes, becoming singular through local distinctiveness.
9. The popes of Avignon and the schismatic world.
For the papacy of Avignon, the Romanians represented a people from the Eastern borders of the
Christian world. In the documents issued by the Avignon chancellery regarding the Romanians in
Transylvania and outside the Carpathians, there always appears the term of schismatic. But very often there
is a purposeful or fortuitous confusion between schismatic/schism and heretic/heresy. The popes of Avignon
led an intransigent policy regarding the Orthodox. A major role in the relations between the Romanians and
the French popes was played by the Angevine kings of Hungary, Charles Robert of Anjou and his son Louis
I. All along their reigh (1308-1382), they received from the pontiffs of Avignon various sums of money
raised from various taxes and papal contributions. One of the destinations of these sums was the elimination
of the schismatics inside and outside Hungary. Gregory XI elaborated a real plan of he did not appeal to the
crusade, but to a wore peaceful way of missionarism. According to this pope, the foundation of a Catholic
bishopric for the Romanians would be a much better solution. On October 13th 1371, the French pontiff
wrote from Avignon to the archbishops of Esztergom and Calocea with regard to the measuress be taken for
the conversion to Catholicism of the Romanians at the borders of Hungary. The project was to be put into
practice by the two Hungarian arcbishops, who had to consult with the king ,and the inform Avignon about
the measures applied for the outspread of faith, as well as about the place where the see of the diocese was to
be founded and the endowment of the cathedral church, and also about the surface of the diocese and the
archbishopric see to which it was to belong. With regard to the virtual Romanian bishopric, Gregory XI
asked the archbishops of Esztergom and Calocea for information about the Franciscan monk Anton of
Spoleto, a possible candidate to the position of bishop of the Romanians converted to Catholicism. The
process of converting the Romanians (schismatics) from Hungary was a complete failure. However, some
conversions were made possible and they were the result of some personal interests of the respective
persons, who wanted to ascend in the hierarchy of the epoch or receive royal pardons (the Romanians in the
territory of Medieşu Aurit citadel and the nobles of Banat, Şerban de Aciua and Dan de Duboz.
10. The papal taxation system and the bishopric of Transylvania in the 14th century.
The papal taxation system was one of the major and relevant aspects in the epoch of the French
pontiffs. The vast taxation mechanism Transylvania, through the bishoprics of Alba Iulia, Oradea and
Cenad. A certain sum of the papal incomes collected from Transylvania in the 14th century is impossible to
state, because of lack of complete documentation. However, a partial reconstruction of these sums can be
done on the basis of the records kept by various papal collectors, who also acted in the Transylvanian
territory. The most important papal taxes were the tithe, annates, which was the equivalent of the income
gathered during the first year out of the respective benefit, servita communia owed by the bishops and the
incomes of the ecclesiastical vacant offices.
Conclusions
The epoch of the Avignon popes represented a fundamental stage in the history of the Roman
Church. The French pontiffs conceived and applied a new mechanism of centralised papal governance. This
phenomenon occured against a background in which the Holy See had to regain the positions lost as a result
of the disintegration of the pontifical hierocracy. Thus,the popes of Avignon elaborated a centralised
mechanism of governance based, in our opinion, on two fundamental components:the beneficial policy and
the taxation policy. With regard to the beneficial policy, the process of seizing the ecclesiastical
appointments started in the second half of the 13th century, reaching its climax in the Avignon period, when
the French popes monopolised almost all the appointments in ecclesiastical positions, starting from the
highest dignities (archbishop, bishop), to the inferior ones (priest, provost). The pontiffs substituted various
courts, such as the cathedral chapter, giving up the old procedures of appointing various ecclesiastical
positions. From the perspective of the fiscal system, the French popes provided themselves with numerous
incomes from the numerous taxes that had to be paid by the entire clergy, starting from the archbishop to the
priest. This policy was not a novelty at European level, only at the level of the spirit of the Roman Church;
the French popes adjusted to the spirit of the 14th century, when the process of statal centralisation was
perfected and where a major role was played by the fiscal policy.