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WORDS AND PARTS OF SPEECH Morphology : The study of the structure of words. The component of the grammar that includes the rules of word formation. The Basic Structure of Words free morphemes independent words bound morphemes combined with other morphemes in order to be used as free-standing words. FREE MORPHEMES noun namu ‘tree’, salang ‘love’, na ‘I’, and tases ‘five’ adverb acwu ‘very’, cokum ‘a little’, and kyewu ‘almost’. BOUND MORPHEMES verb and adjective stems are all bound morphemes. Stems mek- ‘eat’ and phulu- ‘blue’ cannot function independently as words, but must necessarily be combined with suffixes, as in mekni, mek-ko, phulu-ta, phulu-myen, to function as words. PARTICLES grammatical elements that show the syntactic role of the noun phrase or add to its meaning. They are not free-standing words 철수가 밥을 먹었다. 깨끗-하-니 INFLECTED WORD STEM 깨끗 하 니 ROOT STEM ROOT AND STEM, CALLED BASE INTEGRATEDLY AFFIX derivational affixes used to generate words inflectional affixes the inflectional endings attached to verbs, adjectives, and the copula Affix ----- prefix and sufix Prefix They never change the part of speech of the word, but function only to limit its meaning. suffix Not only are they greater in number and type, but they also function far beyond simply limiting the meaning. PARTS OF SPEECH nouns, pronouns, numbers, verbs, adjectives, prenouns, adverbs, interjections, particles. NOUNS Nouns are generally marked by case particles. These postposed case particles express the grammatical functions of the nouns. Nouns also function as the sentence predicate by linking up with ita, the copula. Swuminun haksayngita ‘(Sumi) is (a student) Another characteristic of nouns is that they are modi¤ed by prenouns, such as ‘say cikcang ‘new workplace’, yele nala ‘various countries’, i kapang ‘this briefcase’ Nouns can be formed by attaching –um or -ki to verb or adjective. 웃 + 음 웃+기 Bound Nouns do not appear independently in the sentence but must instead be preceded by a modifier. These are the bound nouns such as kes, i, pun, tey, cwul, swu, ttay, mun, ttalum, ppun, kim, and li. On the basis of form and function, it is clear that these words are nouns because they are modified by prenouns and followed by postposed particles. what they refer to is abstract, generalized, and unspecified. CLASSIFIER a word that is suffixed to numerals when counting. NUMBER the grammatical category of “number” does not exist in Korean. Sakwa lul han kay mekessta 사과를 Sakwa lul tases kay mekessta 사과를 한 개 먹었다. 다섯 개 먹었다. Musun chayk ul kuleh.key manh.i sassni? 무슨 책(들)을 그렇게 많이 샀니? GENDER There is also no grammatical category of “gender” in Korean sakwa ‘apple’ or chayk ‘book’ or Han kang ‘the Han River’ not masculine, feminine or neuter. PROPER NOUNS Korean personal names are constructed in the order of surname first, followed by the given name. Surnames almost all consist of one syllable, and given names are almost all made up of two syllables. But b, c and d are exception ADDRESS Kangwen-to Kanglung-si Yongkang-tong 213-penci‘ Kangwon Province, Kangnung City, Yonggang Tong (district), Number 213’. 강원도 강릉시 용강동 213번지 TIME 1965-nyen 5-wel 4-il ocen 6-si 20-pun 1965년 5월 4일 오전 6시 20분 units are ordered from large to small PRONOUNS They have the syntactic characteristics of nouns; their grammatical functions are specified by postposed particles, and they are modified by prenouns. First, the most representative pronouns found in Korean are given in the following list. When referring to family or household, the plural form wuli ‘our’ is used instead of the singular form na uy/nay ‘my’: wuli apeci ‘our (=my) father’, wuli enni ‘our (=my) older sister’, wuli cip ‘our (my) home’, or even wuli manwula ‘our (=my) wife’. The forms used to denote third-person are not separate lexical items, but rather are formed by combining the demonstrative prenouns i ‘this’, ku ‘that’ and ce ‘that (over there)’ with bound nouns. The deictic use of (1) i, (2) ku, and (3) ce depends on the distance between the referent and the speaker; they indicate, respectively, (1) close proximity, (2) middle proximity, and (3) distant proximity Pronouns such as amu ‘any’, nwukwu ‘who’, mues ‘what’, and enu kes ‘which’. These words serve as both question words and indefinite pronouns. NUMERALS There are two parallel sets of Korean numerals: one of native origin, and one of Chinese origin. THE TWO KOREAN NUMERAL SYSTEMS DIFFER IN A NUMBER OF WAYS First, there is a difference in the way ordinals are formed. The native ordinals are formed with the suffix -ccay, as in twul-ccay ‘second’ and seys-ccay ‘third’. exception is hana ‘one’ because the ordinal ‘first’ is not hana-ccay (or hanccay), but rather the special form ches-ccay. The From the ten units on, however, han is used instead of ches-, and twu is used for ‘two’ instead of twul—as in yelhan-ccay ‘eleventh’, yel twu-ccay ‘twelfth’, sumul hanccay ‘twenty-first’, and sumul twu-ccay ‘twenty-second’. In contrast with this native system, the Sino-Korean ordinals are expressed by attaching the prefix cey- to the basic numeral, as in cey-il ‘first’, cey-i ‘second’, cey-sip.o ‘fifteenth’. sakwa twu-kay ‘2 apples’ yetun-twul ‘82’, phalsip twul SINO-KOREAN NUMERALS AND NATIVE NUMERALS ARE ALSO DIFFERENTIATED BY THEIR CONCORD WITH CLASSI¤ERS. THERE ARE SEVERAL DIFFERENT PATTERNS FOR KOREAN NUMBER CONSTRUCTIONS. VERBS AND ADJECTIVES Verbs and adjectives function as predicates verbs and adjectives always appear with inflectional endings. Korean endings can be divided into final endings and prefinal endings. -uni, -ko and -ta, -ni are final endings; among these, -ta and -ni end the sentence, while -uni and -ko do not. The forms -keyss- and -si- are pre¤nal endings since they must necessarily be followed by another ending. PREFINAL ENDINGS INDICATE TENSE AND SUBJECT HONORIFICATION. In the above examples, the prefinal endings -keyss- and -ass/essspecify the tense (or aspect), and -si- functions to honor the subject. SENTENCE-FINAL ENDINGS FUNCTION to show the speech style appropriate in the honorific system for the listener, and to show the sentence type. COPULA The inflecting forms of Korean also include the copula , a form used to predicate nouns. The stem of the Korean copula is i-. unlike verbs and adjectives, the copula cannot be used independently, but must rather be combined with nouns like a particle. Instead of processive endings like those of verbs (nta and -nun), the copula takes only nonprocessive endings like those of adjectives. when the copula stem i- combines with the past marker -ess-, as in (8b), the resulting form iesscontracts to yess-. Even more idiosyncratic is the fact that following the copula stem i- the ending -ta becomes -la, as in (9). In (10), the copula combines with preceding particles. NEGATIVE FORM OF COPULA ‘i’ PRENOUNS AND ADVERBS Prenouns are parts of speech that do not change in form. They do not take case particles or inflectional endings They have the function of modifying a following noun or noun phrase. Adverbs are like prenouns in that they do not inflect and function to modify the word that follows. CONJUNCTIONAL ADVERBS words that link logically a following sentence with a preceding sentence. These conjunctional adverbs include such words as kuliko ‘moreover’, kulena ‘however’, kulentey ‘nevertheless’, kulemyen ‘thus’, kulemulo ‘therefore’, ttalase ‘accordingly’, tto ‘also’, hok.un ‘otherwise’, ohilye ‘rather’, and tekwuna ‘furthermore’ In defining prenouns and adverbs, we have said that they have no morphological variation. Their sole function is to modify the words that follow. However, there are also other parts of speech that modify words the same way. In the following examples, verbs and adjectives behave just like prenouns and adverbs: