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THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 1799-1815
“Vive l’Emperur”
Notes
I NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 1769-1821
1. Born of Italian descent to a prominent Corsican family on the French
island of Corsica. Attended military school in France.
2. Military genius; specialized in artillery.
3. An avid “child of the Enlightenment” and Revolution.
4. Associated with the Jacobins and advanced rapidly in the army due to
vacancies caused by the emigration of aristocratic officers.
a. His talent as an artilleryman helped drive the British navy out of
Toulon.
b. He became a public hero during final assault which reclaimed
Toulon.
5. Eventually inspired a divided country during the Directory period
into a unified nation but at the price of individual liberty.
II CONSULATE PERIOD 1799-1804 (Enlightened Reform)
1. Took power on December 25, 1799 with the constitution giving
supreme power to Napoleon.
a. As First Consul, Napoleon, behaved more as an absolute ruler
than a revolutionary statesman.
b. Sought to govern France by demanding loyalty to the state and
rewarding ability. However, wealth determined status
c. Reorganized the administration of government. Created a modern
centralized bureaucracy dominated by the wealthy bourgeoisie.
2. Napoleon may be thought of as the last and most eminent of the
enlightened despots.
3. Achievements and Reforms.
a. Code Napoleon.
1) Perhaps the longest lasting legacy of Napoleon’s rule.
2) Consolidated 17 different codes into one legal system. It
provided the first clear and complete codification of French
Law. Emphasized the protection of private property.
3) Many achievements of revolution were made permanent.
a) Equality before the law: no more estates, legal classes,
privileges, local liberties, hereditary offices, guilds, or
manors.
b) Freedom of religion to all, including Jews and atheists, but
a secular government.
c) Property rights
d) Abolition of serfdom
e) Gave women inheritance rights
4) Denied women equal status with men (except inheritance
rights)
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a) Women and children were legally dependent on their
husband or father.
b) Divorce more difficult to obtain than during the
Revolution
c) Women could not buy or sell property or begin a business
without the consent of their husbands.
d) Income earned by wives went to their husbands
e) Penalties for adultery were far more severe for women
than men
b. Meritocracy - “Careers open to talent”.
1) Citizens theoretically were able to rise in the social structure
based on their abilities.
2) Creation of new imperial nobility to reward most talented
generals & officials. Napoleon created 3,600 titles between
1808 and 1814. Yet, the number of nobles in France in 1814
only totaled 1/7 of the nobles that had existed in the Old
Regime
3) Created the Legion of Honor to reward heroism or
exceptional service to the nation. It was both a military and
civil award which came with a lifetime pension.
4) Neither military commissions nor civil offices could be
bought and sold.
5) Granted amnesty to 100K émigrés in return for a loyalty oath.
Many returned and soon occupied high posts in expanding
state.
6) Some notables from foreign countries (e.g. Italy, Poland,
Netherlands and Germany) served the empire with distinction
7) Working-class movement (e.g. Sans-Culottes) was no
longer politically significant. Workers were denied the right
to form trade unions
c. Concordat of 1801 with Roman Catholic Church
1) Restored Catholicism to France.
2) Provisions:
a) Papacy renounced claims to Church property that had
been seized during the Revolution. Those citizens who
had acquired them pledged loyalty to Napoleon’s govt.
b) French govt. allowed to nominate or depose bishops.
3) To dispel notion of an established church, Napoleon put
Protestant ministers of all denominations on the state payroll.
d. Economic Reforms.
1) Established the Bank of France (1800) which served the
interests of the state and financial oligarchy.
2) Balanced the national budget
3) Established sound currency based on specie coins and
eliminated the assignats. This restored public credit.
4) Economic reforms to stimulate economy:
a) Provided food at low prices.
b) Increased employment.
c) Eliminated internal tariffs.
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Legion of Honor
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d) Reformed the tax codes and lowered taxes on farmers. No
one was exempt from taxes.
e) Guaranteed that church lands redistributed during the
Revolution he created an independent peasantry that
would be the backbone of French democracy.
f) Workers not allowed to form guilds or trade unions;
retained the Le Chapelier Law of 1791
5) Conducted large number of public projects to rebuild the
nation’s infrastructure.
6) Sold Louisiana to the United States.
e. Educational Reforms.
1) Founded a system of national public education from primary
schools through college under state control.
2) Secondary and higher education reorganized to prepare young
men for govt. service and professional occupations.
3) Education became important in determining social
standing: one system for those who could spend 12 or more
years at school; the other for boys who entered work force at
age of 12 or 14.
4. Drawbacks and Failures.
a. Creation of a police state.
1) Spy system kept thousands of citizens under continuous
surveillance.
2) Ruthlessly put down opposition, especially guerrillas in the
west in provinces of the Vendèe and Brittany.
3) Most publicly notorious action was the kidnapping and
execution of Bourbon duke of Enghien for his alleged part in
a bomb plot against Napoleon.
4) Newspapers were censored and, if they disagreed with
Napoleon, suppressed
b. Subverted free elections and republicanism.
1) Lists of candidates were made from wealthy bourgeoisie for
elected positions. Napoleon personally chose the candidates.
2) The legislative branch became a rubber stamp for Napoleon’s
measures.
3) Practiced nepotism by placing his relatives on the thrones of
nations he conquered
5. War of the Second Coalition: 1799-1801
a. The war started disastrously for France. Refer to TH21-7 &
TH21-10.
b. Once the Consulate was formed and Napoleon’s position secured
he went on the offensive. In the 2nd Italian Campaign the French
army crossed the Alps and drove Austria out of Italy.
c. Treaty of Lunèville (1801)
1) Ended the Second Coalition.
2) Resulted in Austria’s loss of its Italian possessions.
3) German territory on the west bank of the Rhine
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incorporated into France.
4) Russia retreated from Western Europe.
5) Britain again was isolated.
d. Treaty of Amiens with Britain in 1802
1) Britain returned Trinidad and Caribbean islands it had seized
from France in 1793. It agreed to return the island of Malta to
it’s rightful owner, Russia.
2) France remained in control of Holland, Austrian Netherlands,
west bank of the Rhine, and most of Italian peninsula.
Napoleon agreed not to form any new republics.
3) The treaty clearly a victory for Napoleon.
4) Britain technically violated treaty by failing to evacuate the
island of Malta, thus provoking a new war with Napoleon
III THE 1ST EMPIRE 1804-1814
1. Dec 2, 1804, Napoleon crowned himself hereditary Emperor of
France in Notre-Dame Cathedral.
a. Hoped to preempt plans of royalists to return the Bourbons to the
throne
b. Believed an empire was necessary for France to maintain and
expand its influence throughout Europe. As emperor he would be
of equal status to the other monarchs of Europe.
c. Napoleon viewed himself as a liberator who freed foreign peoples
from the absolute rulers who oppressed them.
2. The Napoleonic Wars 1805-1814 See TH21-10
a. Beginning in 1805, Napoleon engaged in constant warfare
1) This series of wars were usually short and distinct.
a) Only Britain was at war continually with France at this
time.
b) The four Great Powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia)
did not fight France simultaneously until 1813.
c) Nations were willing to ally with Napoleon for their own
foreign policy benefit.
2) Only gradually, after Napoleon had conquered Italy, did they
decide Napoleon had to be defeated for a peaceful Europe.
b. War of the Third Coalition: (1805-1807) See TH21-10
1) In spite of a Nelson’s naval victory at Trafalgar, the Third
Coalition (Austria, Prussia, & Russia) was defeated at
Austerlitz (1805); Jena & Auerstadt (1806); Friedland (1807).
2) Treaty of Tilsit June 1807
a) Prussia lost half its population in lands ceded to France.
b) Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of western and
central Europe.
c) Russia also agreed to accept Napoleon’s Continental
System.
d) In many ways, the treaty represented the height of
Napoleon’s success.
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IV ACHIEVEMENTS DURING THE EMPIRE.
1. Napoleon created the largest empire since Roman times.
a. France extended to the Rhine, including Belgium and Holland,
the German coast to the western Baltic, and the Italian coast
extending down to Rome.
b. Created dependent satellite kingdoms:
1) Confederation of the Rhine
2) Spain; ruled by his brother Joseph in 1808.
3) Kingdom of Westphalia; ruled by his brother Jerome.
4) Italy
a) Naples ruled by his sister Caroline
b) Lombardy, Venice and Papal States ruled by his step-son
c) Abolished feudalism and reformed the social, political,
and economic structures.
5) Duchy of Warsaw/Poland restored.
c. Independent but allied states included: Austria, Prussia and
Russia.
2. Spread the Ideals of the Revolution.
a. All countries of the Grand Empire saw the introduction of some
of the main principles of the French Revolution.
1) The abolition of serfdom & equality before the law.
2) Introduction of the Code Napoleon.
3) Notable exception: no self-govt. through elected legislative
bodies.
b. Initially, Napoleon was supported by commercial and
professional classes who supported the Enlightenment.
3. Inspired French Nationalism.
a. Already begun during the revolution, French nationalism grew
during the Napoleonic wars. Battlefield victories inspired the
people.
b. The Arc de Triomphe was commissioned in 1806 to
commemorate French victories in 1805 and 1806.
4. The Confederation of the Rhine.
a. After soundly defeating Austria and Prussia, Napoleon
reorganized Germany.
1) He consolidated many of the nearly 300 independent political
entities. Many of the tiny German states were abolished.
2) The Confederation of the Rhine consisted of 15 German
states minus Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. Napoleon named
himself “Protector” of the Confederation.
b. The Holy Roman Empire was finally abolished.
c. A new kingdom of Westphalia was created out of all Prussian
territories west of the Elbe and territories taken from Hanover
(British).
d. Abolished feudalism, brought them the Code Napoleon, and
carried out reforms.
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Notes
V FAILURES DURING THE EMPIRE.
1. The Continental System.
a. Economic warfare against Britain by eliminating its trade with
Europe.
1) French industry would produce enough manufactured goods
to take over England’s markets on the continent.
2) England would starve without imports of foodstuffs from
America.
b. Berlin Decree, 1806: Closed all ports on the continent to British
commerce. Napoleon coerced Russia, Prussia, neutral Denmark
and Portugal, and Spain to adhere to the boycott in the Treaty of
Tilsit (1807).
c. England responded with the “order in council”: Neutral ships
might enter continental ports only if they first stopped in Great
Britain.
1) Regulations encouraged these ships to be loaded with British
goods before continuing on to the Continent.
2) British sought to strangle French trade, not French imports of
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British goods.
d. Milan Decree, 1807: Any neutral ship entering a British port, or
submitting to a British warship at sea, would be confiscated if it
attempted to enter a Continental port.
e. Led to the War of 1812. The U.S. fought Britain in defense of its
neutral shipping rights.
f. Failure of the Continental System.
1) Caused widespread antagonism to Napoleon’s rule in Europe.
2) Imports from America were too much in demand in Europe.
3) French industries could not equal Britain’s industrial output.
4) The Continental system was impossible to maintain. French
govt. officials undermined the system by supporting
smuggling.
5) France suffered from Britain’s counter-blockade of French
ports.
6) British made up lost trade with Europe by expanding exports
to Latin America.
2. The Peninsular War (1807-1814)
a. First great revolt against Napoleon’s power occurred in Spain.
b. Napoleon tried to gain control over Spain by replacing the
Spanish (Bourbon) King with his brother, Joseph, the Spanish
people waged a costly guerrilla war.
c. Fighting the guerrilla war and maintaining a garrison of 300,000
drained the French army’s resources.
1) Spain was assisted by a British/Allied army under one of
England’s ablest commanders, the Duke of Wellington.
2) Wellington successfully defeated numerous French
commanders sent by Napoleon.
d. Allied victories proved the French could be defeated and
Napoleon’s fallibility.
3. Russian Campaign (1812)
a. Napoleon invaded Russia in June of 1812, with his Grand Army
of 600,000.
b. He hoped to defeat the Russian army quickly in a short campaign.
1) The Russians withdrew drawing the French deeper into
Russia.
2) They used “scorched earth” tactics, destroying everything
usable by the French.
3) Chasing the Russians over extended the French supply lines
and exhausted many troops.
c. Napoleon captured Moscow and expected a Russian surrender.
1) The Russians evacuated then burned Moscow.
2) Tsar Alexander kept Napoleon in Moscow for 5 weeks by
leading him on with the possibility of a treaty.
3) Trapped deep in Russia with winter approaching, Napoleon
was forced to retreat.
d. The retreat from Russia was one of the greatest military
disasters of all time.
1) Out of an army of 600,000 only 90,000 made it back. Of
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these only 30,000 were still effective soldiers.
2) 400,000 died of battle casualties, starvation, and exposure;
100,000 were taken prisoner.
e. Napoleon abandoned the Grand Army and raced home to raise
another army while Austria and Prussia deserted to join Russia
and Great Britain in the Fourth Coalition.
4. Nationalism.
a. French domination of Europe unleashed the forces of
nationalism in those countries. They wanted to rid their
countries of the French.
b. Repression and exploitation eventually turned his conquered
territories against him.
1) Conscription into the French army
2) Higher taxes (while taxes in France were lowered)
3) Continental System
4) Enlightenment reformers believed Napoleon had betrayed the
ideals of the Revolution.
c. The Confederation of the Rhine and Italian Republics laid the
foundations for the unifications of Germany and Italy
5. Foreign Relations.
a. Napoleon’s power rested on military victories. Consequently he
always solved his problems with the military option instead of
exploring other diplomatic possibilities.
b. Victory always resulted in harsh and humiliating treaties with
his enemies. This caused resentment and resistance.
c. Napoleon’s dynastic ambitions created fear and upset the
balance of power.
d. Napoleon consistently underestimated Great Britain.
VI NAPOLEON’S DOWNFALL
1. Wars of Liberation: (1813-1814) Britain, Russia, Austria & Prussia
2. The campaign of 1813 resulted in another disaster at the Battle Battle
of Leipzig (“Battle of Nations”), October, 1813
a. Napoleon was defeated and driven out of Germany; lost 500K of
his 600K Grand Army
b. Largest battle in world history until 20th century.
3. Napoleon refused to accept terms of Austrian foreign minister
Metternich’s “Frankfurt Proposals” to reduce France to its
historical size in return for his remaining on the throne. (Note: There
is much doubt about Metternich’s sincerity.)
4. In 1814 the Quadruple Alliance invaded France. Paris was captured
and the French army refused to fight.
5. Napoleon abdicated as emperor on April 4, 1814.
6. Bourbons were restored to the throne; Louis XVIII.
a. The king granted the Charter of 1814 which created a two-house
legislature that represented only the upper classes. It was the first
constitution in European history issued by a monarch.
b. Restoration maintained most of Napoleon’s reforms such as the
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Code Napoleon, the Concordat with the pope, and the abolition of
feudalism.
7. The “first” Treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814
a. France surrendered all territory gained since the Wars of the
Revolution had begun in 1792.
b. Allied powers imposed no indemnity or reparations (after Louis
XVIII had refused to pay).
8. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba as a sovereign with an
income from France (which they didn’t pay).
Notes
VII CONGRESS OF VIENNA (September 1814-June 1815)
1. Representatives of major powers of Europe, including France, met to
work out a general peace settlement and to try and restore the social
and political order of the ancien regime. See TH23-2
2. Hundred Days (March 20-June 22, 1815)
a. Napoleon capitalized on the stalled talks at Vienna and discontent
with Louis XVIII in France.
b. On March 1, 1815, he landed in southern France, marched on
Paris and seized power.
c. Allied leaders in Vienna vowed to remove Napoleon once and for
all.
d. Napoleon raised an army and then struck at the British & Prussian
armies in Belgium in June 1815.
e. Battle of Waterloo, June 1815
1) Last battle of the Napoleonic Wars
2) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo by England’s Duke of
Wellington and Prussian’s Count Blucher.
3. Napoleon was exiled to the South Atlantic island of St. Helena, far
off the coast of Africa, where he died in 1821.
4. The “second” Treaty of Paris (1815): France now had to pay an
indemnity of 700,000,000 francs for loss of life.
VIII EVALUATION OF NAPOLEON’S RULE
1. First egalitarian dictatorship of modern times.
2. Positive achievements.
a. Revolutionary institutions consolidated.
b. Thoroughly centralized French government.
c. Made a lasting settlement with the Church.
d. Spread positive achievements of French Revolution to the rest of
Europe.
3. Liabilities
a. Repressed individual liberty
b. Subverted republicanism
c. Oppressed conquered peoples throughout Europe.
d. Caused terrific suffering as a result of war.
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Blucher
DID NAPOLEON
BETRAY THE
IDEALS OF THE
REVOLUTION?