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Africa
The African
continent is an
immense plateau,
broken by a few
mountain ranges
and bordered in
some areas by a
narrow coastal
plain. It is a land
of striking
contrasts and
great natural
wonders. In the
tropical rain
forests of western
and central Africa,
the towering
treetops form a
thick green
canopy. The
world's largest
desert, the
Sahara, stretches
across northern
Africa. It covers an
area almost as
large as the United
States. Africa also
has the world's longest river—the Nile. It flows more than 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) through northeastern Africa. Grasslands make up about a third of
the continent. Elephants, giraffes, lions, zebras, and many other animals live in the vast grasslands in eastern and southern Africa.
Africa is divided into 53 independent countries and several other political units. The largest country, Sudan, has an area of 967,500 square miles
(2,505,813 square kilometers). The smallest, Seychelles, has a land area of only 176 square miles (455 square kilometers). The most heavily populated
African nation, Nigeria, has more than 155 million people. However, about one-third of all African countries have fewer than 5 million people each. About
835 million people—about 80 percent of Africa’s total population—live south of the Sahara in the vast region called sub-Saharan Africa.
There are several hundred ethnic groups throughout Africa, each with its own language or dialect and way of life. The large number and various sizes of
ethnic groups has made it difficult for some African countries to develop into unified, modern nations. In some African countries, national boundaries cut
across traditional ethnic homelands. As a result, people may feel closer ties to neighbors in another country than to other ethnic groups within their own
country. Ethnic and religious differences have led to civil wars in several countries.
Africa has great mineral wealth, including huge deposits of copper, diamonds, gold, and petroleum. It also has valuable forests. In addition, many African
rivers and waterfalls could be used to produce hydroelectric power. Africa produces most of the world's cassava, cocoa beans, and yams. But Africa has the
least developed economy of any continent except Antarctica.
Agriculture is the leading economic activity in Africa, but most farmers use outdated tools and methods to farm thin, poor soil. About two-thirds of all
Africans live in rural areas, where they make a living growing crops or raising livestock. Since the mid-1900's, however, millions of rural Africans have
flocked to cities and have adopted a more urban lifestyle. The development of manufacturing has been handicapped by a lack of money to build factories, a
shortage of skilled workers, and competition from industries on other continents. Many African countries depend on only one or two farm or mineral
products for more than half their export earnings. In case of crop failures or drops in world market prices, a country's economy suffers. The majority of
African nations rely to some extent on aid from countries outside the continent.
One of the world's first great civilizations—ancient Egypt—arose along the banks of the Nile River more than 5,000 years ago. Later, other powerful and
culturally advanced kingdoms and empires developed in Africa. Even so, for many years Westerners referred to Africa as the "Dark Continent." They used
this name because they knew little about Africa's interior geography, and they mistakenly believed that the people of the interior had not developed any
important cultures.
Sahara,
«suh HAR uh or suh HAHR uh», is the world's largest desert. It covers about 3 1/2 million square miles (9 million square kilometers), an area
roughly equal to that of the United States. The landscape of this vast African desert includes mountain ranges, rocky plateaus, gravelly plains, and sandy
wastes. The barren desert is broken only by the cultivated land along the Nile River and in the scattered oases.
The Sahara extends more than 3,500 miles (5,630 kilometers) across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. It stretches more than 1,200
miles (1,930 kilometers) from north to south. The desert spreads over all of Western Sahara and the African part of Egypt. In addition, the Sahara covers
parts of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Sudan, Chad, Niger, Mali, and Mauritania. The word Sahara comes from the Arabic word sahra', meaning desert.
Parts of the Sahara have separate names, such as the Arabian, Libyan, Nubian, and Egyptian Western deserts.
Land and climate. Mountains and uplands cover the central portion of the Sahara. The Ahaggar Mountains in Algeria rise 9,573 feet (2,918 meters) high.
The uplands of a region called the Tassili-n-Ajjer lie northeast of those mountains, and to the south are the main mountain ranges of the Aïr, the Ennedi,
and the Adrar des Iforhas. The Tibesti Mountains in Chad reach a height of 11,204 feet (3,415 meters).
Scattered areas of barren, rocky plateaus and of gravelly plains called regs make up most of the Sahara. Only about 15 percent of the desert is sand, but
dunes are found throughout the desert. Vast sand seas called ergs lie within large basins and are shifted and shaped by strong winds. In some places, the
flowing sands of the ergs form dunes as high as 600 feet (180 meters).
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Oases lie throughout the Sahara. The water in these fertile areas comes mainly from wells or springs. The Sahara has about 90 large oases, where people
live in villages and grow grains such as barley and millet and fruits such as dates and melons. There are many small oases, some of which support only one
or two families.
Major deposits of oil and natural gas lie under the Sahara in Algeria and Libya. These countries rank among the largest producers of the two vital fuels. The
Sahara also contains valuable deposits of copper, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, and other minerals, but many of them have not been mined.
The Sahara has a dry, hot climate. The annual rainfall—which often comes in a single storm—averages less than 4 inches (10 centimeters). Large areas of
the eastern and western Sahara receive less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rain yearly. The mountainous central Sahara gets slightly more rain, and snow
sometimes falls on the mountaintops. Some wetlands exist near the Ahaggar Mountains of Algeria.
The Sahara is extremely hot during the day, but it turns cool at night. Daily summer temperatures often average above 90 °F (32 °C), and parts of the
desert have daytime temperatures higher than 110 °F (43 °C). The highest official temperature in the world—136 °F (58 °C)—was recorded at Al Aziziyah,
Libya, in September 1922. Daily winter temperatures in the Sahara average from 50 to 60 °F (10 to 16 °C), while winter night temperatures can fall below
freezing.
People. The Sahara has a population of about 2 million. Large areas of the desert, such as the Great Western Erg and the desolate, pebbly plains of the
Tanezrouft in Algeria, have no permanent settlements. Most Saharan people are of Arab or Berber origin. Berbers are the indigenous peoples of the
northern coast. The chief inhabitants of the Sahara include the Moors, the Tuareg, and the Toubou. The Moors have mixed Arab and Berber ancestry and
live in the northwestern Sahara. The Tuareg, who speak a Berber-related language, occupy the central mountains and uplands. The Bérabiche, a Tuareg
people, are the traditional caravanners of the desert. The Toubou are a people of mixed ancestry who live in Chad's Tibesti Mountains.
Most of the Saharan people live in villages and oases or in mining settlements. Only about a third retain the traditional nomadic life, tending herds of
sheep, goats, camels, and cattle. Nomads usually occupy fairly distinct areas and travel systematically to use seasonally available water and pastures.
Some tribes of nomads own land in the oases but employ other people to farm it.
Most oases settlements have fewer than 2,000 inhabitants, but some have evolved into desert cities. Some oases have thousands of date palm trees, but in
areas where water is scarce, a single tree may be shared by several owners.
The Saharan people traditionally use camels for transportation in the desert, though trucks and highways are becoming more common. The Trans-Saharan
Highway crosses part of the desert from north to south in Algeria. In some other areas—especially in Egypt and Libya—paved roads connect the principal
oases.
Sahel,
«sah HEHL», is a dry grassland in Africa. The Sahel lies south of the Sahara and extends through large parts of Senegal, Mauritania, Mali,
Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Sudan. Some geographers also consider certain desertlike regions in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia to be
part of the Sahel. A number of serious droughts (dry periods) have struck the Sahel. The area has been especially dry since 1968. Millions of people in the
Sahel have died as a result of crop failures caused by the droughts.
Farmers in the Sahel face many problems. During some seasons, the area either receives no rain, or the rains come too late for the growing season.
Occasionally, the Sahel receives heavy rainfalls that wash away the farmers' seeds. Other problems include livestock epidemics, attacks by locusts that
destroy crops, and erosion, the wearing away of soil by wind and rain. Much of this erosion results from the overgrazing of the grassland. Agricultural
experts have developed methods to improve farming in drought-stricken areas such as the Sahel. But more economic assistance and cooperation by the
A still drier savanna zone, with 15 to 25 inches (380–635 mm) of rainfall per year, has drought-resistant scrubby acacias, thorn bushes, and desert
grasses. Except for periods of rain it has a dry and almost steppelike appearance. This dry savanna occurs in a belt south of the Sahara, in parts of the
Eastern Horn region, and on the west coast of Southern Africa, where it widens toward the south. Gum arabic is obtained from the Acacia senegal in the
north. In many places the grasses provide grazing for cattle and sheep, and goats browse on some of the shrubs. The low rainfall, hot summers, and
sparse vegetation discourage tsetse flies. Whereas the dry savanna has many domesticated grazing animals, the tree savannas, because of tsetse flies,
have almost none.
The dry savanna merges into a steppe zone, with about 10 inches (250 mm) of rainfall, as it nears the Sahara, the Somali desert in the Eastern Horn, and
the Namib desert along the southwest coast. After periods of rain, grass and shrub growth is sufficient for the animals of nomadic peoples. The northern
dry savanna lies within the marginal region known as the Sahel, receiving between 4 and 24 inches (100–600 mm) of rainfall a year. area's governments
are needed before these methods can be widely applied
.
Savanna,
«suh VAN uh», also spelled savannah, is a grassland with widely scattered trees and shrubs. Most savannas are in the tropics and lie
between deserts and rain forests. Certain grasslands in temperate areas are also sometimes called savannas. This article discusses tropical savannas.
Savannas cover more than two-fifths of Africa and large areas of Australia, India, and South America. They occur in regions that have both rainy and dry
seasons.
Most savannas receive from 30 to 40 inches (76 to 100 centimeters) of rain annually. But some get as little as 10 inches (25 centimeters) of rain, and
others get as much as 60 inches (150 centimeters). Grasses on the driest savannas, where trees are widely scattered, grow only a few inches high. On
more humid savannas, grasses grow several feet tall, and trees are more abundant. Grasses on the wettest savannas may reach heights of 10 feet (3
meters) or more.
Most savanna grasses grow in clumps and do not form a continuous cover of sod. Other nonwoody plants, including members of the composite and legume
families, grow among the grasses. Acacias, baobabs, and palms are some common savanna trees.
The growth of trees on savannas is limited by the dry season, which may last up to five months. When the dry season begins, grasses stop growing and
turn brown, and most trees shed their leaves. Only the most drought-resistant trees can survive. During the dry season, frequent brush fires destroy many
young trees. Grasses have extensive root systems that survive the fires and send up fresh shoots as soon as the rains return. On some savannas, poor
drainage and other soil conditions also favor the growth of grasses instead of trees.
A wide variety of animals live on savannas. Large herds of antelope and zebras graze on the African savannas. Cheetahs, hyenas, lions, and other meateaters prey on these animals. Many rodents, birds, reptiles, and insects also inhabit savannas.
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Savanna and Tropical Steppe Zones.
The savanna and steppe zones south of the Sahara, in eastern Africa, and in south-central Africa form an almost continuous belt enclosing the tropical rain
forest on the north, east, and south. Savanna and steppe cover more than a third of the continent's surface.
In the north and south these zones are transitional between the equatorial forests and the deserts. Rainfall usually occurs in the warmer months. It is
abundant on the forest margins but decreases toward the deserts until, in the steppe areas, it is very light and irregular. Winters are generally without
rainfall.
Along much of the Indian Ocean coast there are two rainy seasons, caused by monsoon winds that blow from the southwest toward Asia during the
Northern Hemisphere summer and from the northeast during the winter. A major cause of the monsoons is the change from great heat and low
atmospheric pressure in interior Asia in summer to cold and high pressure in winter. The changing pressure system alternately attracts and repels air
masses from eastern Africa.
Temperatures in the drier parts of the northern savanna-steppe zone are very high, reaching well over 100° F (38° C) during March, April, and May, just
before the summer rains. The rainy period has slightly lower temperatures, and in the winter temperatures are commonly in the 70°–90° F range (21°–32°
C). Because of elevation and marine influences from the ocean, the eastern and southern zones are less hot. Many plateaus with savanna in East Africa
have average temperatures in the 70's F (21°–26° C). Average temperatures in the southern savannas are intermediate between those of the north and
those of the east.
Average annual rainfall in the savanna and steppe zones ranges from more than 40 inches (1,020 mm) on the forest margins to about 10 inches (250 mm)
near the deserts, but it is often highly variable from year to year. The rainy season in the northern savannas occurs usually in June, July, and August, and
in the Southern Hemisphere savannas in December, January, and February.
Recent studies indicate that Africa is likely to suffer the most serious consequences of global warming, even though it has contributed very little in terms of
the greenhouse gases responsible for climate change. Dry areas are already becoming drier, while wet areas have become wetter, with many experiencing
devastating floods. This is expected to have dramatic effects on a continent where food sustainability is often marginal, at best.
Savanna grasslands near the rain forest have a luxuriant growth, with patches of forest. These combined forest and grassland areas, or tree savannas,
occur where rainfall is between 35 and 50 inches (890–1,070 mm) and the dry season lasts three months or less. One band, about 500 miles (800 km) in
width, extends across the northern savanna zone. Within this band is a gradation from dense to lighter growth as the length of the dry season increases
northward. The vegetation varies also with slope, drainage, and soil types. In the south, much of another broad band has open stands of trees, so that it is
often called woodland instead of savanna. Part of this open woodland and savanna has replaced the original forest as a result of burning, cutting, and
cultivation. In East Africa are patches of tree savanna varying from grassland with scattered trees and a parklike appearance to scrubby areas with mixed
palms and acacias and wooded areas with grasses and low shrubs. Several useful trees occur in these savanna areas. Oil palms grow in moister regions of
West and Equatorial Africa. Some trees yield rubber, and the iroko and African ebony are used for timber. The kernels of the shea tree provide a solid white
fat (shea butter), and the fruits of some trees are edible.
Less humid savanna areas, where the average annual rainfall drops to 35 or 25 inches (890–635 mm) and the drought period extends from three to six
months, have fewer trees and many of these are small and flat-topped. Thorn trees and shrubs occur in patches. There is much grass cover during the
rainy season, but during long periods of drought the dry grass and thorn bushes give many areas a semidesert appearance. The baobab, the largest tree,
grows at lower elevations. The people use its fruit for food and, in some places store water in the large trunk as an emergency supply for the dry season.
The branching and strange-looking doom palm has nuts (vegetable ivory) from which buttons are made.
A still drier savanna zone, with 15 to 25 inches (380–635 mm) of rainfall per year, has drought-resistant scrubby acacias, thorn bushes, and desert
grasses. Except for periods of rain it has a dry and almost steppelike appearance. This dry savanna occurs in a belt south of the Sahara, in parts of the
Eastern Horn region, and on the west coast of Southern Africa, where it widens toward the south. Gum arabic is obtained from the Acacia senegal in the
north. In many places the grasses provide grazing for cattle and sheep, and goats browse on some of the shrubs. The low rainfall, hot summers, and
sparse vegetation discourage tsetse flies. Whereas the dry savanna has many domesticated grazing animals, the tree savannas, because of tsetse flies,
have almost none.
The dry savanna merges into a steppe zone, with about 10 inches (250 mm) of rainfall, as it nears the Sahara, the Somali desert in the Eastern Horn, and
the Namib desert along the southwest coast. After periods of rain, grass and shrub growth is sufficient for the animals of nomadic peoples. The northern
dry savanna lies within the marginal region known as the Sahel, receiving between 4 and 24 inches (100–600 mm) of rainfall a year.
The savannas of Africa have a greater variety of large animals than any other part of the world. The grasslands provide forage for antelopes of many kinds,
ranging in size from the giant eland to the tiny duikers and dik-diks. Large herds of hartebeests, wildebeests (or gnus), gazelles, oribis, kobs, waterbucks,
and reedbucks once roamed the savannas, but now they are restricted largely to less-inhabited areas and to game reserves. Other herbivorous animals are
the giraffe, zebra, and rhinoceros. Elephants and the African buffalo have adapted to both forest and grassland areas, and the crocodile and hippopotamus
inhabit riverine areas. Warthogs, baboons, porcupines, anteaters, and rats and other small rodents add to the variety of animal life. Some of the herbivores
provide food for the well-known carnivorous animals—lions, leopards, several types of smaller cats, wild dogs, hyenas, and jackals. The hunting of
elephants for ivory and of big game for food and trophies, as well as the killing of animals that are destructive to crops, has greatly reduced the numbers of
large wild animals; in many settled farming areas they are now rare.
Most of Africa's 2,300 species of birds can be found in some part of the savanna and steppe zone. Ducks and geese, herons, rollers, bulbuls, warblers,
sunbirds, weaverbirds, hawks, and owls have a wide range. Open grasslands have hunting birds such as the secretary bird, kites, eagles, bustards, and
falcons, which are easily observed; but quails, hemipodes, pheasants, and francolins usually hide until disturbed. Vultures gather around the bodies of dead
animals. Lakes and swamps attract cranes, ibises, snake birds, spoonbills, cormorants, storks, flamingos, and pelicans. Guinea fowls live in both grassland
and wooded areas. The ostrich, now comparatively rare, formerly ranged in dry grassy areas from the northern Sahara to Southern Africa.
African Rainforest
Africa's tropics have about 810,000 square miles (2.1 million square kilometers) of rain forest. The forested area extends from Congo (Kinshasa) westward
to the Atlantic Ocean. Patches of rain forest also occur on the east coast of Madagascar.
African rain forests do not house as many plant species as do the forests of South America or Asia. Small areas of African rain forest support from 50 to
100 species of trees. Many of these trees have their fruits dispersed by elephants. A number of valuable woods, including ebony, mahogany, and sipo,
flourish in the African tropics. Other well-known plants from the region include oil palms and coffee plants.
Diverse animal life characterizes Africa's tropical rain forests. Squirrels and monkeys share the canopy and sub-canopy with other small mammals,
including galagos and golden pottos, as well as hundreds of species of birds. The mandrill, a brightly colored relative of the baboon, and the okapi, a
horselike relative of the giraffe, roam the forest floor. Congo peacocks and wild hogs called bush pigs also dwell on the ground. Gorillas and chimpanzees
live on the ground and in trees. The forests of Madagascar support animals found almost nowhere else, including long-tailed, monkeylike lemurs.
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Forest-dwelling people in the African tropics are collectively known as Pygmies. Traditionally, they have survived by hunting and gathering wild animals
and plants. Pygmies live in such countries as Burundi, Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa), Gabon, and Rwanda.
The value of rain forests Rain forests benefit people in four major ways. They provide (1) economic, (2) scientific, (3) environmental, and (4)
recreational value.
Economic value. Wood ranks as the most important rain forest product. Foresters harvest millions of trees from rain forests each year. People use about
80 percent of rain forest wood for fuel and about 20 percent for timber. International trade in tropical hardwoods averages billions of dollars a year.
Other valuable rain forest resources include fibers, fruits, nuts, oils, and resins. Indonesia and the Philippines export millions of dollars in furniture and
other products made from rattan, a kind of palm. Amazon rain forests provide thousands of tons of Brazil nuts and rubber. Mexican and Central American
forests yield various types of chicle, a natural latex once widely used in chewing gum.
Tropical Rain Forest.
The tropical rain forest climate and vegetation prevail on the equator and for about 10° to the north and south. Because of high elevations and monsoon
winds in eastern Africa, however, tropical rain forest is restricted mainly to the western areas, particularly the Congo Basin and the Guinea Coast.
Temperatures are high, often over 80° F (27° C), with little range from month to month or from day to night. They rarely rise as high as 100° F (38° C) or
go much lower than 70° F (21° C) at night or during the cooler rainy seasons. The high humidity (often 80%) and the monotonously high temperatures
make the climate unpleasant for people from cooler regions.
On the coasts some relief is provided by sea breezes, and in West Africa sometimes by dry winds from the Sahara. Rainfall is usually highest following the
equinoxes (in March and September), giving two rainy seasons separated by drier periods. Total annual rainfall is usually from 50 to 70 inches (1,270–
1,780 mm). But where moisture-laden winds ascend steep slopes, the total rises to more than 200 inches (5,080 mm).
The tropical rain forest extends over the regions where it is always warm, where severe drought does not occur, and where drainage and soils are suitable
for forest growth. The tree cover is dense, with many species, varying from moderate to great height. Often there are several stories of trees, with crowns
that prevent sunlight from reaching the forest floor. As a result, undergrowth is not as abundant as in jungle areas, but there are usually many vines. Some
trees have prop roots, or buttressed trunks.
Many species of trees in the rain forest are economically useful. The oil palm furnishes oil from its fruit and palm wine from its sap, as well as fiber for
building material. Timber is obtained from the African mahogany, sapele, niangon, teak, and other trees, including several types of ebony, but a major
economic problem is the scattered occurrence of these useful trees. Pure stands are rare; the useful types are mixed with trees for which there is no ready
timber market. Cola nuts, raffia, copal (a resin), robusta coffee, and rubber are other products from the rain forest.
The dense evergreen rain forest gives way to a semideciduous type of forest in areas that have a short dry season. Contrary to popular opinion, jungle—a
mixture with few large trees but almost impenetrable undergrowth—is comparatively rare in Africa. It occurs on slopes that are too steep for rain forest,
and along rivers and in swamps where poor drainage discourages the growth of many tropical trees.
Mangrove forest grows on tidal flats and coastal deltas invaded by salt water from the ocean, but not in freshwater areas. Mangrove swamps occur on the
delta of the Niger River and along poorly drained coasts of the tropical forest, and also into the coastal areas of savanna regions. On the Atlantic side of the
continent, mangrove forest extends, with interruptions, along the coasts of West and Equatorial Africa. On the eastern side, it can be found in areas from
the Somali coast southward and along the coasts of Madagascar. The trees and their roots form a tangle of vegetation from 25 to 75 feet (8–23 meters)
high. The bark of the mangrove, used for tanning, and boles used for construction are important products from coastal eastern Africa, but the West African
mangrove species are less useful. Sandy coastal areas often have coconut palms, which are lacking in the poorly drained mangrove swamps.
Some mammals of the rain forest, such as the chimpanzees and the okapi, a small relative of the giraffe, are not found in other parts of Africa. The gorilla
lives only in two areas: a western area along the coast of Equatorial Africa and an eastern area in the Congo Basin and adjoining montane forests.
Buffaloes, antelopes, and wild pigs inhabit parts of the rain forest, but they are rarely seen. More obvious are the many species of monkeys, as well as
squirrels and bats.
Birds are numerous, including pheasants, doves, kingfishers, hornbills, owls, and parrots. The reptiles and amphibians are represented by crocodiles,
snakes, lizards, chameleons, toads, and frogs. The rock python is the largest snake of Africa, reaching a length of 25 feet (8 meters). The Goliath frog of
western Equatorial Africa is the largest frog in
the world, weighing up to 7 pounds (3 kg) or
more. Although the cobra, vipers, and black
mamba are poisonous, the African rain forest
does not have a large number of venomous
snakes, and deaths from snakebite are rare. As
in other tropical areas, there are many insects.
The Anopheles mosquito carries malaria, and the
Aëdes aegypti mosquito, yellow fever. Tsetse
flies spread African sleeping sickness among
humans, and fatal forms of it among
domesticated animals.
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Population. Africa's population is distributed unevenly. Large areas of the Sahara and other deserts have no people at all. Some dry grasslands and
tropical forests are also thinly populated. On the other hand, certain areas are greatly overcrowded. The Nile River Valley in Egypt is one of the most
heavily populated regions on Earth. It has an average of about 3,500 people per square mile (1,352 per square kilometer). Other heavily populated areas
include sections of the Mediterranean coast; parts of Nigeria and the west coast; the lakes region of eastern Africa; and the southeast coast.
There are about 897,762,000 people living in Africa. These people belong to many different groups. Each group has people who share the same history,
language, religion, and way of life.
Most Africans are black, and they live south of the Sahara Desert. Most of northern Africa's people are Arabs.Most Africans live in the countryside and
farm for a living. In many parts of rural Africa, the people live a lot like people lived hundreds of years ago. However, since about 1950, millions of Africans
have moved to cities. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is the largest city in Africa. People who live there and in other African cities have more modern things
than most of the other people on the continent. Such things include cars, electricity, and running water. City people also have better schools and medical
care than people living on farms.
Africa's population is increasing rapidly, partly because of improvements in medical care for children. Another reason for the rapid increase in population is
a high birth rate—that is, the number of births in a given year per 1,000 people. Africa's rate of 37 births per 1,000 people is higher than the world
average. But Africa's death rate—that is, the number of deaths in a given year per 1,000 people—is also higher than the world rate. The rate in Africa is 14
deaths per 1,000 people.
The average life expectancy—that is, the average number of years people can expect to live—is about 54 years for Africans, compared with about 78 years
for Americans. However, life expectancy is much lower than the average in the poorer countries of Africa. For example, life expectancy in Zambia is 38
years, and in Mozambique, 43 years. In the more developed nations of Africa, life expectancy is higher than the average for the continent. For example, in
both Libya and Tunisia life expectancy is about 74 years.
Several factors account for the low life expectancy in many regions of Africa. People in many parts of the continent suffer from malnutrition. Over the
years, terrible famines have killed countless Africans, especially in the regions bordering the Sahara. In addition, warfare, poverty, poor sanitation, and
inadequate medical services contribute to widespread disease. Serious diseases that affect life expectancy in Africa include AIDS, malaria, schistosomiasis,
tuberculosis, sleeping sickness, and yellow fever.
Peoples of Africa. It is impossible to view the peoples of Africa as a single population. The African people belong to a variety of population groups and
have many diverse cultural backgrounds. The terms black and black African are often used to describe people descended from the original inhabitants of
the continent, whose ancestors have lived for centuries in west and sub-Saharan Africa. Today, however, many experts view such terms as inappropriate
labels that apply inaccurate concepts of race to a large, ethnically diverse population. Most Africans prefer to be recognized as citizens of a particular nation
or as members of a particular ethnic group rather than simply as Africans. In the north, for example, most of the people are Arabs.
Sub-Saharan Africans include the oldest, most genetically diverse human populations in the world. The peoples of sub-Saharan Africa have rich and varied
cultures and ancestry. There are hundreds of ethnic groups. Some of the largest include the Igbo and Yoruba of west and central Africa, the Kikuyu of
eastern Africa, and the Zulu of southern Africa. The members of various ethnic groups are linked by a shared history, culture, language, religion, artistic
traditions, and way of life. However, migration, intermarriage, colonization, and other factors throughout history have complicated the patterns of physical
and cultural diversity in this enormous region.
Pygmies are an African population that includes the Aka, Mbuti, Efe, Twa, and other ethnic groups who inhabit the tropical forests of the Congo River Basin
in central Africa. The term Pygmy comes from an ancient Greek word and refers to the characteristic short stature of these people. Today, many people
consider this name insulting. Traditionally, these people have lived by hunting animals and gathering plant foods in the forest and by trading with nearby
agricultural groups.
The Khoikhoi and San are among the most ancient cultures in the world. The San and various Khoikhoi groups once lived throughout much of the southern
and eastern parts of Africa. The two groups speak related languages characterized by clicking sounds. Today, the only remaining Khoikhoi populations are
the Nama people who live in Namibia and a smaller population in Botswana and South Africa. The San live mainly in the Kalahari Desert of Botswana and
Namibia and also in parts of South Africa and Angola.
Most of Africa’s millions of Arabs live in Egypt, in northern Sudan, and along the Mediterranean coast. The first Arabs settled in northern Africa during the
600's.
Berbers have lived in the northwestern part of Africa since prehistoric times. The term Berber comes from a Greek word meaning foreigner or non-Greek
speaker. Today, most Berbers and many experts prefer the term Amazigh instead of Berber (or the plural, Imazighen). The language they speak is called
Tamazight. The Berbers live throughout much of northern Africa and the Sahara, mainly in Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Mali, and
Niger.
Europeans began to settle in Africa during the 1600's. Most of the continent’s people of European ancestry are of British, Dutch, or French descent. The
majority live along the Mediterranean coast, in the Republic of South Africa, in Zimbabwe, and in parts of east Africa.
Many people of Asian ancestry live in southern and eastern Africa. Most of them are descendants of people who came to Africa from India during the
1800's. Large numbers of people of Asian ancestry also live in Madagascar, an island country southeast of the African mainland. Their ancestors began to
migrate to Madagascar from Indonesia about 2,000 years ago.
Languages. Most African ethnic groups have their own language or dialect. In some cases, members of different groups speak the same language. The
peoples of Africa speak more than 1,000 languages. As a result, communication among Africans is difficult at times. But certain languages, such as Arabic,
Swahili (also called Kiswahili), and Hausa, are widely spoken. In addition to their own language, millions of Africans speak one or more other languages,
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which they use when traveling or conducting business and government affairs. The languages spoken in Africa can be classified into six broad families:
(1) Niger-Congo, (2) Nilo-Saharan, (3) Khoisan, (4) Afro-Asian, (5) Indo-European, and (6) Malayo-Polynesian. The first three families, known as
indigenous African languages, originated in Africa and are limited to the continent.
Languages. Most African ethnic groups have their own language or dialect. In some cases, members of different groups speak the same language. The
peoples of Africa speak more than 1,000 languages. As a result, communication among Africans is difficult at times. But certain languages, such as Arabic,
Swahili (also called Kiswahili), and Hausa, are widely spoken. In addition to their own language, millions of Africans speak one or more other languages,
which they use when traveling or conducting business and government affairs. The languages spoken in Africa can be classified into six broad families: (1)
Niger-Congo, (2) Nilo-Saharan, (3) Khoisan, (4) Afro-Asian, (5) Indo-European, and (6) Malayo-Polynesian. The first three families, known as indigenous
African languages, originated in Africa and are limited to the continent.
Niger-Congo languages make up the largest of the
African language families and are spoken throughout subSaharan Africa. This family includes about 300 Bantu
languages spoken in central, eastern, and southern Africa.
The term Bantu refers to both the languages and the
groups of people who speak them. Swahili is the most
widely spoken Bantu language. Other important Bantu
languages are Ganda (Luganda), Kikuyu (Kikikuyu or
Gigikuyu), Kongo (Kikongo), Rundi (Kirundi), Sesotho, and
Zulu (isiZulu). The Niger-Congo family also includes many
non-Bantu languages spoken mainly in western and central
Africa. These languages include Akan; Igbo, or Ibo; and
Yoruba.
Nilo-Saharan languages are used by people who live in
parts of Chad, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Sudan, Tanzania, and
Uganda. Major languages in this family include Bari, Dinka,
Kalenjin, Kanuri, and Maasai.
Khoisan languages are sometimes called click languages
because many words are expressed with unusual click
sounds. These languages are unrelated to any other African
language. The San and Khoikhoi of southwestern Africa
speak Khoisan languages. Two small ethnic groups in
Tanzania, the Hatza (also spelled Hadza) and Sandawe, also
speak these languages.
Afro-Asian languages are spoken throughout the
northern half of Africa. The Afro-Asian language family
includes Arabic and Berber (also called Tamazight), the two
major languages of northernmost Africa. More Africans
speak Arabic than any other single language. Other AfroAsian languages include Amharic, Oromo, Hausa, and
Somali.
Indo-European languages. A large number of educated
Africans speak English, French, or Portuguese in addition to
their local language. The use of these European languages remains as a reflection of colonial rule in many African nations. English, French, or Portuguese
serves as the official language in many countries and helps unify the people. European languages are also important for communication in international
business and government affairs. Two Indo-European languages—Afrikaans and English—are widely spoken in southern Africa. The Afrikaans language
developed from the speech of early Dutch settlers in southern Africa. Many of the people of Asian descent who live in southern and eastern Africa speak
various Indian languages. Most of them also know English.
Malayo-Polynesian languages. The people of Madagascar speak Malagasy, a language of the Malayo-Polynesian family. Their ancestors arrived in
Madagascar from southeast Asia around 2,000 years ago. This language family is not found among the ethnic groups of mainland Africa.
Religions. Millions of Africans practice local traditional religions. There are hundreds of African traditional religions because each ethnic group has its own
set of beliefs and practices. In general, however, local religions have many features in common. They explain how the universe was created and teach what
is right and wrong. They define relationships between human beings and nature and between the young and the old. They give the reasons for human
suffering and instruct people in how to live a good life and in how to avoid or lessen misfortune.
African traditional religions all recognize the existence of a supreme god. However, most of the African traditional religions emphasize that people should
seek help by appealing to lesser gods or to the spirits of dead ancestors. People pray or offer sacrifices to the gods or the spirits to gain such things as
good health or fertile land. Many religions conduct ceremonies to celebrate a person's passage from childhood to adulthood.
The more complex African religions include those of certain peoples of western Africa, such as the Dogon of Mali, the Yoruba of Nigeria, and the Ashanti of
Ghana. The religions of these peoples include elaborate sets of beliefs about a supreme being and a pantheon of lesser gods. Women as well as men hold
important religious positions in western Africa.
Millions of Africans are Muslims. Their religion, Islam, is the state religion in the countries of northern Africa. Islam is also a strong force in many
neighboring nations, such as Chad and Mali. In addition, large Muslim populations have great influence in such countries as Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan,
Nigeria, and Tanzania.
Millions of other Africans are Christians. Most of them belong to the Roman Catholic Church or to various Protestant churches. The Ethiopian Orthodox
Church is the largest church of Ethiopia. In Egypt, a few million people belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church. A growing number of Africans belong to
syncretic African churches. These churches combine Christian or Islamic beliefs with traditional African practices.
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Transportation. The transportation system is poorly developed in many African countries. Only about one-quarter of Africa’s roads are paved. More than
a third of the total roads are in Congo (Kinshasa), Nigeria, and South Africa. Automobile ownership is limited to the middle and upper classes in most
nations. The vast majority of Africans depend on public transportation, such as buses, minivans, and taxis. Many people rely on bicycles or walking. In
some parts of Africa, camels and donkeys are still widely used to transport goods.
Major railroads are concentrated in only a few countries, chiefly Algeria, Congo (Kinshasa), Egypt, South Africa, Sudan, and Tanzania. Africa’s air
transportation industry is well developed mainly in Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, and South Africa, though all African countries have large
airports. The African coasts have few good natural harbors. But, almost every coastal country has at least one harbor, and engineers are working to equip
them with modern shipping facilities. Many harbors have been constructed along Africa’s extensive rivers and lakes.
International trade. Africa’s leading merchandise exporters are Algeria, Angola, Nigeria, and South Africa. Petroleum ranks as Africa’s major merchandise
export. Other important exports include agricultural products, minerals, and manufactured products.
Africa’s merchandise imports have also grown since the 1980’s. However, only three countries—Egypt, Nigeria, and South Africa—collectively account for
about one-third of Africa’s total imports. Food imports are increasingly important as agricultural output has failed to keep up with population growth in
many countries. Other key imports include fuel and manufactured goods.
Terms of trade refers to the relationship between the prices of imports and those of exports. Declining terms of trade occur when import prices rise faster
than export prices. Rising terms of trade occur when export prices grow faster. Africa’s terms of trade have tended to decline since the 1970’s because
Africa’s exports consist of mainly agricultural products and minerals that are subject to frequent price fluctuations. Many African countries are also
economically vulnerable because they depend on one or two major exports. As a result, African nations have been active in international efforts to control
price changes and improve trade terms. For example, the African oil-producing countries belong to the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC), a group of nations that seeks to regulate the world market for oil.
Ways of life in sub-Saharan Africa
In general, sub-Saharan Africans follow their traditional ways and observe the customs of their ancestors. Most Africans live in rural areas and make a
living by farming the land.
Mineral wealth has brought greater economic development to parts of southern Africa than to any other section of the continent. But much of the wealth
from mineral production is held by people of European ancestry, who form a politically and economically powerful minority in parts of southern Africa.
This section mainly describes the ways of life among Africans living south of the Sahara. For additional information, see the separate country articles.
Rural life. About 65 percent of all sub-Saharan Africans live in rural areas, chiefly in villages. Villages vary considerably in size and population. Whatever
its size, each village is a closely knit community of families usually belonging to the same ethnic group and often related through either birth or marriage.
Among some ethnic groups, kings and chiefs command great respect, though they may have limited political power. In most cases, the position of king or
chief is inherited and serves as a means to link villages of the same ethnic group. Among other ethnic groups, village elders may handle matters of local
concern.
Many villages are simply a cluster of houses, surrounded by farmland. Larger settlements may have a schoolhouse, a few shops, and perhaps such facilities
as a medical dispensary or a courthouse. Most villages also have a central square. The people gather in the central square for visiting, entertainment, and
ceremonies.
Rural housing varies from village to village, depending on climate, lifestyle, and tradition. Many Africans live in houses built of sun-dried mud with roofs of
straw, grass, or leaves. As villagers become wealthy, they may construct houses of concrete blocks with sheet-metal roofs. Almost all villages have
dwellings of this type. In parts of western Africa, some houses are covered with clay and decorated with sculptured designs. The houses of African Muslims
may be built around a large courtyard so that the women can go about their tasks without being seen by people outside the family. This custom follows the
traditions of Islam.
In many villages, the way of life has changed little over the years. Most of the people farm the land and raise some livestock. Modern industrial methods of
agriculture are used in parts of South Africa, Kenya, and Zimbabwe and in some countries of western Africa, such as Cote d'Ivoire. But the majority of
farmers of sub-Saharan Africa use simple hand tools to work the land.
The soil is thin and poor in much of Africa. The people have thus traditionally practiced an agricultural technique called shifting cultivation. A farm
community clears the land of trees and bushes and plants crops for several years, until the land wears out. The community then moves to a new location.
The abandoned land eventually returns to grass or forest and can be farmed again. Shifting cultivation is still common in certain areas. But in heavily
populated regions, resettlement is not possible. As a result, the farmers continue to work land that becomes poorer and poorer.
Most farm families grow food crops for their own use. In the grasslands of eastern and southern Africa, food crops include peanuts and such grains as corn,
millet, and sorghum. In wetter areas, food crops include bananas, cassava, plantains, rice, and yams.
Farmers also grow various cash crops, including coffee; cacao, or cocoa beans; cotton; coconuts; and fruits. The farmers sell their cash crops for money to
buy manufactured goods, canned goods, clothing, kerosene, lamps, and batteries. The farmers may also use the money from their cash crops to pay taxes
as well as medical expenses and school fees.
In addition to growing crops, almost all farmers raise chickens. Many keep goats and sheep. Farmers may also sell livestock or food crops for needed
money.
A typical farm family has several widely scattered plots outside the village. Each plot is planted with a different crop. Families may also rent their land or
farm on land that is owned by village elders and chiefs. Some farmers also work part-time on large estates or plantations that produce cash crops. Both
men and women work long hours at farming to make a living.
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Rural women also spend much time doing such chores as collecting firewood, grinding grain, and obtaining water. In many villages, however, the
introduction of such simple machines as water pumps and small hand- or machine-driven flour mills has given women more time to do other things. In
most villages, everyone takes part in such major tasks as clearing new land and building new houses. The people work together on such tasks, while
sharing food and drink and socializing.
Some African farmers—for example, those who live along the Nile River—irrigate their crops. But most farmers depend on seasonal rains. Work and other
activities therefore follow a seasonal schedule. During the rainy season, farm families work long, hard days planting and tending their crops. Food may be
in short supply at that time of year. During the dry season, after the crops have been harvested, food is more plentiful. The people also have more leisure
time. They spend the extra hours repairing tools and houses, visiting with friends and relatives, and trading their crops for other goods. In western Africa,
women have traditionally controlled trade activities. Some women have become wealthy as a result of their trading skill. In other areas of Africa, trade
matters are handled either by men or women.
Community ceremonies, which are often held in the village square, are an important part of rural African life. They mark such occasions as the first rains of
the growing season, the planting of crops, and harvesttime. Entire communities, as well as people from neighboring villages, may gather for ceremonies
related to births, marriages, funerals, the curing of the sick, and the passage of children into adulthood. These community gatherings strengthen family ties
and religious beliefs.
In many parts of rural Africa, young men leave their villages and work at least a few years as migrant laborers. They travel to cities and towns in hope of
earning enough money to get married, to open a small business, or to go to school. In parts of central and southern Africa, many men work temporarily as
miners. The women left behind in the villages must do much of the farm work themselves.
Nomadic herding is a way of life for people in parts of Africa, particularly in dry areas near the Sahara and in the highland regions of eastern Africa. Such
nomadic peoples as the Dinka, Fulani, Maasai, Toubou, Tuareg, and Turkana follow well-established routes to find grazing land for their herds of cattle,
sheep, goats, or, in some cases, camels. Among some groups, including the Dinka, Maasai, and Nuer, cattle herding is an ancient and proud tradition. For
these people, cattle are a measure of a person's wealth and social position as well as a major source of food and other necessities.
The nomadic herders depend mainly on their livestock for food. They also trade meat and milk for grain from neighboring farming groups. The men and
boys tend the herds, and the women care for the household. Some nomadic groups, such as the Maasai of eastern Africa, build huge corrals for their
livestock. Within the corrals, the people construct igloo-shaped houses of brush, mud, and dried manure. Other nomads live in tents made of animal skins.
City life. City dwellers make up only about 35 percent of sub-Saharan Africa's total population. But the percentage is much higher in some countries, such
as Angola, Congo (Brazzaville), Djibouti, Gabon, Liberia, and South Africa. Throughout Africa, more and more rural people are moving to the cities to seek
work. Cities in sub-Saharan Africa with populations of more than a million include Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Cape Town, South Africa; Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania; Johannesburg, South Africa; Kinshasa, Congo (Kinshasa); Lagos, Nigeria; and Nairobi, Kenya.
In most cities of sub-Saharan Africa, the architecture reflects both traditional and modern styles. The newer sections of many cities have parks, hotels, tall
office and apartment buildings, and large stores. Many older neighborhoods have houses and shops crowded along narrow streets. Open-air markets,
where people buy food, clothing, and a variety of other goods, are common in many cities.
Like city people in northern Africa, most city dwellers in sub-Saharan Africa have a higher standard of living than rural people. The cities provide better
schools and medical facilities than the countryside. For people with skills, the cities may offer well-paying job opportunities in government, business,
industry, and other fields.
City lifestyles vary widely. Some people are wealthy and live in luxury apartments or large, modern houses. Most people, however, live in unplanned
neighborhoods of small, one-story houses. Many houses are built of wood or concrete blocks with corrugated iron roofs.
Like cities in the north, most cities of sub-Saharan Africa face serious problems. The sharp increase in city populations has made it difficult for governments
to provide enough housing and efficient public transportation. The water supply, sewerage, and electrical systems are overloaded. Many cities also have a
large number of unemployed workers.