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Transcript
Superpower relations and the Cold War 1943- 91 Early tension between the East and the West The Grand Alliance (1941- 45) Made up of Britain, the USA and USSR only formed to defeat Hitler. With Hitler gone, their disputes and disagreements at conferences made it crumble. The USSR believed in communism and the West believed in democracy, this weakened the Grand Alliance. Differences between the superpowers America Russia 1. The richest country in the world. 1. The biggest country in the world. 2. A democracy with free elections, led by an elected president. 2. A one-party state led by a dictator. There were elections, but you could only vote for the Communist Party. 3. Freedom of speech and belief. 3. State control: censorship, secret police, terror and purges. 4. Capitalism – companies could be owned by people who had the right to make money. It was believed that people would work harder because they could keep the profits they made. 4. Communism – the state (Government) owned all industry and companies. Individuals were not allowed to and all profit went to the Government to be spent on all the people (this was the idea). 5. Led by Truman, who believed that Communism was evil and that the USSR was trying to spread it around the world 5. Led by Stalin, who believed that capitalism was evil. 6. Had the atomic bomb- but was scared of Russia's army – it could invade Europe 6. Had the biggest army in the world - but no nuclear weapons 7. Wanted reconstruction - to make Germany a prosperous democracy and a trading partner. 7. Wanted to wreck Germany, take huge reparations for the damage done during the war, and set up a buffer of friendly states around Russia to prevent another invasion in the future. The Tehran Conference (1943) Here the Big Three: Roosevelt - USA, Churchill – Great Britain, Stalin - USSR. • Discussed what to do when Hitler was defeated. They agreed on a Soviet 'sphere of influence' in Eastern Europe and a capitalist one in Western Europe. They could not agree on what to do with Germany. The Yalta Conference ( Feb 1945) The Big Three agreed Poland would be communist That the USSR would help the war against Japan And that the United Nations would be set up. They disagreed over Germany - especially about whether or not it should pay reparations (compensation for the damage done in the war). Stalin wanted to treat Germany harshly; Britain and the USA wanted to allow it to rebuild (otherwise they feared poverty would make people turn to Communism). The Potsdam Conference (July 1945) Truman had replaced Roosevelt (USA) who had died, and Attlee had replaced Churchill (UK) The USA had also successfully tested the atomic bomb by this point, causing further mistrust with the USSR. It was agreed to ban the Nazi Party and punish surviving Nazis as war criminals. It was agreed to divide Germany into four zones run by the USSR, Britain, the USA, and France. Berlin would also be divided in this way also. The Long and Novikov Telegrams (1946) The Long Telegram from the American ambassador in Moscow warning that Stalin could not be trusted and was building up the Soviet army and wanted to destroy capitalism The Novikov Telegram from the Soviet ambassador warned that the USA wanted to dominate the world and did not want to cooperate with the USSR Satellite states To stop the spread of American influence and to protect the USSR and make sure friendly countries were on his border Stalin increased Soviet control over countries like Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland. The Soviet army was already in these countries at the end of the war and so when ‘elections’ were held the Soviets could scare people into voting for Communists and could control newspapers or put anti-Communists into prison. They became satellite states supposedly independent, but really controlled by the USSR. Test yourself: Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Soviet takeover of the satellite states in the period 1944-48. You may use the following in your answer: (8) Yalta conference Elections were held The development of the Cold War The Truman Doctrine (1947) (USA action) US President Truman worried that communism would spread in Europe, so his doctrine said the USA would use military and economic means to stop it from spreading and would contain it. This is the policy of containment The Marshall Plan (1947) (USA action) The Marshall Plan aimed to reduce poverty to stop the spread of communism. It was putting the Truman Doctrine into action The USA offered $13 billion to rebuild Europe. Britain, France and 14 other nations took the help offered. Communist countries in Eastern Europe were also offered this help in an attempt to encourage them to become capitalist, but they were unable to accept it – the USSR would not let them. Cominform (1947) (USSR action) Cominform is the Communist Information Bureau. It was an organisation which represented communist parties all over Europe. It was used to ensure all Eastern European governments remained loyal to Stalin and his Communist rule. Comecon (1949) (USSR action) Comecon is the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. It was a rival to the Marshall Plan. It encouraged trade and industry in Eastern Europe and discouraged trade with the West. Bizonia and Trizonia The US and British zones in Germany became one zone called Bizonia. In 1948, the French zone joined and it became Trizonia. They wanted to make this part of Germany into a democratic, capitalist state, but Stalin was not consulted about the changes = more tension The Berlin Blockade (1948 - 49) Berlin was in the Soviet part of Germany. Like the rest of Germany it was divided into zones and so Berlin had the Soviet Union in one part and the British, French and Americans in other parts of the city. There were roads and railways used to supply the British, French and American parts of the city with supplies Stalin was angry that Trizonia was created without any discussion with him. There had also been a new currency introduced to Trizonia – Western Germany was being built up. To try to force the Western nations out of Berlin, The USSR it cut off all supply routes over land from the west. The Berlin Airlift (1948 - 49) This was the Western allies reaction to the Berlin Blockade. They flew in supplies to their area of Berlin. E.g. in January 1949 alone they flew in 170 000 tonnes of supplies In the end it was clear to Stalin that the Western allies would not stop delivering supplies by air, and so he had to stop his blockade. Test yourself: Explain the importance of the Berlin Blockade for the relations between the USA and the Soviet Union (8) Divided Germany (1949) (A result of the Blockade) Germany was formally divided in two. In September, Western Germany became the Federal Republic of Germany. In October, Eastern Germany became the German Democratic Republic. NATO - the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (1949) This was set up in 1949, as a consequence of the Berlin blockade and airlift where tensions had been very high and war seemed close. It was made up of the USA and its allies. E.g Britain, France, USA, Its members promised to defend each other if attacked. If one is attacked it is as if they are all attacked. The Cold War Intensifies The Warsaw Pact (1955) The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet response to the creation of NATO. It was a communist version, where the USSR and the satellite states promised to defend each other if attacked. Members included Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria The creation of the Warsaw Pact now meant that Europe was divided militarily into two alliances. The Arms Race 1945 -9 USA was the only country to possess atomic weapons. 1949 USSR successfully tested an atomic bomb. 1952 USA detonated its first hydrogen bomb 1953 USSR tested its own hydrogen bomb. Arms race is significant as it prevented a war in Europe. Neither country wanted to risk a nuclear war. Crisis in Hungary (1956) Hungarian uprising – background Khrushchev became Soviet leader after Stalin died in 1953. His ‘Secret Speech’ promised to change Stalin’s policy and relax control of satellite states. This gave some people in countries like Hungary hope that harsh rule would end. Following Khrushchev's secret speech there had been riots in Hungary demanding change. The USSR agreed to remove Rakosi (the brutal leader of Hungary)and put Nagy in charge Nagy upset the USSR by attempting to make changes (reforms) such as leaving the Warsaw Pact and allowing free elections in Hungary. The USA offered $20 million of aid to Nagy's government to encourage him. The Hungarian Uprising (1956) what happened and consequences Khrushchev worried Nagy's reforms would be copied by other satellite states who would try to leave the Warsaw Pact. The USSR sent 200,000 Soviet troops into Hungary to regain control. The USA disapproved, but sent no military aid fearing it might spark a much bigger war with the USSR. 20,000 Hungarians died in the Soviet takeover, and many fled over the border to Austria. Nagy was found guilty of treason and hanged to set an example to other leaders of Warsaw Pact states Test yourself: Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Hungarian Uprising (1956) (8) Cold War Crises 1958-1970 Berlin Berlin Refugees (1949- 61) Almost 3 million East Germans fled to West Germany between 1949 - 61. Most went from East to West Berlin. One reason was that the East German government was very unpopular, and there was a feared secret police, the Stasi. Another reason people left was because living standards were higher in West Germany as it had benefitted from Marshall Aid, so some went for greater freedom and wealth. Berlin Crisis and Khrushchev’s ultimatum (1958) It embarrassed the communist East that refugees preferred the West as it made it seem like capitalism was better. Another major problem was that lots of the people leaving were skilled workers so the East German economy was suffering as there were shortages to fill these jobs. As a result of this problem, Khrushchev said that all Berlin belonged to East Germany. To humiliate the Western powers he gave their troops 6 months to leave Berlin. The 3 Summits (1959) Khrushchev and President Eisenhower agreed to discuss Berlin. Khrushchev withdrew his ultimatum. They met in Geneva and then again at Camp David in the USA. They met again in Paris in 1960, but could not agree what to do about Berlin. Before the Paris summit a US spy plane was shot down over the USSR. When Eisenhower refused to apologise for the incident, Khrushchev walked out and the talks ended. The 4th Summit (1960 - 61) Khrushchev met the new president, Kennedy, in Geneva. Hoping to take advantage of the new president's inexperience, Khrushchev again told the USA they had 6 months to leave Berlin. The USA refused to leave Berlin. In case of war, Kennedy put $3.2 billion more into military funds, and spent $270 million on nuclear fall out shelters. The Berlin Wall (1961) Khrushchev could not force US troops to leave Berlin, but he had to save face and also stop the movement of people from the East to the West. So, overnight on the 12 August 1961, East Germany sealed off West Berlin with barbed wire. This was gradually built into the Berlin Wall. Access was very restricted between East and West Berlin. The effects of this were that the refugee problem stopped (good for the Communist nations) BUT it appeared Communist states needed a wall to keep people in so this made them look bad. The wall became the visual symbol of the division between the East (Communist) and the West (Capitalist). In 1963 President Kennedy visited the Berlin Wall. Thousands came to see him – like a rock star. He made his speech (‘I am a citizen of Berlin’) – he declared the city was at the centre of the struggle between freedom and Communist world. Test yourself: Explain two consequences of the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 (8) Cuba (1959-1961) The Cuban Revolution (1959) Cuba was an ally (friend) of the USA, being only 90 miles off the coast of Florida. During the Cuban revolution the Pro-American government was overthrown and dictator, Castro took over. His rule made Cuba more independent e.g. all foreign owned land was taken over. The USA was not happy with this, and so stopped buying Cuban sugar. This was a big problem for the economy of Cuba and so to make a new ally, the USSR started to buy Cuban sugar. The Bay of Pigs (1961) The CIA had convinced Kennedy that the USA could overthrow Castro and replace him with a leader who was friendly with America. In 1961 some CIA trained Cuban refugees who had fled during Castro's revolution, invaded Cuba (at the Bay of Pigs) in an attempt to overthrow Castro. The invasion was a disaster; it failed to overthrow Castro, and US involvement became obvious. It was a huge embarrassment for Kennedy. Castro had known about the plan and had 20 000 troops waiting for the 1400 invaders The Americans had hoped that the Cuban people would come out in support of the invaders – but they didn’t = they liked Castro. The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) After the Bay of Pigs, Castro was understandably worried about the US threat. He asked the USSR to help him defend Cuba. The USSR started building missile bases on Cuba, and 114 ships began carrying missiles to the island. This would put the USA within the range of Soviet missiles for the first time, and give the USSR an advantage in the arms race. Tension was extremely high, US and Soviet forces were both preparing to go to war. The Naval Blockade and War Avoided (1962) Kennedy ordered the US navy to start a naval blockade around Cuba to stop Soviet ships docking there. At the last minute, Khrushchev ordered the Soviet ships to turn back. Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed that the USA would not invade Cuba, the USSR would not base missiles there, and the USA would withdraw its missiles from Turkey (though that was kept secret). Cuban Missile Crisis - Results (1963) They agreed to a policy of building better relations. They set up the 'hotline' between Washington and Moscow to improve communication. They also agreed to limit further nuclear testing in the Limited Test Ban Treaty of August 1963. Outer Space Treaty (1967) = Created to stop arms race spreading to outer space. Terms: Stopped the USA and USSR from being able to store or use any nuclear weapons in space. Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty (1968) = Terms: Neither USA or USSR would supply nuclear weapons to other states, nor help them develop - Stopped superpower conflict engulfing other areas of the world. Test yourself: Explain the importance of the Bay of Pigs invasion for relations between the USA and the Soviet Union (8) Explain two consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Czech crisis and the Prague Spring (1968) The Prague Spring- Causes and Events (1965-8) Alexander Dubcek, the popular secretary of the Czech Communist Party had become leader of Czechoslovakia in 1968. He made reforms allowing freedom of speech, allow other political parties, people to travel abroad etc.. Dubcek made it clear that he wanted Czechoslovakia to remain communist, but that he wanted to create 'socialism with a human face' To try and reassure Brezhnev (Soviet leader), Dubcek said he wouldn't leave the Warsaw pact. (8) The Prague Spring- Events (August 1968) Brezhnev repeatedly warned Dubcek about his actions, saying that his reforms were going too far, but Dubcek wouldn't take the hint. Czechoslovakia was invaded by 400 000 Warsaw Pact troops. Dubcek told the Czech people not to fight the invading troops – this showed the world that the Soviets were aggressive. Dubcek was arrested and taken to Moscow. He was forced to sign the Moscow Protocol which meant his reforms would be reversed in Czechoslovakia. He was replaced by Husak – who was loyal to the Soviet Union Prague Spring - consequences America condemned the invasion but offered NO support (fighting in Vietnam at the time) Western Governments condemned the invasion but that was all Some Communist powers were not happy over the way the Czech’s were treated e.g. Romania. ALSO there was the Brezhnev Doctrine……. The Brezhnev Doctrine (1968) Dubcek's reforms were not just a problem in Czechoslovakia. Brezhnev worried that they would spread to other satellite states. The Doctrine said that the USSR would invade any satellite state that threatened the security of the Eastern bloc. Test yourself: Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Prague Spring (1968) You may use the following in your answer: (8) Alexander Dubcek Soviet control Détente (easing in tension) in the 1970’s Salt I (1972) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. Imposed limits on nuclear capability of the USA and USSR (amount of nuclear arms they could have) No further production of Strategic Ballistic Missiles (these were missiles which would shoot down the enemy’s incoming missiles) Submarines carrying nuclear weapons (SLBM) would only be introduced when existing stocks of intercontinental (missiles which could be fired between continents) missiles became obsolete. This was the first agreement between superpowers that limited amount of nuclear weapons used. Negotiations started for SALT2 (to build on SALT1) but relations worsened and so it never happened. Helsinki Conference (1975) Recognised Soviet control over Eastern Europe, concluded a trade agreement, and USSR promised to respect human rights. This help to limit the possibility of superpower conflict and helped to create a more stable relationship between the USA and USSR. Also helped stabilise the situation in Europe, agreeing on greater co-operation between superpowers and their European allies. Apollo- Soyuz Mission (1975) A joint space mission, the US Apollo and USSR Soyuz spacecraft was docked in space. Marked the beginning of USA and USSR cooperation in space Test yourself: Explain the importance of the SALT agreements for superpower relations (8) Afghanistan Background A pro-Soviet government overthrew the Royal Afghan Royal Family (1978) This new Government was overthrown in 1979 by a leader who was looking to the USA for support The USSR did not want this to happen and so in December 1979 they sent in troops and replaced the leader of Afghanistan (Amin) with the pro-Soviet Kamal Amin was murdered and the Soviets spent the next ten years in Afghanistan. This was the end of Détente. The Americans believed that the Soviets were attempting to spread communism abroad. Consequences This was the start of the Second Cold War and the end of Detente Carter Doctrine - President Carter of America said that the USA would use force to stop the Soviet Union spreading their influence in the Persian Gulf (where the USA got most of its oil from) Boycott of the Moscow Olympic games (1980) = The USA boycotted the Moscow Olympics. countries took part in this Boycott. The USA placed sanctions on the USSR In 1980, Ronald Reagan became president of the USA. He called the Soviet Union the "evil empire" and increased spending on arms. • The US military developed the neutron bomb, cruise missiles and was working on a Star Wars defence system (SDI) using space satellites to shoot attacking missiles out of the sky. Military spending went up by over 20% in the mid 1980’s USSR and other Communist states boycotted the Los Angeles Olympic Games (1984) The war cost the Soviet Union $8 billion per year and cost thousands of lives (1.5million Afghans) Test yourself: Explain the importance of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan for relations between the USA and the Soviet Union (8) Explain two consequences of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (8) Gorbachev and the ‘New Thinking’ Gorbachev Became Leader of the Soviet Union (1985) The Soviest Union was in trouble. In Afghanistan and with its own economy – it could not compete with USA spending on armaments (e.g. on Star Wars). He knew changes needed to be made to the USSR. Chernobyl Crisis (1986) - when the nuclear power plant in the Ukraine exploded was evidence of the fact Communism needed to reform (change and adapt). Gorbachev’s Changes He withdrew from Afghanistan. He realised that the USSR could not afford the arms race, and opened the START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) with the USA. He signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty = removed all medium range nuclear missiles from Europe USSR Economy was changed = it was made more capitalist. A policy of Perestroika (reconstruction) People had more freedom and were allowed to criticise the communist party. A policy of Glasnost (openness) The Brezhnev Doctrine was dropped There were a number of summits between Gorbachev and Reagan (and later Bush) e.g. Washington in 1987 when the INF Treaty was signed. Malta in 1989 which marked the end of the Cold War The end of the Warsaw Pact A relaxation by the Soviet government encouraged revolutions in Eastern Europe, the USSR did not have the means or the will to impose military control. The people in Eastern Europe knew that unlike in 1956 and 1968, if they went against their Communist government’s now, the USSR would not do anything. Demonstrators came out on the streets throughout Eastern Europe and forced change. September 1989: Poland, communist government defeated in free elections. October: Hungary, first free elections are held. November: Germany, Berlin wall falls. ‘Revolutions’ in other Eastern European countries quickly followed The Soviet Union Dissolved (1991) An attempt to overthrow Gorbachev by a ‘Gang of Eight’, senior communists failed, but Gorbachev was seen as very weak Different nationalities within the Soviet Union copied what the Eastern European nations had done and demanded independence from the Soviet Union e.g. Estonia, Lativa…. In December 1991 Gorbachev announced the dissolution (end) of the USSR and resigned. Test yourself: Explain the importance of Gorbachev’s ‘new thinking’ for the Soviet control of Eastern Europe (8)