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Superpower relations and the Cold War 1943- 91
Early tension between the East and the West
The Grand Alliance (1941- 45)
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Made up of Britain, the USA and USSR only formed to defeat Hitler.
With Hitler gone, their disputes and disagreements at conferences made it crumble.
The USSR believed in communism and the West believed in democracy, this
weakened the Grand Alliance.
Differences between the superpowers
America
Russia
1. The richest country in the world.
1. The biggest country in the world.
2. A democracy with free elections, led by an
elected president.
2. A one-party state led by a dictator. There
were elections, but you could only vote for the
Communist Party.
3. Freedom of speech and belief.
3. State control: censorship, secret police, terror
and purges.
4. Capitalism – companies could be owned by
people who had the right to make money. It
was believed that people would work harder
because they could keep the profits they
made.
4. Communism – the state (Government) owned
all industry and companies. Individuals were not
allowed to and all profit went to the
Government to be spent on all the people (this
was the idea).
5. Led by Truman, who believed that
Communism was evil and that the USSR was
trying to spread it around the world
5. Led by Stalin, who believed that capitalism
was evil.
6. Had the atomic bomb- but was scared of
Russia's army – it could invade Europe
6. Had the biggest army in the world - but no
nuclear weapons
7. Wanted reconstruction - to make Germany
a prosperous democracy and a trading
partner.
7. Wanted to wreck Germany, take huge
reparations for the damage done during the
war, and set up a buffer of friendly states around
Russia to prevent another invasion in the future.
The Tehran Conference (1943)
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Here the Big Three: Roosevelt - USA, Churchill – Great Britain, Stalin - USSR. •
Discussed what to do when Hitler was defeated.
They agreed on a Soviet 'sphere of influence' in Eastern Europe and a capitalist one
in Western Europe.
They could not agree on what to do with Germany.
The Yalta Conference ( Feb 1945)
The Big Three agreed
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Poland would be communist
That the USSR would help the war against Japan
And that the United Nations would be set up.
They disagreed over Germany - especially about whether or not it should pay reparations
(compensation for the damage done in the war). Stalin wanted to treat Germany harshly;
Britain and the USA wanted to allow it to rebuild (otherwise they feared poverty would
make people turn to Communism).
The Potsdam Conference (July 1945)
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Truman had replaced Roosevelt (USA) who had died, and Attlee had replaced
Churchill (UK)
The USA had also successfully tested the atomic bomb by this point, causing further
mistrust with the USSR.
It was agreed to ban the Nazi Party and punish surviving Nazis as war criminals.
It was agreed to divide Germany into four zones run by the USSR, Britain, the USA,
and France. Berlin would also be divided in this way also.
The Long and Novikov Telegrams (1946)
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The Long Telegram from the American ambassador in Moscow warning that Stalin
could not be trusted and was building up the Soviet army and wanted to destroy
capitalism
The Novikov Telegram from the Soviet ambassador warned that the USA wanted to
dominate the world and did not want to cooperate with the USSR
Satellite states
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To stop the spread of American influence and to protect the USSR and make sure
friendly countries were on his border
Stalin increased Soviet control over countries like Czechoslovakia, Hungary and
Poland.
The Soviet army was already in these
countries at the end of the war and so
when ‘elections’ were held the Soviets
could scare people into voting for
Communists and could control
newspapers or put anti-Communists
into prison.
They became satellite states supposedly independent, but really
controlled by the USSR.
Test yourself:
Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Soviet takeover of the satellite states in
the period 1944-48. You may use the following in your answer:
(8)
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Yalta conference
Elections were held
The development of the Cold War
The Truman Doctrine (1947) (USA action)
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US President Truman worried that communism would spread in Europe, so his
doctrine said the USA would use military and economic means to stop it from
spreading and would contain it.
This is the policy of containment
The Marshall Plan (1947) (USA action)
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The Marshall Plan aimed to reduce poverty to stop the spread of communism. It was
putting the Truman Doctrine into action
The USA offered $13 billion to rebuild Europe. Britain, France and 14 other nations
took the help offered.
Communist countries in Eastern Europe were also offered this help in an attempt to
encourage them to become capitalist, but they were unable to accept it – the USSR
would not let them.
Cominform (1947) (USSR action)
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Cominform is the Communist Information Bureau.
It was an organisation which represented communist parties all over Europe.
It was used to ensure all Eastern European governments remained loyal to Stalin and
his Communist rule.
Comecon (1949) (USSR action)
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Comecon is the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.
It was a rival to the Marshall Plan.
It encouraged trade and industry in Eastern Europe and discouraged trade with the
West.
Bizonia and Trizonia
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The US and British zones in Germany
became one zone called Bizonia.
In 1948, the French zone joined and
it became Trizonia.
They wanted to make this part of
Germany into a democratic,
capitalist state, but Stalin was not
consulted about the changes = more
tension
The Berlin Blockade (1948 - 49)
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Berlin was in the Soviet part of Germany.
Like the rest of Germany it was divided into zones and so Berlin had the Soviet Union
in one part and the British, French and Americans in other parts of the city.
There were roads and railways used to supply the British, French and American
parts of the city with supplies
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Stalin was angry that Trizonia was created without any discussion with him. There
had also been a new currency introduced to Trizonia – Western Germany was being
built up.
To try to force the Western nations out of Berlin, The USSR it cut off all supply
routes over land from the west.
The Berlin Airlift (1948 - 49)
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This was the Western allies reaction to the Berlin
Blockade. They flew in supplies to their area of Berlin.
E.g. in January 1949 alone they flew in 170 000
tonnes of supplies
In the end it was clear to Stalin that the Western
allies would not stop delivering supplies by air, and so
he had to stop his blockade.
Test yourself:
Explain the importance of the Berlin Blockade for the relations between the
USA and the Soviet Union
(8)
Divided Germany (1949) (A result of the Blockade)
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Germany was formally divided in two.
In September, Western Germany became the Federal Republic of Germany.
In October, Eastern Germany became the German Democratic Republic.
NATO - the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (1949)
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This was set up in 1949, as a consequence of the Berlin blockade and airlift where
tensions had been very high and war seemed close.
It was made up of the USA and its allies. E.g Britain, France, USA,
Its members promised to defend each other if attacked. If one is attacked it is as if
they are all attacked.
The Cold War Intensifies
The Warsaw Pact (1955)
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The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet
response to the creation of NATO.
It was a communist version, where
the USSR and the satellite states
promised to defend each other if
attacked. Members included
Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria
The creation of the Warsaw Pact
now meant that Europe was
divided militarily into two alliances.
The Arms Race
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1945 -9 USA was the only country to possess atomic weapons.
1949 USSR successfully tested an atomic bomb.
1952 USA detonated its first hydrogen bomb
1953 USSR tested its own hydrogen bomb.
Arms race is significant as it prevented a war in Europe. Neither country wanted to
risk a nuclear war.
Crisis in Hungary (1956)
Hungarian uprising – background
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Khrushchev became Soviet leader after Stalin died in 1953.
His ‘Secret Speech’ promised to change Stalin’s policy and relax control of satellite
states.
This gave some people in countries like Hungary hope that harsh rule would end.
Following Khrushchev's secret speech there had been riots in Hungary demanding
change.
The USSR agreed to remove Rakosi (the brutal leader of Hungary)and put Nagy in
charge
Nagy upset the USSR by attempting to make changes (reforms) such as leaving the
Warsaw Pact and allowing free elections in Hungary.
The USA offered $20 million of aid to Nagy's government to encourage him.
The Hungarian Uprising (1956) what happened and consequences
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Khrushchev worried Nagy's reforms would be copied by other satellite states who
would try to leave the Warsaw Pact.
The USSR sent 200,000 Soviet troops into Hungary to regain control.
The USA disapproved, but sent no military aid fearing it might spark a much bigger
war with the USSR.
20,000 Hungarians died in the Soviet takeover, and many fled over the border to
Austria. Nagy was found guilty of treason and hanged to set an example to other
leaders of Warsaw Pact states
Test yourself:
Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Hungarian Uprising (1956)
(8)
Cold War Crises 1958-1970
Berlin
Berlin Refugees (1949- 61)
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Almost 3 million East Germans fled to West Germany between 1949 - 61.
Most went from East to West Berlin.
One reason was that the East German government was very unpopular, and there
was a feared secret police, the Stasi.
Another reason people left was because living standards were higher in West
Germany as it had benefitted from Marshall Aid, so some went for greater freedom
and wealth.
Berlin Crisis and Khrushchev’s ultimatum (1958)
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It embarrassed the communist East that refugees preferred the West as it made it
seem like capitalism was better.
Another major problem was that lots of the people leaving were skilled workers so
the East German economy was suffering as there were shortages to fill these jobs.
As a result of this problem, Khrushchev said that all Berlin belonged to East
Germany. To humiliate the Western powers he gave their troops 6 months to leave
Berlin.
The 3 Summits (1959)
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Khrushchev and President Eisenhower agreed to discuss Berlin.
Khrushchev withdrew his ultimatum.
They met in Geneva and then again at Camp David in the USA.
They met again in Paris in 1960, but could not agree what to do about Berlin. Before
the Paris summit a US spy plane was shot down over the USSR. When Eisenhower
refused to apologise for the incident, Khrushchev walked out and the talks ended.
The 4th Summit (1960 - 61)
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Khrushchev met the new president, Kennedy, in Geneva.
Hoping to take advantage of the new president's inexperience, Khrushchev again
told the USA they had 6 months to leave Berlin.
The USA refused to leave Berlin. In case of war, Kennedy put $3.2 billion more into
military funds, and spent $270 million on nuclear fall out shelters.
The Berlin Wall (1961)
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Khrushchev could not force US troops to
leave Berlin, but he had to save face and also
stop the movement of people from the East
to the West.
So, overnight on the 12 August 1961, East
Germany sealed off West Berlin with barbed
wire.
This was gradually built into the Berlin Wall.
Access was very restricted between East and
West Berlin.
The effects of this were that the refugee problem stopped (good for the Communist
nations) BUT it appeared Communist states needed a wall to keep people in so this
made them look bad. The wall became the visual symbol of the division between the
East (Communist) and the West (Capitalist).
In 1963 President Kennedy visited the Berlin Wall. Thousands came to see him – like
a rock star. He made his speech (‘I am a citizen of Berlin’) – he declared the city was
at the centre of the struggle between freedom and Communist world.
Test yourself:
Explain two consequences of the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961
(8)
Cuba (1959-1961)
The Cuban Revolution (1959)
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Cuba was an ally (friend) of the USA, being only 90
miles off the coast of Florida.
During the Cuban revolution the Pro-American
government was overthrown and dictator, Castro took
over.
His rule made Cuba more independent e.g. all foreign
owned land was taken over. The USA was not happy
with this, and so stopped buying Cuban sugar.
This was a big problem for the economy of Cuba and so to make a new ally, the USSR
started to buy Cuban sugar.
The Bay of Pigs (1961)
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The CIA had convinced Kennedy that the USA could overthrow Castro and replace
him with a leader who was friendly with America.
In 1961 some CIA trained Cuban refugees who had fled during Castro's revolution,
invaded Cuba (at the Bay of Pigs) in an attempt to overthrow Castro.
The invasion was a disaster; it failed to overthrow Castro, and US involvement
became obvious. It was a huge embarrassment for Kennedy.
Castro had known about the plan and had 20 000 troops waiting for the 1400
invaders
The Americans had hoped that the Cuban people would come out in support of the
invaders – but they didn’t = they liked Castro.
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
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After the Bay of Pigs, Castro was understandably worried about the US threat.
He asked the USSR to help him defend Cuba.
The USSR started building missile bases on Cuba, and 114 ships began carrying
missiles to the island.
This would put the USA within the range of Soviet missiles for the first time, and give
the USSR an advantage in the arms race.
Tension was extremely high, US and Soviet forces were both preparing to go to war.
The Naval Blockade and War Avoided (1962)
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Kennedy ordered the US navy to start a naval blockade around Cuba to stop Soviet
ships docking there.
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At the last minute, Khrushchev ordered the Soviet ships to turn back.
Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed that the USA would not invade Cuba, the USSR
would not base missiles there, and the USA would withdraw its missiles from Turkey
(though that was kept secret).
Cuban Missile Crisis - Results (1963)
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They agreed to a policy of building better relations.
They set up the 'hotline' between Washington and Moscow to improve
communication.
They also agreed to limit further nuclear testing in the Limited Test Ban Treaty of
August 1963.
Outer Space Treaty (1967) = Created to stop arms race spreading to outer space.
Terms: Stopped the USA and USSR from being able to store or use any nuclear
weapons in space.
Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty (1968) = Terms: Neither USA or USSR would
supply nuclear weapons to other states, nor help them develop - Stopped
superpower conflict engulfing other areas of the world.
Test yourself:
Explain the importance of the Bay of Pigs invasion for relations between the USA and the Soviet Union (8)
Explain two consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
Czech crisis and the Prague Spring (1968)
The Prague Spring- Causes and Events (1965-8)
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Alexander Dubcek, the popular secretary of the Czech Communist Party had become
leader of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
He made reforms allowing freedom of speech, allow other political parties, people to
travel abroad etc..
Dubcek made it clear that he wanted Czechoslovakia to remain communist, but that
he wanted to create 'socialism with a human face'
To try and reassure Brezhnev (Soviet leader), Dubcek said he wouldn't leave the
Warsaw pact.
(8)
The Prague Spring- Events (August 1968)
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Brezhnev repeatedly warned Dubcek about his actions, saying that his reforms were
going too far, but Dubcek wouldn't take the hint.
Czechoslovakia was invaded by 400 000 Warsaw Pact troops.
Dubcek told the Czech people not to fight the invading troops – this showed the
world that the Soviets were aggressive.
Dubcek was arrested and taken to Moscow.
He was forced to sign the Moscow Protocol which meant his reforms would be
reversed in Czechoslovakia. He was replaced by Husak – who was loyal to the Soviet
Union
Prague Spring - consequences
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America condemned the invasion but offered NO support (fighting in Vietnam at the
time)
Western Governments condemned the invasion but that was all
Some Communist powers were not happy over the way the Czech’s were treated
e.g. Romania. ALSO there was the Brezhnev Doctrine…….
The Brezhnev Doctrine (1968)
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Dubcek's reforms were not just a problem in Czechoslovakia.
Brezhnev worried that they would spread to other satellite states.
The Doctrine said that the USSR would invade any satellite state that threatened the
security of the Eastern bloc.
Test yourself:
Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Prague Spring (1968) You may use the
following in your answer:
(8)
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Alexander Dubcek
Soviet control
Détente (easing in tension) in the 1970’s
Salt I (1972)
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Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty.
Imposed limits on nuclear capability of the USA and USSR (amount of nuclear arms
they could have)
No further production of Strategic Ballistic Missiles (these were missiles which would
shoot down the enemy’s incoming missiles)
Submarines carrying nuclear weapons (SLBM) would only be introduced when
existing stocks of intercontinental (missiles which could be fired between continents)
missiles became obsolete.
This was the first agreement between superpowers that limited amount of nuclear
weapons used.
Negotiations started for SALT2 (to build on SALT1) but relations worsened and so it
never happened.
Helsinki Conference (1975)
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Recognised Soviet control over Eastern Europe, concluded a trade agreement, and
USSR promised to respect human rights.
This help to limit the possibility of superpower conflict and helped to create a more
stable relationship between the USA and USSR.
Also helped stabilise the situation in Europe, agreeing on greater co-operation
between superpowers and their European allies.
Apollo- Soyuz Mission (1975)
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A joint space mission, the US Apollo and USSR Soyuz spacecraft was docked in
space.
Marked the beginning of USA and USSR cooperation in space
Test yourself:
Explain the importance of the SALT agreements for superpower relations (8)
Afghanistan
Background
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A pro-Soviet government overthrew the Royal Afghan Royal Family (1978)
This new Government was overthrown in 1979 by a leader who was looking to the
USA for support
The USSR did not want this to happen and so in December 1979 they sent in troops
and replaced the leader of Afghanistan (Amin) with the pro-Soviet Kamal
Amin was murdered and the Soviets spent the next ten years in Afghanistan.
This was the end of Détente. The Americans believed that the Soviets were
attempting to spread communism abroad.
Consequences
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This was the start of the Second Cold War and the end of Detente
Carter Doctrine - President Carter of America said that the USA would use force to
stop the Soviet Union spreading their influence in the Persian Gulf (where the USA
got most of its oil from)
 Boycott of the Moscow Olympic games (1980) = The USA boycotted the Moscow
Olympics. countries took part in this Boycott.
 The USA placed sanctions on the USSR
 In 1980, Ronald Reagan became president of the USA. He called the Soviet Union
the "evil empire" and increased spending on arms. • The US military developed the
neutron bomb, cruise missiles and was working on a Star Wars defence system (SDI)
using space satellites to shoot attacking missiles out of the sky. Military spending
went up by over 20% in the mid 1980’s
USSR and other Communist states boycotted the Los Angeles Olympic Games (1984)
The war cost the Soviet Union $8 billion per year and cost thousands of lives (1.5million
Afghans)
Test yourself:
Explain the importance of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan for relations between the USA
and the Soviet Union
(8)
Explain two consequences of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
(8)
Gorbachev and the ‘New Thinking’
Gorbachev
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Became Leader of the Soviet Union (1985)
The Soviest Union was in trouble. In Afghanistan and with its own economy – it
could not compete with USA spending on armaments (e.g. on Star Wars).
He knew changes needed to be made to the USSR. Chernobyl Crisis (1986) - when
the nuclear power plant in the Ukraine exploded was evidence of the fact
Communism needed to reform (change and adapt).
Gorbachev’s Changes
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He withdrew from Afghanistan.
He realised that the USSR could not afford the arms race, and opened the START
(Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) with the USA.
He signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty = removed all medium
range nuclear missiles from Europe
USSR Economy was changed = it was made more capitalist. A policy of Perestroika
(reconstruction)
People had more freedom and were allowed to criticise the communist party. A
policy of Glasnost (openness)
The Brezhnev Doctrine was dropped
There were a number of summits between Gorbachev and Reagan (and later Bush)
e.g. Washington in 1987 when the INF Treaty was signed. Malta in 1989 which
marked the end of the Cold War
The end of the Warsaw Pact
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A relaxation by the Soviet government encouraged revolutions in Eastern Europe,
the USSR did not have the means or the will to impose military control. The people
in Eastern Europe knew that unlike in 1956 and 1968, if they went against their
Communist government’s now, the USSR would not do anything.
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Demonstrators came out on the streets throughout
Eastern Europe and forced change.
September 1989: Poland, communist government
defeated in free elections.
October: Hungary, first free elections are held.
November: Germany, Berlin wall falls.
‘Revolutions’ in other Eastern European countries
quickly followed
The Soviet Union Dissolved (1991)
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An attempt to overthrow Gorbachev by a
‘Gang of Eight’, senior communists failed,
but Gorbachev was seen as very weak
Different nationalities within the Soviet
Union copied what the Eastern European
nations had done and demanded
independence from the Soviet Union e.g.
Estonia, Lativa….
In December 1991 Gorbachev announced
the dissolution (end) of the USSR and
resigned.
Test yourself:
Explain the importance of Gorbachev’s ‘new thinking’ for the Soviet control of Eastern Europe (8)