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Benefits of Conservation Areas What is Conservation? Conservation: (L: com-=with; servare= to keep) preservation, especially of the natural environment. Keeping from harm or damage, especially for later use. Maintaining a quantity. The management, protection, and wise use of natural resources, the things that help support life. Types of conservation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. soil conservation: soil has become threatened by human cultivation and climate change, resulting in loss of fertility, erosion and desertification. water conservation: water is needed for food and industry, but in many nations a severe shortage is looming as humans use over 50% of fresh water that never reaches the sea. atmosphere conservation: Clean air is needed by all organisms on Earth. The atmosphere regulates the Earth's temperature and protects it from harmful radiation. Global warming and ozone depletion threaten all organisms, including humans. ecosystem conservation: maintaining natural functions between and among ecosystems on the small and large scale natural habitat conservation: wildlife needs natural habitat wildlife conservation: preventing extinctions, maintaining biodiversity. mineral conservation: the mining of minerals energy conservation: energy is the main driving force behind industry and indeed our civilisation. Our entire standard of living depends on energy to the extent, that people in developed countries use the equivalent of 50 human slaves each, or more. urban conservation: in recent times, many cities have grown so rapidly that they have become unlivable due to overcrowding, traffic jams, inadequate public transportation systems, air and water pollution, noise, and lack of recreational parks. People flee the cities to live in suburbs, causing urban areas to sprawl, which exacerbates the transport-related problems. Urban conservation aims to make cities more livable, while halting urban sprawl. marine conservation: all species and habitats. Fisheries are a particular concern. cultural conservation: maintaining cultural ties to land, educational opportunities, historical sites, recreational opportunities, research needs Modern history of conservation (US) 1. Natural parks for wildlife and scenery (1870) 2. Hunting and fishing laws (1900) 3. 1930s (Depression): active planting of forests on degraded lands, and building dams and levees to control flooding. 4. World War II: closed fishing for a while, allowing fish stocks to recover 5. 1970s: dangers of agrichemicals like DDT. 6. 1980s: disappearing rainforests 7. 1990s: climate change and greenhouse gases 8. Today: all aspects of unnatural human influence 1992: 130 Countries with 8000 protected areas - 3% of land surface What causes Conservation? 1. Population growth 2. Economic growth 3. Changing material needs ('standard of living') Conservation efforts are directed at fixing problems, rather than preventing them. Types of threats 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Habitat loss, disturbance & fragmentation Species Disturbance Exotic species introduction Soil erosion Unbalanced overexploitation Competition for food Chemical pollution Nutrient discharge Chemical pollution Oil Global climate change Nuclear wastes Debris pollution Heavy metals Pathogen discharge Animals competing with humans for food Effects of human activities on our main resources bio div ersi ty living, working, recreation construction, roading transport, movement energy & mining manufacturing, industry cats and dogs, rats, predation, exotic development, reclamation, runoff fragmentation by roads, pollution, roadkill, spread of diseases & pests, poison land, poison rivers, disturbance, poisons, plants, exotic foods, diseases, agriculture, forestry habitat loss, exotic species, monocultures, diseases, competition, hab itat loss from cities, suburbs, roads, paving, debris, loss from development, reclamation, fragmentation, roadkill, debris, disturbance, - soil reclamation, paving. landscaping, disturbance, paving, lead, spoils, scars, relocation, paving, wat er sewage, using water, fast runoff, rapid streamflow, pathogens, disturbs hydrology, mud runoff, oil, heavy metals, chemicals, fast runoff, heavy use of water, poisoned rivers, nuclear wastes, heavy use of water, pollution, poisons, air methane, CO2, heavy equipment, exhaust, exhaust gases, nitric oxides, ozone, soot, exhaust gases, poisons, exhaust gases, methane, CO2, nitric oxides, fish food, fishing, overexploitation, debris, pollution, sediment, exotic species, ballast water, antifouling paint, oil spills, debris, poisons, nuclear wastes, poisons, runoff/erosion, fertiliser, biocides, , sea habitat loss, exotic habitats, erosion, unfertility, salinisation, aquifer depletion, eutrophication, biocides, pathogens, fast runoff, eutrophication, plankton blooms, ene rgy electricity, heating, cooking, refrigerating, airconditioning, plastics, use of oil, bitumen, use of oil, plastics, heavy use, oil, coal, electricity, heavy use of energy, use of energy, chemicals, fertiliser, min eral s various minerals, timber, concrete, glass, various minerals, timber, concrete, glass, stone, various minerals, steel, aluminium, rubber, produces minerals, heavy use of minerals, fertiliser, urb provides culture, crowding, loss of time, hindrance, creates new habitat & facilities, noise, space for roads & parking, exhaust gases, noise, hindrance, traffic jams, - provides jobs & income, pollutes, exhaust gases, uses space, - an, hu ma n hab itat What does Conservation Biology Study? •vulnerability: of species, communities and populations. •viable populations: populations must be able to maintain their numbers. •inbreeding: small populations may lead to inbreeding, resulting in unsustainably poor genetic variability. •conservation value: politicians like to work with simple figures for conservation value. •sizing nature reserves: the size of a nature reserve is critical to its success, relating to both the number of species saved, and their viability. •reducing fragmentation: fragmentation reduces the effectiveness of a natural area considerably. •reducing boundary effects: wherever a habitat change is made, a boundary effect is created, making the change felt deep into the natural area, and upsetting the natural balance. •connecting corridors: some believe that having many small reserves, equals that of a single large one, but they are mistaken in this, due to a large boundary effect, low viability and resilience. •shelter & refuges: in any habitat, shelters and refuges are very important against predation and adverse conditions. They are critical for niche species. •re-introduction: critically endangered species can be saved by ex-situ (out of place) breeding (see below), and then releasing into island enclaves where adverse effects such as predation have been eliminated. •Before and after Benefits of Conservation Areas Biodiversity Conservation Ecosystem services Refuge Nursing ground or spawning area or feeding areas Fisheries Management Economic Research Education Social Recreation and community quality of life Benefits of Conservation Areas •Biodiversity Conservation •biodiversity at all levels: as food species become more numerous, so do the ones dependent on them, at all levels from the deep to the shallows, and from simple to complex organisms. •genetic diversity: saving genetic diversity to ensure future stability •an endangered species: the most acute form of conservation is to attempt to save a species on its own. •a unique spot: without being able to say why, people are able to recognise unique spots. Because of their uniqueness alone, these deserve to be saved. Saving is easy if people agree. •a sample habitat: by saving a habitat, a large number of interrelating species is saved as well. It requires a certain amount of knowledge to do so. •genetic refuge: the diversity of species embodies undiscovered genetic qualities such as medical compounds, biocides and more. Benefits of Conservation Areas Ecosystem services •Ecosystem functioning and integrity: in case a reserve returns to a more natural state, with balanced communities, it will also function more naturally, and therefore more optimally too. Sea urchins are found grazing seaweeds and this provides food for their predators like snapper and crayfish. Sea otters rebound in a similar fashion, feeding on sea urchins that feed on the macrocystis seaweed in the USA. •Ecosystem services: the world's ecosystems provide many services to mankind, like regulating energy flow (photosynthesis and respiration), regulating the temperature of the planet (climate), recycling our wastes (sewage, water, CO2, nitrogen, clean or polluted air) and so on. The idea is that protected areas in their more natural state help maintain these global cycles. •Protect watersheds and steep slopes, thereby protecting nearby environments. Also includes regulation of water flow and quality. Biophysical functions. •Human needs – protection during storms or traumatic events Benefits of Conservation Areas •Refuge •A refuge for all kinds of organisms, large and small. •Especially important for hunted or exploited species. •Allows degraded areas or exploited species to return to sustainable levels. Benefits of Conservation Areas •Nursing ground or spawning area or feeding areas •Inside the reserve, animals can reproduce and their young can spill over to areas around the protected area •Protect animals when they are particularly vulnerable •Protect limited feeding sources in order to protect a certain target species •Protect overall food webs or food chains Benefits of Conservation Areas Fisheries Management •Ecosystem management easier than species management (easier to monitor and enforce) •Ecosystem management can help reduce impacts of over-fishing (which can changes community structure, damage habitats and remove some of the large target species such as groupers) •Studies in Belize have shown that the weight of fish per unit area (particularly for snappers and grunts) was far greater than other sites. Furthermore, fish were more abundant, and there were more commercial species present than in fished areas. Other studies carried out have also shown that the population of lobster and conch within reserves have increased significantly, demonstrating that the area has recovered from over-fishing. •Protect age composition: the fate of slow growing fish is that they usually get caught before maturity. Often these fish are born female, only to change into males at a later age (protogynous). Where fishing is intensive, such males become rare. Fully protected marine reserves have shown to produce not only more fish, but over time, also older fish. For some species this means a decisive difference in the amount of spawn produced. But reserves must be large to achieve sustainable populations that do not migrate out. •Protect spawning fish stocks: reserves can be placed over spawning grounds, thereby effectively protecting fish during the entire mating season. Spillover Effect •By protecting reef fish stock within marine reserves, fish can live longer and grow larger. These are the ones that will produce the most eggs. As the larvae develop, they are carried by currents, out of the protected area and thus help replenish the surrounding fishing grounds. Benefits of Conservation Areas •Economic •Eco-tourism •The existence of more, larger and many different types of fish makes marine reserves very attractive for diving and snorkeling, and thus enhances the tourism industry. •Employment (Park rangers are required) •Harvesting or collecting resources provided by a protected area (either indirectly or directly) The City of New York has invested $US 1.8 billion in the protection of the Catskills watershed which supplies the city with drinking water, instead of spending $US 6-8 billion on a proposed new water filtration plant (Postel, 2002). Investing in catchment rehabilitation also saves the city government $US 300 million per year in operating costs which would have been be incurred if the water filtration plant had been constructed (Stroud Water Research Center, 2000). Benefits of Conservation Areas •Research •Research benefits because the scientific experiments are not disturbed. Scientists can study a truly natural environment. •Determining baseline levels. Without disturbance, the area would eventually stabilise at near-constant and maximum stocking levels, with a balance between populations. Other areas can be compared with this 'baseline'. An area excluded from exploitation, also enables scientists to study the (side-) effect of exploitation, by comparing the situation inside the reserve with that of locations outside. Benefits of Conservation Areas •Education •People from all walks of life, and particularly school children can visit the reserve to observe wildlife and to become inspired by the conservation concept. Whereas elsewhere the environment has deteriorated, one can at least find natural life inside protected areas. Benefits of Conservation Areas •Social •Rights: over time, people have given themselves all kinds of rights to land or to uses on land •Tradition/History: people have been doing what they do for many generations, often passed down in families from father to son. Villages have a tradition, and so do areas. •Culture: every ethnic group has a different culture. Within a culture, specific rights and beliefs are held dearly and may be tied to an area or a species •Spiritual: persons and groups may have spiritual values, arising from beliefs and superstitions tied to land or species •Emotional value: people often value a place or a species emotionally. Such values cannot be measured but are real to the beholders. A large range of emotional values can be held. •Protect a unique spot. Some places are hot spots of biodiversity, a treasure to enjoy. Many of these are unique and irreplaceable. A reserve is able to protect such treasures for future generations, provided that there are no other threats. Benefits of Conservation Areas •Recreation and community quality of life •As long as people do not disturb the life there, they are welcome for eco-tourism, recreation, diving, fish watching, photography and so on. •Enabling public access to “green space” (especially in high-density cities, with little green environment and high costs of other forms of recreation); •Providing opportunities for activities (e.g., organized and informal sport and exercise, and educational activities); •Providing opportunities for socializing (e.g., picnics, family gatherings, and club outings); •Providing opportunities for spiritual connection with nature and a sense of place; •Developing personal and community identity (e.g., rehabilitation and development of self-esteem and identity after life crises); •Providing opportunities for productive open space (e.g., for school programs, and demonstration projects in wetland management and sustainable land management); •Strengthening the community (e.g., increasing contact with other community members, contributing to local knowledge and pride of place and heritage, and providing opportunities for contribution to community action through volunteer work in parks on environmental improvement schemes).