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Філологія як наука. Спеціальна філологія, її предмет та завдання.
Порівняльно-історичний метод та його роль у вивченні германських мов.
Давні германці та перші відомості про них.
Класифікація давньогерманських племен
Роль Великого переселення народів у розвитку мов
Завоювання Британії англами, саксами, ютами.
Рунічна писемність.
Давньогерманська писемність (Готське письмо. Історія надходження
латинського алфавиту у давньогерманську писемність)
9. Загальна характеристика пам’ятників давньогерманських мов..
10.Наголос та система фонем у давньогерманських мовах.
11.Система консонантизма у давньогерманських мовах.
12.Перший пересув консонантів у давньогерманських мовах. Закон Гріма.
13.Пересуви приголосних у германських мовах. Закон Вернера.
14. Система голосних у давньогерманських мовах. Умлаут, аблаут.
15.Загальні риси морфологічного строю давньогерманських мов.
16.Іменник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах.
17. Прикметник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах
18.Займенник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах
19.Числівник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах
20.Давньогерманське дієслово. Морфологічні категорії.
21.Сильні дієслова у давньогерманських мовах. .
22.Слабкі дієслова у германських мовах. Претеріто-презентні та неправільні
діеслова.
23.Безособові форми дієслів у давньогерманських мовах
24.Словотворення у давньогерманських мовах.
25.Стилістичне розшарування давньогерманської лексики.
26.Розшарування давньогерманської лексики у відповідності до її походження.
27.Основні джерела запозичень у давньогерманських мовах
28.Сучасна класифікація германських мов
29.Короткий нарис історії англійської мови.
30.Загальні відомості з готської мови
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Практичне завдання:
а) поясніть етимологію (30 слів);
б) поясніть фонетичні особливості (15)
в) поясніть відмінність або доведіть спорідненість (15)
1. Philology as a Science. Special Philology, its Subject and tasks.
Special philology is one of the subjects which establishes the basement of the
preparation of philologists. Philology as a science (Greek phileo, logos) appeared in
antiquity in order to explain old texts, later its tasks and notions have been changing. It
used to be understood as a science studying all types of not only texts but material
remnants as well. Now it is defined as a common name of subjects studying languages,
literatures, and culture with the help of texts of literature, history etc.
Special philology as a branch of philology sometimes is not distinguished from
special linguistics. Our branch of special philology is Germanic philology because the
English language is a representative of Germanic group of Indo-European family of
languages. The SUBJECT MATTER of Germanic philology: it studies the languages of
the Germanic group: their origin, development and structure, mutual connections,
common laws, tendencies of development and interconnections with the languages of
other groups. Its main tasks are to explain modern state of Germanic languages and to
reconstruct their ancient forms. Modern state can’t be explained without studying ancient
situation.
Special philology is connected with other sciences: general linguistics,
comparative linguistics, dialects, linguistic geography; history, archaeology, ethnography,
history of art, religion etc. It is divided into German philology, English, Scandinavian
etc. It gives the basis to study the history of the language, theoretical grammar,
lexicology etc.
2. Comparative and Historical method and its role in Studying Germanic
Languages
Linguistics uses various methods to study languages: descriptive, statistic,
experimental etc. One of them is Comparative and historical method. This is a scientific
way of reconstruction of those language phenomena of the past, which were not fixed in
written texts. The reconstruction can be effected by means of comparing later facts of
two or more languages which are known either from written texts or real speech.
Sometimes only it works in studying language phenomena.
This method is based on the following principles: 1. Genetic commonness of the
compared units. 2. Comparison of the meaningful units (not simply sounds); regularity of
correspondences; phonetic laws; semantic laws.
Steps of the process of comparing language phenomena: 1. to compare sounds
and morphemes; 2. to establish common laws; 3. to establish chronological
correspondences among them. 4. to reconstruct a primary form.
The method is not ideal, it has some drawbacks: it can’t give the exact dates of
this or that language change; it doesn’t explain several phenomena; it s not suitable for
all types of languages. It is necessary to develop and improve. The usage of this method
allowed to define the place of Germanic languages among other languages of the world,
to trace historic changes in their phonetics, grammar and vocabulary, to explain
important phenomena of their modern state.
Various scientists who developed this method are: William Jones (1746 – 1794)
who began studying Sanskrit; Franz Bopp (1791 – 1867) - the founder of the method
itself, who compared Indo-European languages; Rasmus Rask Christian(1787-1832) who
used this method to study Germanic languages; A.Vostokov , an investigator of Slavonic
languages(1781-1864); Jakob Grimm, the author of the first comparative grammar of
Germanic languages (1785-1868);
Karl Verner, an investigator of Germanic
phonetics(1846-1896); F. de Saussure, Antoine Meillet and many others.
3. Ancient Germans and the first testimonies on them..
Germanic tribes are great ethnic complex of ancient Europe, a basic stock in the
composition of the modern peoples of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Germany,
Austria, Switzerland, Northern Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Northern
and Central France, Lowland Scotland and England. In ancient times the territory of
Germanic languages was more limited than now. Thus in the 1st century A.D. Germanic
languages were only spoken in Germany and in territories adjacent to it and also in
Scandinavia. It is considered that they lived in the territory between the rivers Elbe and
Odra, on the peninsula Jutland and in the Southern Sweden. At that time old Germanic
tribes were passing through the stage of development which is marked by the term
“barbarism”. From archaeology it is clear that the Germans had little ethnic solidarity;
by the 7th cent. B.C. they had begun a division into many peoples. They did not call
themselves Germans; the origin of the name is uncertain. Their rise to significance (4th
cent. B.C.) in the history of Europe began roughly with the general break-up of Celtic
culture in central Europe. From these areas they spread out in great migrations
southward, south-eastward, and westward.
Germania’s geography made it attractive to the Romans as a potential province to
add to the already powerful Roman Empire. The combination of natural resources,
agriculture, and strategic value made the Romans eager to gain acquisition of this
territory. The main resources that Germany had to offer came in the form of metals,
more specifically, iron. Their iron was of such quality and was acquired in such
abundance that in was exported to Rome for use in most everything that was created
from iron. The German agricultural system was vital to the economy in Germany. Most
of the Germans were farmers but a large portion of the population was herders. The
Germans were agriculturists from the beginning of their existence. They established
agricultural villages based on land plots that were grouped around a central water supply.
The main crops that they raised were cereal grains such as wheat, barley, oats, and rye.
Around the North Sea area there was an emphasis on cattle raising. Germany also had a
great strategic advantage that was appealing to the Romans. First of all it could be used
to protect Gaul north of the Danube which had already come under Rome influence.
Germany also provided for a buffer from Gaul. The tribes that eventually settled in the
Germanic area were tribes that had for the most part been migrating throughout Europe
for many years. They lived in tribes and clans. Caesar and Tacitus both wrote about the
German culture and the society in which they lived.
Our knowledge of the ancient Germans is based on the testimonies by Greek and
Roman writers, who for certain reasons were interested in them. The earliest of them
was the Greek traveller and astronomer Pytheas from Massilia (now Marseiilles) who
lived in the 4th century B.C. He sailed from his native town through the Gibraltar along
the west coast of France to the Baltic. His book has not come down to us, only some
pieces of it were preserved by the Greek geographer Strabo (63 B.C. – 20 A.D.). Pytheas
was the first who mentioned the Teutons. The physical features of each tribe were very
similar to each other. Tacitus described the Germans as blond-haired, blue-eyed people
with large frames. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) wrote about the
Teutons in his great work Natural History. He gave a classification of Germanic tribes.
4. Classification of ancient Germanic tribes.
Germanic tribes are great ethnic complex of ancient Europe, a basic stock in the
composition of the modern peoples of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Germany,
Austria, Switzerland, Northern Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Northern
and Central France, Lowland Scotland and England. Their rise to significance (4th cent.
B.C.) in the history of Europe began roughly with the general break-up of Celtic culture
in central Europe. From these areas they spread out in great migrations southward,
south-eastward, and westward.
Our knowledge of the ancient Germanic tribes is based on the testimonies by
Greek and Roman writers, who for certain reasons were interested in them. The earliest
of them was the Greek traveller and astronomer Pytheas from Massilia (now Marseiilles)
who lived in the 4th century B.C. He sailed from his native town through the Gibraltar
along the west coast of France to the Baltic. His book has not come down to us, only
some pieces of it have been preserved by the Greek geographer Strabo (63 B.C. – 20
A.D.). Pytheas was the first who mentioned the Teutons.
The Roman writer Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) wrote about the Teutons in his
great work Natural History. He gave a classification of Germanic tribes.
1. The Vindili (including the Goths and the Burgudians) were the tribes who lived in the
eastern part.
2. The Ingaevones – the north-western part ( the Saxons)
3. The Iscaevones (Istaevoneas) the western part on the Rhine (the Franks)
4. The Hermiones – the southern part.
5. The Peucini and Bastarnae who lived near Rumania.
6. The Hilleviones in Scandinavia - northern part of the territory
The tribes of the fifth group can be joined with the first group. This
classification still coincides with the modern point of view on the classification of
ancient Germanic languages and is correlated with modern Germanic languages.
5.
A role of Great migration of peoples in the development of languages.
The term Great migration of peoples means the movement of Germanic, Slavonic and
other tribes in the territory of the Roman Empire in 4 – 7 th centuries AD. It led to the
collapse of the Roman Empire. The people who lived northeast of the Roman Empire
spoke languages similar to modern German. These "Germanic tribes" included the
Vandals, Lombards, Alamanni, Goths, Franks, and Burgundians. Most of the tribesmen
did not know how to read, but unlike the Huns, they tended to farms and were not
nomadic. Most of the tribes gave up their pagan beliefs and became Christians. In 376,
the Huns forced the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) to leave their homeland near the
Danube River in modern Austria. The Visigoths asked Emperor Valens permission to
settle inside the Roman Empire. Valens agreed, but charged the Visigoths unfair prices
for food and other supplies. When the Visigoths protested, Valens ordered them to
leave. The Visigoths refused, and formed an army that defeated and killed the emperor
in 378. Alaric was a Visigoth who joined the Roman army and rose to a high rank. He
left the army when his father died and became king of the Visigoths. In 410, the Romans
refused to pay a bribe, so Alaric's soldiers formed a siege around Rome. When the city
was close to
starvation, the Roman citizens opened the gates and allowed the
conquering army to enter. The Visigoths rampaged through the streets for three days,
pillaging and burning. Alaric ordered his army not to molest women or destroy
churches. Rome was not completely destroyed, but for the first time in nearly 800 years,
the "eternal city" had been defeated.
Germanic tribes overran what was left of the Roman Empire. The Visigoths, or
"eastern Goths," came from the Ukraine. They conquered most of Italy, Greece, and the
western Balkans. The Vandals took control of the Roman territory in North Africa. The
Franks overran France, while the Saxons conquered the southern part of England. All
these movements influenced the development of languages. Former dialects became
separate languages, a lot of words were borrowed, the adstratum and superstratum layers
appeared. Thus the former Germanic language gave rise to a great number of modern
languages and dialects.
6. Angle, Saxon and Jut invasion into the British Isles. The Old English.
The earliest mention of the British Isles is in the 4 th century bC by Pytheas. At that time
Britain was inhabited by Celtic tribes. The first inhabitants of the British Isles were
Celts – Britons and Gaels. In 55 BC the Romans under Julius Caesar landed in Britain.
Permanent Roman conquest began only in 43 AD by the emperor Claudius. The Romans
subdued and colonized the country, established a lot of military camps, paved roads –
completely transformed the aspect of the country.It became a Roman province. in the 4th
century the Christianity spread in Britain. In 410 the Roman legions were recalled from
Britain to defend Italy from the advancing Goths under Alaric.
In the 5th century AD Britain was conquered by 3 Germanic tribes, the Angles, the
Saxons and the Jutes. West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the
Angles (whose name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and
Jutes, began populating the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke
a mutually intelligible language, similar to modern Frisian--the language of northeastern
region of the Netherlands--that is called Old English. These tribes were included into the
group of the Ingaevones according to the classification of Pliny the Elder. Closely
connected with these tribes were the Frisians. The beginning of English can be traced
back to the year 449, when coming to help their Celtic ally, Vortigern, two Germanic
chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, (Jutes) brought their belligerent tribesmen to the Isles.
The British resistance was stiff and the advance was brought to a standstill for nearly 50
years by a great battle won at Mount Badon. The inhabitants asked the Romans for help,
but the Romans were too busy with their own battles with Germanic Barbarians.
Historians attribute the resistance to King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
12 battles are mentioned in Latin chronicles. So that period was the starting point of the
English language. The conquerors settled in Britain in the following way. The Angles
occupied most of the territory north of the Thames; the Saxons – south to the Thames;
the Jutes in Kent and in the isle of Wight. The ties of the language with the continent
were broken and the history of the English language began. These invaders pushed the
original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of what is now England into Scotland, Wales,
Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words. Old English, whose best
known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, lasted until about 1100. This last date is
rather arbitrary, but most scholars choose it because it is shortly after the most important
event in the development of the English language, the Norman Conquest.
7. Runic writing
The word “rune” is translated as “secret” (compare old Celtic “run”, middle
Welsh “rown”, modern German “raunen”). The most important sources about runic
history are ancient texts of Scandinavian pagan religion – Old Edda by Brynolf Swesson
and Lesser Edda by Snorri Sturlusson. Tombstones, altars, pagan pillars had runic
inscriptions. The most famous is Cilwer stone, which dates from the 5-th c. So we can
find a lot of writings on jewels and weapon, for barbarians believed things had to posses
their own names (breakteats). German runic writing was the letter system of peculiar
look, accounted by the writing technique on bone, wood and metal. Nowadays we have
the main runic alphabet, consisting of 24 signs, may be more, but another ones are
regarded as variants or combined runes. The whole system is divided into 2 parts –
futarks (arises from the first symbols – F, U, Th, A, R, K: Old futark (runes of Old
German origin – o.f.) and Late futark (modifications of o.f. in Northumbrian, Frisian and
Anglo-Saxon alphabets). 24 signs traditionally gradate into 3 groups of 8 symbols called
atts (“part of land “ or “kin” compare Scot. "airt”, Ireland “aird).
The origin of futark remains the matter of severe debates between historians,
linguists and philologists. There are two main theories: 1) Runic writing appeared on the
basis of Latin alphabet; 2) cradles of these signs are in Transalpine and North Italian
scripts. Scientists have a lot of historic facts, approving that Etruscan merchants used this
system. Probably they brought it to the North (6-th c. B.C.). However some researchers
think that runes cropped up in German tribes from ancient Rome Latin writing. But the
construction of runic alphabet (RA) is different from others – for example, order of the
first letters. Many runic symbols were used as icons, showing various things and animals.
Some runologists suppose that even in the most developed variant they are close to
pictures: rune “Fehu” f symbolizes cattle, Wunjo w – weathercock, Edhwaz m – horse.
The top of development and complete formation of RA system was in 1-2 c. AD.
The number of runes in alphabet varied in the course of time. 28 sings appeared in the
middle of the 6-th c. In Britain where Germanic runes penetrated in the 5-th c. with
Anglo-Saxon invasion, Frisian futark was improved by the some additions and changes
(mostly combined runes) and numbered 29 units. In Northumberland 33 rune system
existed already, with the mixture of Celtic runes. Whilst on the Continent o.f. went
through the number of another changes. In the middle of the 7-th c. the tendency to
simplification appeared – some runes changed in inscription, some were lost. To the
middle of the 10-th c. the number of runes decreased to 16 units and late futark formed. It
was purely writing system, which wasn’t used for fortune telling. It got wide spreading
not only on the territory of German Empire, but in the North too, for example in
Denmark and Swiss. The difference between them was in writing technology – Swiss
ones were simpler, with short branches. Apparently it can be explained that it gained
everyday using. This system, if not take notice of its disadvantages, was in circulation till
12-th c. The next step in development of RA took place in the middle of the 12-th c. by
adding dots to 16 sign system (dotted alphabet). It was used along with Latin one till the
16-th c. We can find its variants in Slavonic manuscripts. Hipped and branchy RA
weren’t alike to dotted one. Combined (constrained) runes. They attract attention by their
unusual form – it is too difficult to regard it as ordinary symbol. Their use is quite
miscellaneous: in amulets, braketeats, and everywhere when difficult magic formulas
were necessary. Runes are bind on the strength of common line.
8. Давньогерманська писемність (Готське письмо. Історія надходження
латинського алфавиту у давньогерманську писемність)
Olg Germanic Writings included runes, Gothic alphabet and later Latin alphabet. The
Gothic alphabet was probably created by bishop Ulfilas who also translated the Bible
into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from
the Greek alphabet only, while others maintain that there are some Gothic letters of
runic or Latin origin. There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary
sources after about 800 AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. The Gothic
alphabet is an alphabetic writing system attributed to Wulfila used exclusively for
writing the ancient Gothic language. Before its creation, Gothic was written in Gothic
runes. It was primarily used by Wulfilas to translate the Bible into Gothic. It appears to
be derived from the Greek alphabet with some borrowings from the Latin one. The
names clearly derive from the names of runes. As with the Greek alphabet, there were
no numbers; letters served dual purposes. They are generally written with an overdot or
overbar when serving as numbers. Two of the letters are used only as numbers. Two
letters are used in its transliteration that English speakers may be unfamiliar with: (thorn)
and ƕ (hwair). These represent sounds like the th in 'thin' and a breathy w respectively.
There was originally a Rune, adopted into the Latin alphabet to write Old English. It is
still used to write Icelandic. The letter hwair was invented solely to be able to translate
the Gothic alphabet on a one-to-one basis. The letter names are recorded in a 9th century
manuscript of Alcuin. Latin was introduced into Germanic languages later in order to
organise church service. First glosses appeared to render the names into Latin. The latin
alphabet of that time had only 23 letters (without J,W,V)/Historically there were the
following types of Latin writing: scriptura capitalis, scriptura uncialis, semiuncialis and
minusculis.
9. Literary texts in Germanic languages.
History knows the books written practically in all Germanic languages, but the most
important are he following. The Gothic language ( known to us by a translation of the
Bible known as Codex Argenteus ("The Silver Bible") dating from the 4th century AD,
of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done in the Balkans region
by people in close contact with Greek Christian culture. The language is Germanic but
has major differences from other known Germanic languages. It is the only surviving
East Germanic language; the others, including Burgundian and Vandalic, are known, if
at all, only from proper names. It appears that the Gothic Bible was used by the
Visigoths in Spain until 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in Italy, the Balkans and what is
now the Ukraine. Apart from the Bible, the only other Gothic document is a few pages
of commentary on the Gospel of John. This document is usually called the "Skeireins".
In addition, there are numerous short fragments and Runic inscriptions that are known to
be or suspected to be Gothic. Some scholars believe that these inscriptions are not at all
Gothic. The Gothic Bible and Skeireins were written using a special alphabet.. he Gothic
language is only attested in a handful
of codices, mainly parts of the Bible translation of Ulfilas.
Codex Argenteus (and Speyer fragment): parts of the gospels, 188 leaves.
Codex Ambrosianus (Milan) (and Codex Taurinensis) five parts, totalling 193 leaves.
Codex Gissensis (Gießen) one leaf, fragments of Luke 23-24. found in Egypt in 1907,
destroyed by water damage in 1945.
Codex Carolinus: Wolfenbüttel, 4 leaves, fragments of Romans 11-15.
Codex Vaticanus Latinus 5750: 3 leaves, pages 57/58, 59/60 and 61/62 of the
Skeireins.
Naples Deed: papyrus fragment of 551, four signatures
Arezzo Deed: papyrus fragment (now lost), one signature
There were other reports of discovery of parts of Ulfila's bible. Heinrich May in 1968
claimed 12 leaves of a palimpsest containing parts of the gospel of Matthew had been
discovered in England. The claim was never substantiated.
The English language. Beowulf is a traditional heroic epic poem in Old English
alliterative verse. At 3182 lines, it is far more substantial than any similar work in the
language, representing about 10% of the extant corpus of Anglo-Saxon verse. The poem
is untitled in the manuscript, but has been known as Beowulf since the early 19th
century. (The oldest surviving text in English is Caedmon's hymn of creation.) The
precise date of the manuscript is debated, but most estimates place it close to AD 1000.
The original composition of the poem, however, is under more debate. Some archaic
forms of words that appear in the text suggest that the poem comes from the 8th century,
probably the earlier half. The poem appears in what is today called the Beowulf
manuscript, along with the shorter poem Judith. The poem is a work of fiction, but it
mentions in passing some people and events that were probably real, probably dating
from between AD 450 to 600 in Denmark and southern Sweden (Geats and Swedes). It
is a useful source for information not only about Anglo-Saxon traditions such as the
fight at Finnsburg, but also about Scandinavian and German personalities. The hero's
name Beowulf means bee-wolf, a kenning for "bear" (due to their love of honey). The
language of this book is called Late West Saxon, a dialect of Old English but the poem
shows strong hints of being originally composed in an Anglian dialect, quite possibly
Mercian. It is known only from a single manuscript, kept in the British Library.
The Elder Edda, also known as the "Poetic Edda" is a collection of Norse
mythology. It is traditionally attributed to Sæmundr the Wise. The main manuscript is
called Codex Regius. It dates back at least to the 13th century containing many verses
which had been referenced by Snorri Sturluson in the Younger Edda. What seems to be
obvious, is multiple authorship over a long period of time. Codex Regius (R2365) was
stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen. In 1971 it was brought back to Reykjavík.
The Younger Edda, known also as the "Prose Edda" or "Snorri's Edda" is an
Icelandic manual of poetics which also contains many mythological stories. Its purpose
was to enable Old Norse poets and readers to understand the subtleties of alliterative
verse, and to grasp the meaning behind the many kennings that were used in the skaldic
tradition. It is attributed to the Icelandic scholar and historian Snorri Sturluson, and was
written around 1220. It survives in seven main manuscripts, written from about 1300 to
about 1600.
The Norse sagas or Viking sagas (Icelandic), are stories about ancient
Scandinavian and Germanic history, about early Viking voyages, about migration to
Iceland, and of feuds between Icelandic families. They were written in the Old Norse
language. The texts are epic tales in prose, often with stanzas or whole poems in
alliterative verse embedded in the text, of heroic deeds of days long gone, tales of
worthy men, who were often Vikings, sometimes Pagan, sometimes Christian. The tales
are usually realistic (except, of course, legendary sagas, sagas of saints, sagas of bishops
and translated or recomposed romances), sometimes romanticised and fantastic, but
always dealing with human beings we can understand.
Old German and Old Saxon Texts. The most ancient texts in German were glosses
(VIII-IX centuries), then the most important prayers were translated. The earliest text is
the translation of the religious treaty by Icidor of Seville “On Catholic Faith” by an
unknown translator (the end of the VIII century). The end of the 10th – the beginning of
the 11th century is marked by the activity of Notker, a famous translator, and his school.
He tried to create the philosophical terminology in German.The epic literature is
presented by “Song about Hildebrandt” . Saxon texts were not numerous. The most
remarkable of them is “Heliand” (“Saviour” – a verse story of the life of Jesus Christ.
Its two copies are kept in Munich and in London.
The investigation of all these texts is of great importance for studying ancient and
modern Germanic languages.
10.
Stress and system of phonemes in Ancient Germanic languages.
In linguistics, stress is the emphasis (shown by more forceful, louder, and higher-pitched
voice) given to some syllables (usually no more than one in each word). In many
languages, long words have a secondary stress a few syllables away from the primary
stress. Some languages have fixed stress, i. e. stress is placed always on a given syllable,
as in French (where words are always stressed in the last syllable), Finnish (stress
always on the first syllable). Other languages have stress placed on different syllables in
a predictable way (they're said to have a regular stress rule), such as Latin. There are
also languages like English or Spanish, where stress is unpredictable and arbitrary, being
lexical -- it comes as part of the word and must be learned with it. English shows this
with noun/verb pairs such as to record ("to register, to inscribe") vs. a record ("a register,
an entry"), where the verb is stressed on the last syllable and the corresponding noun is
stressed on the first. In English, stressed syllables have higher pitch than unstressed
ones. In tone languages, the tone can rise or fall during articulation of the syllable, rather
than some syllables, the stressed one, having higher pitch than the others. It is
considered that in Indo-European the stress used to be dynamic and fixed. But in
Germanic it became fixed on the root syllable and turned into the dynamic one.
The system of phonemes includes consonants and vowels. Ancient Germanic
system of consonants was different from that of Indo-European in the number of stops
and fricatives. Germanic languages had more fricatives than stops, Indo-European – v.v.
Germanic consonants included labials p,b,f; dentals t, d, th; back sounds k, g, h; kw, gw,
xw. These changes are explained by shifts.
Indo-European system of vowels included 5 short and 5 long ones, some of them
changed into diphthongs. The change of stress had a great influence on the vowel
system. In Germanic languages the opposition between short and long vowels was very
distinct. Examples: IE a and o changed into – Germanic long a – Lat. ager, Goth. akrs,
Lat. hostis, Goth. gasts, O.H.G. – gast. IE i, e and u changed or left the same. Lat.
edere, OE. etan, O.H.G ezzan; Lat. medius, O.H.G. – mitti. Long i and u didn’t
change. Long a and long o gave long o, e.g. Lat. mater, OE modor; Greek pos - Goth.
fotus, OE – fot. IE e changed into Germanic æ which later developed into long e or long
a. The influence of stress also led to the monophthongization of some diphthongs and
vice versa.
11.Система консонантизма у давньогерманських мовах.
The system of phonemes includes consonants and vowels. Ancient Germanic system of
consonants was different from that of Indo-European in the number of stops and
fricatives. Germanic languages had more fricatives than stops, Indo-European – v.v.
Germanic consonants included labials p,b,f; dentals t, d, th; back sounds k, g, h; kw, gw,
xw. These changes are explained by 3 consonant shifts. Grimm's Law describes the
development of inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stops in Proto-Germanic (PGmc,
the common ancestor of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family). It consists
of three parts As formulated nowadays, 1. Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change
into voiceless fricatives: PIE *p, *t, *k > PGmc *f, *þ, *x . 2. Proto-Indo-European
voiced stops become voiceless: PIE *b, *d, *g > PGmc *p, *t, *k . 3. Proto-IndoEuropean voiced aspirated stops lose their aspiration and change into plain voiced stops:
PIE *bh, *dh, *gh > PGmc *b, *d, *g. For example:
 Indo-European pater > Germanic faeder (English father)
 Indo-European tres > Germanic þrie (English three)
 Indo-European cordis > Germanic heorte (English heart)
 Indo-European болото (Russ, Ukr.) > Germanic pōl (English pool)
 Indo-European duo > Germanic twa (English two)
 Indo-European genu > Germanic cnēo (English knee)
 Indo-European bhrater > Germanic brōþor (English brother)
 Indo-European *ghordho- 'enclosed place' > Germanic *gard- (English garden)
Grimm also discovered another ("Second") consonant shift, which accounts for the
consonant system of High German. It did not operate in the remaining Germanic
languages, which meant that e.g. the English system of stops and fricatives is more
archaic (closer to Proto-Germanic) than that of Modern German.e.g. English two vs
German zwei /ts-/ ; English pipe vs German Pfeife /pf-f-/; English make vs German
machen /-x-/ . The third shift took place only in Danish, where voiceless stops became
aspirated at the beginning of a word.
12. Перший пересув консонантів у давньогерманських мовах. Закон Гріма.
Consonant Shifts. The changes in the Germanic consonant system are explained by three
shifts, i.e. regular changes of groups of consonants. . Grimm's law (also known as the
First Germanic Sound Shift) was the first systematic sound change ever to be discovered.
The "law" was discovered in 1822 by Jakob Grimm, the younger of the Brothers Grimm.
It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and
fricatives and the stop consonants of certain other Indo-European languages. It consists
of three parts: 1. Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives:
Indo-European p, t, k > Germanic f, þ, x; 2. Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become
voiceless: Indo-European b, d, g > Germanic p, t, k ; 3. Proto-Indo-European voiced
aspirated stops lose their aspiration and change into plain voiced stops: Indo-European
bh, dh, gh > Germanic b, d, g. For example:
 Indo-European pater > Germanic faeder (English father)
 Indo-European tres > Germanic þrie (English three)
 Indo-European cordis > Germanic heorte (English heart)
 Indo-European болото (Russ, Ukr.) > Germanic pōl (English pool)
 Indo-European duo > Germanic twa (English two)
 Indo-European genu > Germanic cnēo (English knee)
 Indo-European bhrater > Germanic brōþor (English brother)
 Indo-European *ghordho- 'enclosed place' > Germanic *gard- (English garden)
13. Пересуви приголосних у германських мовах. Закон Вернера.
The changes in the Germanic consonant system are explained by three shifts, i.e. regular
changes of groups of consonants. . Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic
Sound Shift) was the first systematic sound change ever to be discovered. The "law" was
discovered in 1822 by Jakob Grimm, the younger of the Brothers Grimm. It establishes a
set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and the stop
consonants of certain other Indo-European languages. It consists of three parts: 1.
Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives: Indo-European p, t,
k > Germanic f, þ, x; 2. Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless: IndoEuropean b, d, g > Germanic p, t, k ; 3. Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops
lose their aspiration and change into plain voiced stops: Indo-European bh, dh, gh >
Germanic b, d, g. For example:
 Indo-European pater > Germanic faeder (English father)
 Indo-European tres > Germanic þrie (English three)
 Indo-European cordis > Germanic heorte (English heart)
 Indo-European болото (Russ, Ukr.) > Germanic pōl (English pool)
 Indo-European duo > Germanic twa (English two)
 Indo-European genu > Germanic cnēo (English knee)
 Indo-European bhrater > Germanic brōþor (English brother)
 Indo-European *ghordho- 'enclosed place' > Germanic *gard- (English garden)
Grimm also discovered another ("Second") consonant shift, which accounts for the
consonant system of High German. It did not operate in the remaining Germanic
languages, which meant that e.g. the English system of stops and fricatives is more
archaic (closer to Proto-Germanic) than that of Modern German.e.g. English two vs
German zwei /ts-/ ; English pipe vs German Pfeife /pf-f-/; English make vs German
machen /-x-/ . The third shift took place only in Danish, where voiceless stops became
aspirated at the beginning of a word.
Verner's law, stated by Karl Verner in 1875, describes a historical sound change
in the proto-Germanic language whereby voiceless fricatives f, þ, s and x, when
immediately following an unstressed syllable in the same word, underwent voicing and
became respectively b, d, z and g. When Grimm's law was discovered, a strange
irregularity was spotted in its operation. The Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops p, t
and k should have changed into Proto-Germanic f, þ and x according to Grimm's Law.
Indeed, that was known to be the usual development. However, there appeared to be a
large set of words in which the agreement of Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Baltic, Slavic etc.
guaranteed Indo-European p, t or k, and yet the Germanic reflex was a voiced consonant
b, d or g. At first, irregularities did not give scholars sleepless nights as long as there
were many examples of the regular outcome. Increasingly, however, it became the
ambition of linguists to formulate general and exceptionless rules of sound change that
would account for all the data (or as close to the ideal as possible. One classic example
of Indo-European t > Germanic d is the word for 'father', Indo-European (Latin) pater –
Goth. fadar. Curiously, the structurally similar family term bhrater 'brother' developed
as predicted by Grimm’s Law (Germanic. bro:þe:r). Karl Verner was the first scholar
who put his finger on the factor governing the distribution of the two outcomes. He
observed that the apparently unexpected voicing of voiceless fricatives occurred if they
were non-initial and immediately preceded by a syllable that carried no stress in IndoEuropean. The original location of stress was often retained in Greek and early Sanskrit,
though in Germanic stress eventually became fixed on the initial (root) syllable of all
words. The crucial difference between fadar and bro:þe:r was therefore one of secondsyllable versus first-syllable stress.
Since z changed to r in the Scandinavian languages and in West Germanic
(German, Dutch, English, Frisian), Verner's Law resulted in the alternation /s/ versus /r/
in some inflectional paradigms. For example, the Old English verb ceosan 'choose' had
the past plural form curon and the past participle (ge)coren < *kius- | *kuz- < *géus- |
*gus- 'taste, try'.
It is worth noting that the Verner's Law comes chronologically after Grimm's Law
(because Grimm's Law provides most of its input) and before the Germanic shift of
stress to the initial syllable (because the voicing is conditioned by the old location of
stress). The stress shift erased the conditioning environment and made the Vernerian
variation between voiceless fricatives and their voiced alternants look mysteriously
haphazard. The moral of Verner's Law is that crucial evidence necessary to sort out the
historical evolution of a linguistic lineage may reside where few people would dream of
looking for it. Verner found it "out there" in Greek and Sanskrit, while everyone else had
tacitly assumed that Germanic changes can be explained in Germanic terms without
recourse to external comparison.
14.Система голосних у давньогерманських мовах. Умлаут, аблаут.
Indo-European system of vowels included 5 short and 5 long ones, some of them
changed into diphthongs. The change of stress had a great influence on the vowel
system. In Germanic languages the opposition between short and long vowels was very
distinct. Examples: IE a and o changed into – Germanic long a – Lat. ager, Goth. akrs,
Lat. hostis, Goth. gasts, O.H.G. – gast. IE i, e and u changed or left the same. Lat.
edere, OE. etan, O.H.G ezzan; Lat. medius, O.H.G. – mitti. Long i and u didn’t
change. Long a and long o gave long o, e.g. Lat. mater, OE modor; Greek pos - Goth.
fotus, OE – fot. IE e changed into Germanic æ which later developed into long e or long
a. The influence of stress also led to the monophthongization of some diphthongs and
vice versa.
In linguistics, the process of ablaut (from German ab-: off + laut: sound) is a vowel
change accompanying a change in grammatical function. For example, the vowel change
in English from i to a to u in sing (present tense), sang preterite), sung (past-participle)
referred to as an ablaut. Verbs that display ablaut in English, and that do not form their
preterites with a dental suffix like -ed or added -t or d, are called strong verbs. Ablaut is
a common characteristic of many Indo-European languages and is also known as
gradation. Latin displays ablaut in verbs such as ago (present tense), "I drive"; egi,
(perfect tense), "I drove." Ablaut is a semi-regular phenomenon that affects whole classes
of verbs in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit. Indo-European had a characteristic general ablaut
sequence that contrasted the vowel phonemes o/e through the same root. Most
philologists believe that the presence of laryngeals in the Indo-European roots, and their
subsequent loss in most daughter languages, led to the development of several parallel
ablaut sequences in Indo-European and its daughter languages. When ablaut is a regular
feature of a language's grammar, it is often called vowel gradation. The ablaut is
distinguished from the phonetic influence of a succeeding vowel, called umlaut.
In linguistics, the process of umlaut (from German um- "around", "transformation" +
laut "sound") is a modification of a vowel which causes it to be pronounced more to the
front of the mouth to accommodate a vowel in the following syllable, especially when
that syllable is an inflectional suffix. This process is found in
many—especially
Germanic—languages. For example, the German noun Mann [man] ("man"), with the a
pronounced as in English "father", becomes Männer in the plural, with a front vowel
sound that is assimilated to the vowel in the -er suffix. The original conditioning
environment in German was an i or j in the following syllable (the plural suffix
originally was -ir). Later, umlaut acquired a grammatical function and was extended by
analogy, for example to form plurals like ("oven"/"ovens"). Note that English, being a
Germanic language, has preserved some of these changes in irregular inflected forms
such as man/men, tooth/teeth, long/length, old/elders, etc., even though it has lost the
suffixes that originally caused them, and has changed their spelling.
The word is
also used to refer to the diacritic mark composed of two small dots placed over a vowel
to indicate this change in German and Hungarian, the German ones are ä, ö, and ü. In
Finnish and North Germanic languages (i.e., Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian and
Swedish) characters looking similar to German umlauts are in fact considered letters in
their own right, despite their representing sounds similar to the corresponding
sounds n German.
15.Загальні риси морфологічного строю давньогерманських мов.
Unlike modern Germanic languages, ancient ones were languages rich with
morphological diversity. They maintained several distinct cases: the nominative, dative,
accusative, genitive, and instrumental, remnants of which survive only in a few
pronouns in modern English speech.They were not not a static form. Old Germanic
nouns were declined -- that is, the ending of the noun changed to reflect its function in
the sentence. There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and
instrumental. The instrumental case is also known as "ablative", for those who know
Latin. The nominative case indicated the subject of the sentence (eg "cyning" means
"king"). The genitive case indicated possession (eg the "cyninges scip" is "the ship of
the king" or "the king's ship"). The dative case indicated the indirect object of the
sentence (eg "hringas cyninge" means "rings for the king" or "rings to the king"). The
accusative indicates the direct object of the sentence (eg "Æþelbald lufode cyning"
means "Æþelbald loved the king", where Æþelbald is the subject and the king is the
object). The instrumental case indicates the agency whereby something was done, eg
"lifde sweorde", "he lived by the sword", where "sweorde" is the instrumental form of
"sweord"). There were different endings depending on whether the noun was in the
singular (eg "hring", one ring) or plural ("hringas", many rings). Nouns are also
categorized by grammatical gender -- masculine, feminine, or neuter. Masculine and
neuter words generally share their endings. Feminine words have their own subset of
endings. Furthermore, nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak nouns have
their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had
begun to lose their declensional system.
The main categories of Germanic verbs were: Tense(Present and Past);
Person – the 1st, 2nd, 3rd
Number – Singular and Plural (+ Dual in Gothic);
Voice – Active, Passive, (Medio-passive in Gothic);
Mood – Indicative, Optative and Imperative.
Non-Finite Forms – Infinitive and Participles.
16.Іменник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах.
Nouns were categorized by case, number (Singular, Plural, Dual) and grammatical
gender -- masculine, feminine, or neuter. There were five major cases: nominative,
genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental. The instrumental case is also known as
"ablative", for those who know Latin. The nominative case indicated the subject of the
sentence (eg "cyning" means "king"). The genitive case indicated possession (eg the
"cyninges scip" is "the ship of the king" or "the king's ship"). The dative case indicated
the indirect object of the sentence (eg "hringas cyninge" means "rings for the king" or
"rings to the king"). The accusative indicates the direct object of the sentence (eg
"Æþelbald lufode cyning" means "Æþelbald loved the king", where Æþelbald is the
subject and the king is the object). The instrumental case indicates the agency whereby
something was done, eg "lifde sweorde", "he lived by the sword", where "sweorde" is
the instrumental form of "sweord"). There were different endings depending on whether
the noun was in the singular (eg "hring", one ring) or plural ("hringas", many rings).
Masculine and neuter words generally share their endings. Feminine words have their
own subset of endings. Furthermore, nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak
nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns,
since they had begun to lose their declensional system. Nouns consisted of the
following parts: root which expressed meaning, stem-forming suffix (9 types) and a
suffix or n ending. The stem suffixes were lost long ago and only influenced the type of
declension. There were 7 classes of noun stems in Germanic languages:
-o- Goth. wulfs; OE wulf; OHG wolf;
- a- Goth. giba, OE giefu, OHG geba - gift
-i- Goth. gasts, OE giest, OHG gast - guest
-u – Goth. handus; OE hand,OHG hant
-n- Goth. namo, nama; OE nama;
-r- Goth. fadar; OE faeder - father
-nt- Goth. frijonds; OE freond; friend
-s- Goth. agis - awe;
without suffixes – Goth. nahts; OE nieht.
Here is an example of declension of a Gothic word:
Wuldor ('glory', n.)
Singular Plural
Nom. wuldor wuldor
Gen. wuldres wuldra
Dat. wuldre
wuldrum
Acc. wuldor wuldor
17. Прикметник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах.
Adjectives in Old Germanic are declined like nouns. They fall under the same
categories (strong or weak, masculine or feminine or neuter, singular or plural) and have
the same number of cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental).
The difference between the Nouns and the Adjectives was as follows: a) every
Adjective is declined both according to the strong and to the weak declension. Weak
declension forms are used when the Adjective is preceded by a demonstrative pronoun
or the definite article; they are associated with the meaning of definiteness. In all other
contexts forms of the strong declension are used.
Degrees of comparison were formed by means of suffixes -iz, oz; -ista, osta, e.g. Long –
lengra – longest; OHG lang – lengiro – lengist. . The comparatives were declined as
strong adjectives; the superlatives rarely took the forms of the strong declension and
mostly follow the weak declension. Several adjectives have suppletive forms of
comparison or were derived from adverbs.
Examples of Adjectives and how they were declined in Gothic (Masculine Gender):
Strong
Weak
Nom. Midjis (middle)
blinda
Gen. midjis
blindins
Dat. Midjamma
blindin
Loc. Midjana
blindan
18. Займенник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах.
Pronouns. Most pronouns are declined by number, case and gender; in the plural form
most pronouns have only one form for all genders. Additionally, Germanic pronouns
reserve the dual form (which is specifically for talking about groups of two things, eg
"we two" or "you two" or "they two"). These were uncommon even then, but remained
in use throughout the period.
Personal pronouns in OE
1st Person
Case
Singular Plural
Dual
Nominative ic, íc
Wé
wit
Genitive
mín
Úre
uncer
Dative
mé
Ús
unc
Accusative mec, mé úsic, ús uncit, unc
2nd Person
Case
Singular Plural
Dual
Nominative þú
Gé
Git
Genitive
þin
éower
Incer
Dative
þe
éow
Inc
Accusative þéc, þé
3rd Person
éowic, éow incit, inc
Case
Singular
Plural
Nominative hé m., héo f., hit n.
hié m., héo f.
Genitive
his m., hire f., his n.
hiera m., heora f.
Dative
him m., hire f., him n. Him
Accusative hine m., híe f., hit n.
Dual
hié m., hío f.
Indicative pronouns were formed from Indo-European stems TO- or SO. In
interrogative pronouns the stem was *kwo, *kwi. Possessive pronouns in Germanoic
languages were formed from Personal pronouns by means of suffixes – ino – in Singular
and –oro in Plura; and Dual – Goth. Meins, unsar; OE min, user; OHG – min, unser..
19. Числівник. Його морфологічні категорії у давньогерманських мовах.
Numerals were part of nominal group of parts of speech. As Nouns they used to have
the category of case. They were divided into such types as cardinal and ordinal. We can
illustrate them by the examples from old English: an, twegen, thrie, feower, fif, siex,
seofon, eahta, nigon, tien, endleofan, twelf + 10 feower-tien; ty-+ tegund. Some
Numerals had the forms of cases – Nominative, Genitive and Dative. In Gothic the
word AINS (1) was declined as a strong Adjective. 1-3 were declined; from 4 – no
changes. Ordinary numerals were derived from cardinals with suffix - tjo-to. The
numeral FIRST derived from the preposition fore and got the form fyrst; the number
SECOND derived from the word ander. The cardinal numerals were declined as weak
adjectives.
20. Давньогерманське дієслово. Морфологічні категорії. Some unique features of
Germanic languages are:
The levelling of the IE tense system into past and present (or common)
The use of a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of vowel alternation (ablaut) to indicate
past tense.
The presence of two distinct types of verb conjugation: weak (regular) and strong
(irregular). Proto-Germanic had two main verb systems: "strong" and "weak" verbs.
The main categories of Germanic verbs were: Tense (Present and Past);
Person – the 1st, 2nd, 3rd
Number – Singular and Plural (+ Dual in Gothic);
Voice – Active, Passive, (Medio-passive in Gothic);
Mood – Indicative, Optative and Imperative.
Non-Finite Forms – Infinitive and Participles.
(+ from answers to next questions)
21. Сильні дієслова у давньогерманських мовах. Strong verbs
Strong verbs use the Germanic form of conjugation (known as Ablaut). In this form of
conjugation, the stem of the word changes to indicate the tense. We still have verbs like
this in modern English: for example, "sing, sang, sung" is a strong verb, as are "swim,
swam, swum" and "choose, chose, chosen." The root portion of the word changes rather
than its ending. In Old English, there were seven major classes of strong verb; each class
has its own pattern of stem changes. Learning these is a major challenge for students of
the language.The classes had the following distinguishing features to their infinitive
stems:
Class
I
i:
+
1
consonant
Class
II
e:o
or
u:
+
1
consonant
Class III - Originally e + 2 consonants(This was no longer the case by the time of
written
Old
English)
Class IV - e + 1 consonant(usually l or r, plus the verb brecan'to break')
Class V - e + 1 consonant (usually a stop or a fricative)
Class
VI
a
+
1
consonant
Class VII - No specific rule - 1st and 2nd have identical stems(e: or e:o), and the
infinitive and the past participle also have the same stem.
Stem Changes in Strong Verbs
Class
Infinitive
1st Preterite 2nd Preterite Past Participle
Class I
i: OE stigan a: stah
Goth greipan Goth graip
Class II
e:o or u:
e:a
U
O
ceosan
ceas
curon
coren
Goth biudan Goth bauth Goth budum Goth budans
Class III
Helpan healp
hulpon
Goth bundan band bundumn bunden
Class IV
E stelan
Goth niman
Æ stael
Goth nam
æ: staelon
O stolen
Goth nemum Goth numans
Class V
E giefan
Goth giban
Æ geaf
Goth gaf
æ: gaefon
E giefen
Goth gebum Goth gibans
Class VI
A standen
Goth faran
o: stod
for
o: stodon
forum
I stigon
I stigen
Goth gripum Goth gripans
holpen
A standen
farans
Class VII
- laetan
e: or e:o
let
e: or e:o
leton
laeten
The first preterite stem is used in the preterite tense, for the first and third persons
singular. The second preterite stem is used for second person singular, and all persons in
the plural (as well as the preterite subjunctive).The third class went through so many
sound changes that it was barely recognisable as a single class. Regular strong verbs
were all declined roughly the same, with the main differences being in the stem vowel.
22. Слабкі дієслова у германських мовах. Претеріто-презентні та неправільні
діеслова. Atypical verbs Weak verbs
Weak verbs are formed principally by adding endings to past and participles. An
example is "walk, walked" or "learn, learned". There are only three different classes of
weak verb:
-
1) –j- stem – OE nerian – nerede – nered;
Goth. nasjan – nasida - nasiths
2) - o- OE stem – endian – endode – endod;
Goth. salbon – salboda - salboths
3) ai – habban – haefde – haefd.
Goth. haba – habaida -habaiths
In Gothic there were 4 classes of weak verbs.
gawaknan – wake up; fullnan – to be filled.
There are 2 theories about the origin of the dental suffix of weak verbs: 1) from the verb
with the meaning Do (dyde in OE); 2) from Indo-European suffis of Verbal Adjectives
like Latin amatus.
Preterit-Present Verbs were a very ancient group. Their root of the present
form derived from Past form, and the Past tense was formed by means of the dental
suffix –D (-T). Examples: sculan – skal – skulda (shall); magan – maeg – meahta (may);
cunnan – cann, cuthe (can) etc. Their common meaning was that of attitude to the facts,
i.e. modality.So later this group of verbs developed into Modals.
Additionally there is a further group of four verbs which are anomalous, the verbs "will",
"do", "go" and "be". These four have their own conjugation schemes which differ
significantly from all the other classes of verb. This is not especially unusual: "will",
"do", "go", and "be" are the most commonly used verbs in the language, and are very
important to the meaning of the sentences they are used in. Goth. im is, ist, sijum, sijus,
sind; OE eom, beom; eart, bist, is, bith, sind; dōn, dyde (OE);gā(go, OE). gan eode;
willan - wolde
They have their own conjugation schemes to make them as distinct as possible,
to reduce the possibility that a listener will mishear the word.
23. Безособові форми дієслів у давньогерманських мовах. Germanic verbs
had both Finite and Non-Finite Forms. The Verbals included Infinitive, Participle 1 and
Participle 2. Infinitive originated from Verbal Nouns just naming the action but not
showing its characteristics. It included an Indo-European suffix –N- e.g.- berenne,
etannne. It used to be declined as a Noun. It could have complex forms with auxiliary
verbs.
Participle 1 was formed from the present stem by means of suffix _ND – e.g.
berende. Participle 2 had suffix –D or N – e.g. boren. Participle 1 denoted action.
Participle 2 of transitive verbs had passive meaning, non-transitive – active meaning.
They were used in descriptive verb constructions. god to etanne – good to eat; hiora
cyning waes gewundod (their king was wounded).
24.
Word-formation in Ancient Germanic languages.
The most typical ways of word-formation in Germanic languages were:
1)- affixation (prefixes and suffixes)
- -ari – Goth. bokareis, OE bocere, OHG buachari;
-ing, -ung – OE lytling;
- l- Wulfila, Attila;
- ig – staenig;
-isk – mennisk;
Prefixes were more typical for verbs. bi- bistanden; in – instanden..
2) - ablaut + affixation – brinnan – gabrannjan.
3) word connection – Goth. fotu-baurd; OE gold-smith; gudhus. ac-treb (oak tree),
stan-brygj (stone-bridge), boc-craeft (literature), folclagu (public law), hwtelhunta
(whalehunter), cradocild (a child in cradle, infant), saeman (seaman), wintertid (winter
time)Such words were widely used in poetry.
25.
Stylistic stratification of Ancient Germanic lexicon.
Main stylistic layers were:
- common, neutral words
stan, geiz, aex, iss;
- poetical terms (metaphor, epithet synonyms) e.g. in Beowulf.
Beado-swat – battle sweat = blood; Among the compound words there are a lot of
poetic
metaphoric
circumlocutions called kennings. Some notions, such as battle, warrior, had
a great number of such periphrastic nomination (synonymic group of warrior,
for instance had 37 such nomination only in "Beowulf). Some examples of
such words are: garr-berend (spear-carrier), gar-wiga (spear warrior),
sweord-freca (sword-hero),guth-beorn (battle warrior), majo-rinc (relative warrior), juthwine (war friend), here-rinc (army hero), dom-jeorn (eager for fame), byrn-wija
(armour-clad warrior) and many others.
Other notions that had synonymous kennings are:
human body: ban-cofa (bone chamber), ban-hus (house of
bones) bdn-loca (bone-enclosure), tic-hdma (body-home),
flzesc-hdm (home for flesh), ferhd-loca (spirit-enclosure);
- bookish vocabulary (Latin church words, terms) – creda, regol; werlic, wiflic.
26.
Stratification of Ancient Germanic lexicon according to its origin.
- Indo-European – natural phenomena (sunna); animals (wulf); palnts (boc); birds
(aened), peoples (eare), relatives (modor), activity (feoh) etc.
- Germanic – nature, flora, fauna (handus, giefen, land)
- Celtic – runa;
- Latin – days of the week.
A lot of words were borrowed from other languages later (see 27)
27.
The basic sources of borrowings in Ancient Germanic languages. The words
were borrowed into Germanic from many languages. Some examles. The influence of
Latin on Old English should not be ignored. A large percentage of the educated and
literate population (monks, clerics, etc.) were competent in Latin, which was then
Europe's prevalent lingua franca. It is sometimes possible to roughly date the entry of
individual Latin words into Old English based on which patterns of linguistic change
they have undergone, though this is not always reliable. There were at least three notable
periods of Latin influence. The first occurred before the ancestral Saxons left continental
Europe for England. The second began when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to
Christianity, and Latin-speaking priests became widespread. However, the largest single
transfer of Latin-based words occurred following the Norman conquest of 1066, after
which an enormous number of Norman words entered the language. Most of these oïl
language words were themselves derived ultimately from classical Latin, although a
notable stock of Norse words were introduced, or re-introduced, in Norman form. The
Norman Conquest approximately marks the end of Old English and the advent of
Middle English.
The second major source of loanwords to Old English were the Scandinavian words
introduced during the Viking raids of the ninth and tenth centuries. These tend to be
everyday words, and those which are concerned with particular administrative aspects of
the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, which included extensive
holdings all along the eastern seaboard of England and Scotland). The number of Celtic
loanwords is of a much lower order than either Latin or Scandinavian. As few as twelve
loanwords have been identified as being entirely secure. Out of all the known and
suspected Celtic loanwords, most are names of geographical features, and especially
rivers.
28.
Modern classification of the Germanic languages. Linguists reconstruct a
family tree for the Germanic languages. It has three main groups--Eastern (now extinct
and represented only by texts in Gothic); Northern (the Scandinavian languages) and
Western, which in turn has two main groups: German and Anglo-Frisian. So both
modern German and modern English descend from a primitive West Germanic language
family, but they are on different sides of the family. There was clearly one group of
speakers of a single Indo-European dialect, proto-Germanic; these people probably
settled in southern Sweden and in Denmark between four and five thousand years ago.
About 2,500 years ago, maybe a little later, these people migrated into the European
continent proper, keeping mainly to the north, east of the Rhine and west of the Vistula
river. Now the speakers live in a vast territory and have the following languages:
West Germanic
English - 443 Million Speakers - Britain, Ireland, United States, Canada, New Zealand,
Australia, South Africa, India, Philippines;
German – ll8 Million Speakers -Germany, Austria, Switzerland, parts of AlsaceLorraine;
Dutch (including Flemish) - 21 Million Speakers - Netherlands and Belgium;
Afrikaans – 10 Million Speakers - South Africa
Yiddish - 5 Million Speakers - East and South Europe, United States;
Frisian - l/2 Million Speakers - North Sea Coast—Holland to Schleswig-Holstein
North Germanic
Swedish - 9 Million Speakers - Sweden, Finland;
Danish - 8 Million Speakers - Denmark ;
Norwegian - 5 Million Speakers – Norway;
Icelandic - 251,000 Speakers – Iceland;
Faeroese - 47,000 Speakers - Faeroes Islands;
East Germanic (Dead languages)
Gothic,Vandalic, Burgundian, Rugian, Heruler
29.
A brief sketch of history of the English language. Old English (500-1100 AD)
West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles (whose name
is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and Jutes, began populating
the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible
language, similar to modern Frisian--the language of northeastern region of the
Netherlands--that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old English emerged,
Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the
south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast. These invaders pushed the original, Celticspeaking inhabitants out of what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and
Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words. Also influencing English at this time were
the Vikings. Norse invasions, beginning around 850, brought many North Germanic
words into the language, particularly in the north of England. The majority of words in
modern English come from foreign, not Old English roots. In fact, only about one sixth
of the known Old English words have descendants surviving today. Old English, whose
best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, lasted until about 1100. This last
date is rather arbitrary, but most scholars choose it because it is shortly after the most
important event in the development of the English language, the Norman Conquest.
The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500)
William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the
Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as
Anglo-Norman. The Normans were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from
"Norseman") and Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic
influences in addition to the basic Latin roots. The influence of the Normans can be
illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the
aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who
tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict, jury, and
verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. This split, where
words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romanic roots and words frequently used
by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances.
Other times, two different words with roughly the same meaning survive into modern
English. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of the
English population. The laboring and merchant classes grew in economic and social
importance, and along with them English increased in importance compared to AngloNorman. This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English. The
most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Unlike Old
English, Middle English can be read, though with difficulty, by modern Englishspeaking people. By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the
commoners was largely over. In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which
made English the language of the courts and it began to be used in Parliament. The
Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise of Modern English.
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
The next wave of innovation in English came with the Renaissance. The revival of
classical scholarship brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the Language.
Words and phrases were coined or first recorded by Shakespeare, some 2,000 words and
countless catch-phrases are his. Two other major factors influenced the language and
served to separate Middle and Modern English. The first was the Great Vowel Shift.
This was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400. In linguistic terms, the shift
was rather sudden, the major changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not
over, however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has become
considerably more gradual. The last major factor in the development of Modern English
was the advent of the printing press. William Caxton brought the printing press to
England in 1476. Books became cheaper and as a result, literacy became more common.
Finally, the printing press brought standardization to English. The dialect of London,
where most publishing house were located, became the standard. Spelling and grammar
became fixed, and the first English dictionary was published in 1604.
Late-Modern English (1800-Present)
The principal distinction between early- and late-modern English is vocabulary.
Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same, but Late-Modern English has
many more words. These words are the result of two historical factors. The first is the
Industrial Revolution and the rise of the technological society. This necessitated new
words for things and ideas that had not previously existed. The second was the British
Empire. At its height, Britain ruled one quarter of the earth's surface, and English
adopted many foreign words and made them its own. The industrial and scientific
revolutions created a need for neologisms to describe the new creations and discoveries.
For this, English relied heavily on Latin and Greek. Also, the rise of the British Empire
and the growth of global trade served not only to introduce English to the world, but to
introduce words into English. Hindi, and the other languages of the Indian subcontinent,
provided many words, such as shampoo, pajamas. Virtually every language on Earth has
contributed to the development of English, from Finnish (sauna) and Japanese (tycoon)
to the vast contributions of French and Latin. Finally, the 20th century saw two world
wars, and the military influence on the language during the latter half of this century has
been great. Before the Great War, military service for English-speaking persons was rare;
both Britain and the United States maintained small, volunteer militaries. Military slang
existed, but with the exception of nautical terms, rarely influenced standard English.
During the mid-20th century, however, virtually all British and American men served in
the military. Military slang entered the language. Blockbuster, nose dive, camouflage,
radar, roadblock, spearhead, and landing strip are all military terms that made their way
into standard English.
American English
Also significant beginning around 1600 AD was the English colonization of North
America and the subsequent creation of a distinct American dialect. Some
pronunciations and usages "froze" when they reached the American shore. In certain
respects, American English is closer to the English of Shakespeare than modern British
English is. Some "Americanisms" that the British deny are actually originally British
expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost at home (e.g., fall as a
synonym for autumn, trash for rubbish, frame-up which was reintroduced to Britain
through Hollywood gangster movies, and loan as a verb instead of lend).
30.
The general data from the Gothic language.
It is a Germanic language known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from
the 4th century. The language is Germanic but has major differences from other known
Germanic languages. Geography Goths were originally located in Soutern Scandinavia, in
the 3rd century AD moved to Europe and settled on the territory of modern Romania,
Bulgaria, later Ukraine. After dividing into two main parts: Ostrogoths and Wisigoths, the
former settled in Italy, the latter moved to Spain and Southern France. The earliest
records date back to the 3rd century. The majority of texts, including Wulfila's Bible, was
written between the 5th and the 6th century. Soon afterwards, Gothic was assimilated by
Romance dialects in Italy, Spain and France. In Crimea, remnants of Gothic existed till
the 17th century.
It is the only East Germanic language with a sizeable corpus; the others, including
Burgundian and Vandalic, are known, if at all, only from proper names. The Goths had
a tradition of a Scandinavian origin. The main points cited by theories grouping North
and East Germanic are: 1) The evolution of the Proto-Germanic *-jj- and *-gg- into
Gothic ddj (from an older Gothic ggj?) and ggw and Old Norse ggj and ggv
("Holtzmann's law"). For instance, the Old High German genitive of zwei (two) is
zweio, which is distinct from Gothic twaddje and Old Norse tveggja. Whereas German
has the form treu, Gothic has triggws and modern Swedish trygg.
2) The existence of numerous inchoative verbs ending with -na, such as Gothic waknan
and modern Swedish vakna.
3) Gothic is important for the understanding of the evolution of Proto-Germanic into Old
Norse. For instance, the final -n in North Germanic languages, such as navn and namn
(name) is explained by referring to Gothic in which namo had its plural genitive namne.
Sometimes, Gothic explains forms of words found on the oldest runestones, such as the
Gothic word gudja (priest) which explains the word gudija found on the runestone of
Nordhuglo in Norway.
4) A rather archaic phonetic system: Germanic stops were preserved here
together with their specific fricative allophones (t / 6); the Common Germanic *e also
remained in Gothic, though disappeared in all other Germanic languages. Vowel
mutations are exceedingly frequent in morphology. The Verner's Law is absent in Gothic.
5) Being the first attested Germanic language, Gothic fails to display a number of
traits that are shared by all other known Germanic languages. Most conspicuously,
Gothic contains no morphological umlaut; the Gothic word gudja can be contrasted with
the Old Norse cognate gydja ("priestess"); the Norse form contains the characteristic
change /u/ > /y/ that indicates the influence of i-umlaut; the Gothic form shows no such
change.Gothic retains a passive voice inherited from Indo-European, but unattested in
all other Germanic languages. Gothic preserves several verbs that display reduplication
(haitan, "to be called" > haihait) in the formation of the preterit; it had dual number in
pronouns and Verbs; another Indo-European inheritance that has left only a few traces in
Old Norse and Old High German, and is absent in all other Germanic languages.
6) Nominal Morphology. The noun has all four Germanic cases, adjectives and
pronouns also preserved the instrumental case. Types of declension are numerous, having
all three genders. Pronouns often use the dual number, which gradually disappears in
other Germanic dialects. There is also the Indo-European reflexive pronoun seina, sis,
sik 'self.
7) Lexicon. Though the sources of the Gothic language are rather scarce, there are
a great lot of archaic terms which make the language most useful for comparative studies.