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Name: ANSWERS Human Evolution 5 Year 13 Science Ruawai College 2013 In the examination: Resource material may use the names of currently recognised species. If candidates use named species in their answer, any information they produce must be consistent with those species named. Trends are limited to those exhibited by early bipedal hominins onwards and may involve comparison with other living hominids (apes). Any discussion of the causes of hominin evolution should consider the selection pressures that would lead to evolutionary change. Cultural evolution covers the following tool cultures and key species associated with them, through to development of agriculture and early settlements: • Oldowan • Acheulean • Mousterian • Upper Palaeolithic • Neolithic. Dispersal of hominins covers the period up to 10 000 years ago. Candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the ecological/evolutionary changes that could drive such dispersal. Scientific evidence relating to human evolution may include skeletal remains, nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, tools, evidence from scientific and comparative dating. Answers must be based on scientific evidence. Biological Evolution: change in genetic information from generation to generation genotypes selected for in natural selection genes of successful genotypes increase in gene pool genes of unsuccessful genotypes decrease in gene pool slow and not directional mutation that leads to new genes is random and not controlled Cultural Evolution: 1. change in learned information from generation to generation skills, knowledge, history, beliefs, attitudes stored in a population by oral or written means fast and directional can be controlled by humans How is genetic information passed from generation to generation? Through inheritance of DNA / genes with mutations and selection for favourable traits 2. Who do you inherit genetic information from? Parents 3. How is learned information passed from generation to generation? Teaching, modelling 4. Who do you inherit learned information from? Parents, uncles, aunts, grandparents, other adults 5. Why is biological evolution slow? relies on mutation of DNA and natural selection of favourable traits 6. Why is cultural evolution fast? Passed on intentionally through learning Evolution of the Homo genus occurred in the ‘stone age’ (Palaeolithic). Physical and cultural changes occurred and evolved over the next 2 million years. brain progressively enlarged stature got taller ability to hunt developed improved and varied diet meat rich in protein and fat – high energy content – less time spent gathering food stone tools developed controlled use of fire social organisation became more complex speech developed Homo habilis – handy man – lived 2.3 to 1.4 mya 7. first and oldest of species transitional between Australopithecines and the Homo species Australopithecine type body – long arms human like face – less protruding brain bigger than Australopithecine’s but smaller than modern humans intelligence and social organisation more sophisticated than Australopithecine’s fossils accompanied by simple stone tools – Oldowan tool culture How long ago did Homo habilis live? 2.3 to 1.4 million years ago 8. Why is Homo habilis thought to be transitional between the Australopithecine and the Homo species? Has some primitive characteristic – Australopithecine body type And human characteristics – larger brain, flat face, increased intelligence and social oraganisation, use of tools Oldowan stone tools 9. one side broken H habilis used fine-grained rock H habilis understood how to strike rock at correct angle once or twice to make sharp flake used as choppers, hammers, diggers to work wood, cut meat, cut reeds, dig up roots used for scavenging rather than killing kills easily processed, tough plant food crushed or cut – more food sources available What did Oldowan tools like? One side sharpened 10. How were Oldowan tools made? Striking on one side 11. What were Oldowan tools used for? Work wood, cut meat, cut reeds, dig up roots 12. Why would more food sources be available because stone tools were in use? Food could be processed before eating – tough food now cut into smaller pieces so can be eaten Homo habilis believed to be first to used tools – but Australopithecus garhi (2.6 mya) may also have done so – tools found with fossil remains. Widely accepted that Homo habilis was ancestor of later Homo species – but Homo ergaster / erectus may have co-existed – so may have a common ancestor – no fossil remains have been yet discovered. 13. Why is it thought that Australopithecus garhi used Oldowan stone tools? Found with fossil remains 14. Why do some scientists believe Homo habilis and Homo ergaster / erectus had a common ancestor? Have similar characteristics 15. Why do some scientists not believe this is the case? No fossil evidence found Some scientists believe that Homo ergaster and Homo erectus are one species. Some scientists believe they are two different species. H ergaster – ‘Turkana boy’ divered from H habilis about 1.9 – 1.8 mya then divered to H erectus H erectus – ‘Peking man’ ‘Java man’ had migrated to Asia Commonly thought – one species – Homo erectus – two populations – Africa and Asia slight skull differnces between two populations of one species 16. Why do some scientists believe that Homo ergaster and Homo erectus are two different species? Skulls are different 17. What is the commonly held view? One species with two populations, one in Asia and one in Africa The African population of Homo erectus is thought to be the ancestor of the Homo heidelbergensis, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. Another separate species – Homo georgicus – may have emerged from Africa about 800 000 years before Homo erectus. It took: 200 000 years for Homo erectus to appear in Asia 300 000 years to appear in Europe Migration linked to: cooler drier conditions from wet, tropical open savannah from forest change in food – tree fruits to grass seeds and roots change in prey and predator species – food more easily obtained 18. Where did Homo erectus migrate to from Africa? Europe and Asia Place Turkana, Kenya Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania Ubeidiya, Israel Atapuerca Spain Dmanisi, Georgia Longgupo Cave, China Java 19. Occupation dates (earliest known) 1.6 to 1.9 mya 1.2 to 1.8 mya 1.5 mya 780 000 ya 1.7 mya 1.78 mya 1.6 mya (some date it 1.8 mya) Find the places of occupation on the world map and show the migration routes of Homo erectus. Homo erectus used more diverse and sophisticated tools than Homo habilis – Acheulean tool culture. Acheulean tools: 20. more complex than Oldowan tools two faced (bi-facial) flake tools symmetrical tear-drop, oval or disc shape made for specific purpose – e.g. hand axe for chopping tools took a long time to make – average 65 blows scraping patterns on fossil bones show how these were used What did Acheulean tools like? Sharpened on two sides 21. How were Acheulean tools made? Striking numerous times average of 65 22. What were Acheulean tools used for? Chopping, cutting, scraping foods from bones Early Homo erectus in Africa used Oldowan stone tools but developed Acheulean tools over time. The Asian population – only Oldowan tools found with fossil remains. Homo erectus (thought to have been) first to have controlled use of fire in Europe and Asia charred animal bones, heat-altered stones and hearths found 1.5 mya used and maintained fire from original, natural source e.g. lightning first to have hunter-gatherer existence living in bands and hunting cooperatively 23. Fire used for: providing light keeping predators away cooking food meeting place hardening wooden spear points providing warmth Why was Homo erectus thought to be the first hominin to use fire? Remains of burnt animal bones, stones changed by fire, hearths found 1.5 mya 24. Where was fire obtained from? From natural sources like lightening Advantages of fire: cooking makes food softer and easier to chew and to digest. Kills parasites and detoxifies some plant poisons (tuberous roots). Shortens time spent chewing and eating – freeing time source of warmth – allows new habitats to be exploited, colder areas may have more resources keeping predators away from campsites – allows activities to be performed in safety (cooking, making tools, raising young) – gives group stability hardened wooden spear points – improved hunting stampede animals into traps or over a cliff light – extended time to make tools etc. allows social interaction meeting place – social organisation to allow communication, planning, learning, sharing 25. Distinguish between biological evolution and cultural evolution. Biological evolution involves changes in genes; cultural evolution involves changes in knowledge, ideas, thoughts, customs, skills. Biological evolution is inherited from parents, is fixed within an individual and can be passed on only to offspring Cultural information is acquired/learnt from the environment, is easily modified, and can be passed on to any individual rapidly 26. Explain why cultural evolution can occur much faster than biological evolution. Cultural evolution can happen within a lifetime / generation Biological evolution can happen only once from generation to generation and occurs over many generations 26. Describe Homo habilis and explain in what ways the species might be transitional between the Australopithecines and the Homo line. Homo habilis was small, and bipedal, like the rest of the Homo line. While cranium size was still small with a 500 to 800 cm3 volume, and there were distinct brow ridges – Australopithecine features Teeth were small with no large canines and jaw was U shaped, similar to Homo species 27. Complete the table comparing Oldowan and Acheulean tool cultures. Oldowan Acheulean Associated with: Homo habilis Homo erectus Tools made from: stone Stone Number of blows needed to fashion typical tool Number of faces of tool 1 or 2 65 One Two Shape of tool Rounded, sharp flake Tools used for Chopping, hammering, digging, cutting Symmetrical tear-drop, oval or disc shape Chopping, spearing, slicing – constructed for specific purpose Example diagram 28. List five uses of fire and for each describe one advantage for those that used it. Use of fire Evolutionary Advantage Shortens time spent eating, allowing more time for other activities Cooking food Source of warmth Allow exploitation of new habitats Keeping predators away Daily activities performed in safety Harden wooden spear Improved hunting ability Source of light Longer time to carry out home based activities e.g. making tools, more social interaction 29. Describe the ways in which biological and cultural evolution made Homo erectus a more advanced hominin than Homo habilis. a. biological evolution H. erectus was taller, heavier and had a larger cranial capacity H. habilis b. – indicating a larger brain than cultural evolution Acheulean tools used by H. erectus were more refined and sophisticated than the Oldowan tools used by H. habilis. H. erectus had controlled use of fire, which enhanced many aspects of life e.g. socialisation, cooking, hardening tools, driving away predators, warmth. H. erectus lived in groups and co-operatively hunted. Communication was more advanced in H. erectus than H. habilis. 30. Suggest reasons for: a. the great diversity in fossil remains of Homo erectus H. erectus migrated out of Africa and spread throughout Europe and Asia. In doing so H. erectus occupied a great diversity of environments, all with different selection pressures which will have acted to select different features from populations in other environments. b. the classification of the fossil remains found in Georgia as belonging to a separate species the remains are sufficiently different that scientists believe they fall outside the natural variation of a single species and so they are put into a new species. 31. The earliest evidence of tool making, known as Oldowan tool culture, has been associated with Homo habilis approximately 2 to 1.5 mya. Homo erectus (1.8 mya to 300 000 ya) was the first known species to use fire and Acheulean stone tools. a. Explain how Acheulean tools differ from Oldowan tools in their design and manufacture. Acheulean tools are more sophisticated than Oldowan tools, as they were made with greater precision with more finer blows to shape the tool. The hand-axe shape is more refined than the axe of the Oldowan culture, so took greater time and skill to form b. The table presents fossil data for species belong to the genus Homo. Hominin species Homo habilis Estimated existence mya 2.0 to 1.5 Cranial capacity (cm3) 500-800 Evidence of use of Fossil excavation fire sites No East Africa Homo georgicus 1.8 to 1.7 600-780 No Homo erectus / ergaster Homo heidelbergensis 1.7 to 0.2 800-1100 Yes 0.6 to 0.25 1000-1300 yes Europe / Asia (Georgia) Africa and Asia Africa, Asia and Europe The map shows fossil excavation sites for several Homo species. Homo erectus is considered to be the first hominin capable of migrating out of Africa and across Asia about 1.5 million years ago. Discuss the reasons why many scientists believe Homo erectus was the first hominin equipped to migrate out of Africa: You should consider: evidence from the table of fossil data and the map the features of Homo erectus that enabled it to survive outside Africa evidence that conflicts with this view Fossils of H. erectus are found outside Africa, while those of other earlier forms H. habilis and H. ergaster are found only in Africa – so did not migrate out of Africa H. erectus had a larger cranial capacity than earlier forms, so had greater ability to plan e.g. manufacture of Acheulean tools control fire – would have greatly aided survival in the colder climates of regions north and east of Africa – other forms unlikely to survive More sophisticated tools would have increased hunting and scavenging, aiding survival Increased brain capacity with evidence of Broca’s area – evidence of greater ability to communicate and plan – co-operative hunting – increasing chance of success Improved diet would also have assisted survival Conflicting evidence comes from H. georgicus – hominins were older, had smaller brains, only had Oldowan tools but apparently left Africa before H. erectus.