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From the Orig ghtenment
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area umanistica
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s Historical c t
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s Literary con
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s Great Write
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s Questions a
s Glossary
SIMONE
EDIZIONI
Estratto della pubblicazione
Š
Gruppo Editoriale Esselibri - Simone
Copyright © 2010 Esselibri S.p.A.
Via F. Russo 33/D
80123 Napoli
Tutti i diritti riservati
È vietata la riproduzione anche parziale
e con qualsiasi mezzo senza l’autorizzazione
scritta dell’editore.
Per citazioni e illustrazioni di competenza altrui, riprodotte in questo libro,
l’editore è a disposizione degli aventi diritto. L’editore provvederà, altresì, alle
opportune correzioni nel caso di errori e/o omissioni a seguito della segnalazione degli interessati.
Prima edizione: maggio 2010
PK4/1
ISBN 97888-244-5381-3
Ristampe
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2010
2011
2012
2013
Questo volume è stato stampato presso
Officina Grafica Iride
Via Prov.le Arzano-Casandrino, VII Trav., 24 - Arzano (NA)
Per informazioni, suggerimenti, proposte: [email protected]
A cura di:
Giovanni Ciotola
Grafica e copertina:
Gianfranco De Angelis
2014
2015
Presentazione
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Il volume è indirizzato agli allievi della scuola superiore, a chi è già
iscritto a una facoltà universitaria, e a quanti, in procinto di sostenere
esami e concorsi, debbano affrontare lo studio della storia e della
letteratura britanniche in lingua inglese, per il periodo che va dalle Origini all’Illuminismo (From the Origins to the Age of Enlightenment); ma si rivolge anche a coloro i quali desiderino rimpadronirsi di conoscenze che il tempo ha affievolito, o che vogliano avvicinarsi a una disciplina che non fa parte del proprio bagaglio culturale,
o ancora che, per qualche motivo, abbiano la necessità di avere a
disposizione uno strumento di consultazione schematico ed efficace.
La struttura, improntata alla massima funzionalità, semplicità e
chiarezza, consente di apprendere rapidamente, anche in virtù di
frequenti e mirati loghi di rinvio, concetti e contenuti. A ciò concorre
soprattutto l’organizzazione degli argomenti secondo sezioni fisse,
che si ripetono puntualmente per ognuno dei capitoli in cui è suddiviso il libro:
• il Contesto storico (Historical context) → inquadramento dei fondamentali eventi politici, economici, sociali della storia britannica;
• il Contesto letterario (Literary context) → introduzione al pensiero dell’epoca; evoluzione della figura dell’intellettuale e della
lingua; individuazione delle più importanti correnti culturali; poesia, prosa e teatro, con relativi autori e opere cosiddetti «minori»;
• i Grandi autori (Great Writers) → vita, profilo, opere dei principali protagonisti del panorama letterario d’Oltremanica.
Il testo garantisce, pur nella snellezza tipica della sintesi, esaustività
e precisione; è redatto in uno stile piano e di immediata comprensione; si avvale di una piacevole veste grafica, studiata per facilitare la memorizzazione in tempi brevi delle nozioni, e del ricorso
Estratto della pubblicazione
a espedienti di indubbia efficacia nell’evidenziare i molteplici aspetti
dell’evento storico-letterario:
• le glosse esplicative, numerose nel corso della trattazione, dedicate ai più disparati argomenti connessi al tema in questione e
capaci di stuzzicare la curiosità del lettore;
• le tavole cronologiche (Chronological table of events) che riassumono gli avvenimenti storici più rilevanti verificatisi nel periodo
analizzato;
• la rubrica d’Approfondimento (Focus on), la quale mette in
evidenza uno dei momenti o dei personaggi ritenuti centrali nell’intervallo cronologico sotto osservazione.
Un’attenzione particolare è stata comunque riservata all’esposizione
della poetica degli autori maggiormente rappresentativi e alla disamina critica della loro produzione più significativa.
Per valutare il livello di preparazione raggiunto, ogni capitolo è completato inoltre da una nutrita serie di quesiti a risposta multipla
(Questions), con soluzioni e annotazioni di commento (Answers
and explanations) rigorose e puntuali.
L’opera è corredata, infine, di un ampio e pratico Glossario (Glossary), ricco di termini, di concetti, di riferimenti a figure illustri dello
scenario culturale inglese e internazionale, la cui assimilazione è propedeutica a una migliore comprensione del discorso storico-letterario.
CHAPTER 1
Historical context
Ancient Times of Britain
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The earliest inhabitants. The ancient maps show Britain as a remote outpost, surrounded by the sea, but it seems certain that in earlier ages Britain was joined to the continent by a strip of land.
Between 3000 and 2000 B.C. waves of immigrants settled in the
country. The earliest inhabitants belonged to the Iberian stock, a
small dark race. We can see, from relics found in Cornwall, Wales and
Southern land dating back to these times, that they were a well organized people and had attained a certain degree of culture.
A new race of Alpine stock from the Low Countries reached Britain
around 2000 B.C. They are referred to as the Beaker folk (→ Glossary) due to the characteristic cups found in their graves.
The construction of monuments in stone circles, of which Avebury
and Stonehenge (1000 B.C.) are the most famous, was probably due to
the fusion of the two peoples. These first inhabitants reached a good
standard of civilization in Early and Middle Bronze Ages.
The Celtic tribes. Around 700 B.C. a first wave of Celtic invaders
reached Britain: the Gaels or Goidels. They were tall, fair and warlike
people, more interested in conquest than in raids and plunder, and
were always accompanied by their families.
They were followed by the Brythons in 500 B.C. and the Belgae in 100
B.C. These peoples blended pacifically keeping their tribal organization alive.
Class division in Celtic society was not sharply marked, and the
economic life of the nation was centred on the kinship group and its
joint property, called Gwely. Important relationships linked these
groups: they exchanged products amongst themselves, which suggests
a certain division of labour.
Their agriculture was primitive, they used a plough which only
scratched the soil, but with the coming of the Belgae, who introduced
5
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Chapter 1 - Historical context
the «iron plough», the system of cultivation improved and Britain became a corn-growing country.
The Roman rule. Julius Caesar’s invasions in 55 and 54 B.C. were
more due to strategical motives to assure the occupation of Gaul than
to a definite plan of conquest. In fact, after having obtained the formal
promise from the chief Cassivellaunus of no further interference in
helping and encouraging the Gaulish rebels, Cesar left the country.
The conquest of Britain took place almost a century later, under
the reign of Claudius, in 43 A.D. The Roman legions landed in Britain,
and after an initial success in the south, the Romans had to fight about
forty years to consolidate their domination.
The most serious opposition came from the Iceni, led by their
queen Boadicea who, in 60 A.D., having been defeated by the Romans, committed suicide. Her heroic resistance is commemorated by a
famous monument in London.
The conquest of the country was completed in 84 A.D. Once the
Romans had consolidated the military defence of the country, they
devoted themselves to the organization of the new province by establishing an efficient administrative system.
During the Roman rule, new towns and an excellent network of
roads were built. Mines were exploited, trade became considerable
and agriculture increasingly improved.
However, Britain was never completely romanized, and only the upper
classes followed Roman patterns and customs, whereas the rest of the population and their tribal organization were never seriously interfered with.
In 407 the Roman legions were withdrawn and sent to face the
increasing menace of Barbarian tribes. The Roman Empire began to
show the first signs of weakness and the inability to proceed in its
expansion, which had become the resource for a parasitical proletariat
and for capitalists. These internal problems, combined with the difficulty of reinforcing a slave army, the divisions and the rivalries between generals, and the attacks of Barbarian tribes made its decline
inevitable. Britain, as the most remote province of the Roman Empire,
decayed and almost all traces of the Latin civilization disappeared.
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7
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Ancient Times of Britain
The Anglo-Saxon conquest. After the withdrawal of the Roman legions, the Celts-Romans were left defenceless and had to provide themselves with a government. They had to face attacks from the Picts and
Scots (the name «Pict», from the Latin word picti, seems to refer to their
painted faces).
In 450 A.D. a new powerful enemy appeared: the Anglo-Saxons.
They belonged to the most backward German tribes, who were followed by another group, the Jutes, a Frankish tribe of a higher cultural level.
The Anglo-Saxons asserted themselves gradually; the conquest was
brought to conclusion in 613, when the chief of the Angles, Etelfrith,
defeated and submitted the last defenders of Chester. The Anglo-Saxons
formed the so called Heptarchy (→ Glossary), and the country was
divided into seven kingdoms: Wessex, Sussex, Kent, Essex, East Anglia,
Mercia and Northumbria. Some of these kingdoms have survived and
nowadays are the names of English modern counties. Each kingdom
was ruled by a king elected by the Witan (→ Glossary), a council composed of the dignitaries of the State and the Church. The national unity
was preserved by the institution of a Bretwalda (→ Glossary) to act as
overlord over the kingdoms and its rulers.
Long internal struggles among these Thanes: they are warriors, or
kingdoms and recurrent raids from Scandi- retainers, who follow and fight
navian peoples characterized the subsequent for their lord. They are also
considered to be members of
years, and contributed in strengthening the the comitatus, which is an
rank of Warriors or thanes.
agreement between the lord
Even before the Anglo-Saxons came to and his men. This agreement
Britain their tribal organization was disinte- states that the warriors will
fight for their lord and will regrating; but the first townships, assembling ceive payments in the form of
people without any link of kinship, arose. shelter, helmets, gold rings,
The trend toward a new social organization bracelets and other valuables
from their lord in the end if
increased around 700 A.D.: private proper- the battle is won.
ty began to take shape with king’s grants
and the authority of the State grew in importance.
All these tendencies were accelerated by the conversion of the
pagan tribes to Christianity. In 597 the monk Augustine had estab-
lished the first mission in Canterbury. Christianity added to the existing class division a third class, composed of clergymen and men of
learning.
During the 9th century the raids made by Scandinavian peoples
became more frequent and bold. In 866 the Danes subdued Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia, and the English had to face their attempt aiming at conquering the whole country. Their advance was
checked by Alfred (849-899), king of Wessex (871-899), in the Battle
of Ethandune (878). The Peace of Wedmore (878) confined the Danes
to the Danelaw, the central and northern part of the country.
King Alfred the Great can be considered as the greatest king of
the period and one of the best kings ever to rule mankind. He reorganized his reign with a series of wise reforms and transformed his court
into a refined centre of learning.
Alfred’s successors ruled wisely, but in the 10th century the Danish
invasions were renewed by Sweyn, king of Denmark and Norway. He
imposed money payments called Danegeld and in 994 he invaded the
country. Sweyn’s son, Canute the Great, became king of England
(1017-1035), and the Danes and the Anglo-Saxons, closely akin in language and customs, merged into one people. At Canute’s death, his
sons were incapable of holding their dominions and the old English
line was restored with Edward the Confessor (1042-1066).
Focus on
Chapter 1 - Historical context
Danegeld
The «Danegeld» is a medieval land tax originally raised to buy off raiding Danes
and later used for military expenditures. In England the tribute was first levied
in 868, then in 871 by King Alfred, and occasionally thereafter. Under Ethelred
(c. 965-1016) it became a regular tax, and was collected by later rulers until the
12th century, when it was converted into «Tallage» or «Talliage» (a similar land
tax). The term has come to be used as a warning and a criticism of paying any
coercive payment whether in money or kind.
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF EVENTS
3000-2000 B.C. Waves of immigrants settled in Britain: the earliest inhabitants belonged to the Iberian stock.
2000 B.C. Beaker folk reached Britain.
700-100 B.C. Celtic invaders reached Britain: Gaels or Goidels (700), Brythons (500) and Belgae (100).
55-54 B.C. Julius Caesar’s invasion.
43 A.D. The Roman conquest took place.
407 A.D. Withdrawal of the Romans. The menace of Barbarian tribes increased.
410-440 A.D. The Celts-Romans had to face attacks from the Picts and Scots.
450 A.D. The Anglo-Saxons and then the Jutes invaded Britain.
597 A.D. Conversion of the pagan tribes to Christianity: the monk Augustine established the first
mission in Canterbury.
613 A.D. The Anglo-Saxon conquest was brought to conclusion: the country was divided into seven
kingdoms.
800-850 A.D. The raids made by Scandinavian peoples became frequent.
866 A.D. The Danes subdued a part of Britain.
878 A.D. King Alfred defeated the Danes in the Battle of Ethandune.
994 A.D. Sweyn, king of Denmark and Norway, invaded Britain.
1017-1035 A.D. Reign of Canute the Great.
1042-1066 A.D. Reign of Edward the Confessor.
Literary context
Anglo-Saxon literature
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•
•
•
The Old English period
The Middle English period
Modern Times
Anglo-Saxon literature
The history of English literature falls into three main periods:
·
·
·
(from the 6th century up to 1100);
(from 1100 to 1500);
(from 1500 to the present).
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The first period from the departure of the Romans to the Norman conquest
was characterized by struggles and continuous invasions. In this nebulous and
turbulent period there was no local literary production, and what we find was
imported by the invaders, so the first examples belong to the Anglo-Saxon
literature.
The chief glory of this literature was poetry; the first poems dating back to
the 6th century reflected the German heritage of the conquerors, their pagan religion and warlike civilization. Anglo-Saxon poems dealt with heroic
deeds accomplished by warriors and were handed down orally. The scopas
(Anglo-Saxon poets) used to recite them in the halls of warrior lords, as
entertainment, so no original example has reached us.
It was only after St. Augustine’s arrival and the conversion of the AngloSaxons to Christianity that a written tradition developed. Clerics, who were
the only literate class, assumed the task of preserving and spreading culture.
It was due to the obscure work of clerks in monasteries that some examples
of Anglo-Saxon poetry have survived, even if altered and deprived of all
that was in contrast with their religion.
The greatest part of Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts
dating from the 11th century:
Chapter 1 - Literary context
·
·
·
·
•
•
•
•
The Cotton Vitellius in the British Museum;
The Junius in the Bodleian Library (Oxford);
The Exeter Book in the Exeter Cathedral;
The Vercelli Book discovered in 1832 in the Chapter House of Vercelli
Cathedral.
The language. The Anglo-Saxon language, belonging to the AngloFrisian family of the West Germanic languages, became dominant in
Britain, except in Wales and other mountainous areas where the Celtic
characters were preserved (in Wales people still speak a Celtic language, even though they also speak English). Anglo-Saxon was an
inflected language based on an elaborate system of declensions, very
different from Modern English. In order to preserve a continuity with
the past it is called Old English.
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1) Poetry
Anglo-Saxon poetry expressed the ideals and concerns of the time:
an age of battles and warriors. As we mentioned before, it exalts heroism and bravery; but together with the celebration of these absolute
values, it is pervaded with a note of pessimism and pensive moods
about the destiny of man. Life is compared to the flight of a bird, coming
from darkness crossing a lighted hall and disappearing into darkness
again; nothing is known about what precedes life and what comes after
it: only the hero’s fame can survive death. Gloomy and wild sceneries,
grey skies and rough seas, characterize the natural landscape in AngloSaxon poems, suggesting the struggle of man in an unfriendly world,
and an untamed and primitive existence.
The most famous epic (→ Glossary) Summary of Beowulf: a monpoem is Beowulf, contained in The Cotton ster called Grendel every night
Vitellius and dated between 600 and 800 attacks the palace of the Danish
king Hrothgar. Beowulf, nephew
A.D. It belonged to the oral tradition and of the king of the Geats, fights
was not written down until the 9th century Grendel and kills him. But soon
probably by monks. The author of the poem he has to face the monster’s
who wants to revenge
is unknown, and Britain is never mentioned mother
her son’s death, and after a fierce
in it. Beowulf reflects a curious blend be- struggle in a deep cave, the hero
tween heroic paganism and the principles succeeds in killing her too. Then,
of the Christian faith. Wild scenes are sof- Beowulf becomes king of the
Geats and reigns peacefully for
tened, and the hero reveals a nobility and fifty years, but a new monster,
purity strongly Christian in character. But it this time a fire-breathing dragis almost impossible to distinguish to what on, ravages the country to take
revenge of the stolen treasure
extent it was due to a period of transition of which he was the guardian.
between the two different beliefs and what Once again Beowulf shows his
was due to the work of the monks who courage and, to save his people, faces the monster and kills
wrote it down.
• Widsith, a vivid picture of the lords of the time and their ways of life;
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Anglo-Saxon literature
him, but he is mortally wound-
The same melancholic atmosphere ap- ed in the fight.
pears in the so called Pagan Elegies, contained in The Exeter Book.
They express more personal moods and the most remarkable are:
Chapter 1 - Literary context
• The Seafarer, a monologue of a sailor attracted by a loneliness and
adventurous life at sea;
• The Wanderer, in which the author complains the loss of his lord;
• The Ruined Burgh, a meditation on the vanished glory of a city
(probably the Roman city of Bath), victim of Fate or Wyrd (→
Glossary);
• Deor’s Lament, in which the author comforts himself with the thought
of Fate’s habitual unkindness.
Other poems are the Wife’s Complaint and the Lover’s Message.
The largest part, if not the most valuable of the Anglo-Saxon poetic
production, is represented by the Christian poetry, in which the heroic
themes are replaced by religious subjects, even though the techniques
and the vocabulary are the same. Its aim was to instruct people by
offering them exalting examples from the Bible and the lives of Saints.
Most of the authors of Christian poetry are unknown and only few
poems can be attributed with a certain degree of security to two poets:
Cædmon (7th century) and Cynewulf (late 8th-early 9th century).
Cædmon was quoted by Venerable Bede (673-735) in Historia
Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum. According to his report, Cædmon was
a herdsman who, by heavenly grace, had received the gift of composing poetry, and then had devoted his life to the celebration of God’s
glory. Of his religious poems only the first lines of the Hymn to Creation have survived.
Cynewulf composed the two poems contained in The Exeter Book:
The Ascension and Juliana; and the two contained in The Vercelli
Book: Elene and The Fates of the Apostles.
Other interesting poems are The Dream of the Rood (Rood means
«Cross»), where the tree, from which the Cross was made, relates its
story; The Phoenix, the miraculous bird rising from its own ashes,
symbolizing Christ’s resurrection; The Battle of Maldon, about a real
battle fought against the Danes.
In Anglo-Saxon poems the normal line was composed of a varying
number of syllables divided into two halves (each half containing two
stressed syllables) separated by a caesura (→ Glossary).
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Beowulf mabelode - bearn Eegbeowes:
«Ne sorga, snotor guma! - Selre bid aeghwaem
baet he his freond wrece - bonne he fela murne […]».
→
original
version
Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, spoke these words:
«Grieve not, wise man. Better it is for each
that he avenge his friend than mourn him much […]».
→
modern
version
As rhyme (→ Glossary) was unknown, the rhythm (→ Glossary)
was obtained through alliteration (→ Glossary), which consisted of a
repetition of the same consonant sounds generally at the beginning of
words. Of great importance were the kennings, short periphrases
used by the Anglo-Saxons to replace common names; for example:
battle flashes was used for sword; night helm for darkness; earth stepper for traveller. The uniformity in accent, style and metre (→ Glossary) made this poetry rather monotonous.
The Anglo-Saxon prose developed later than poetry, and the scholars
of the time wrote in Latin, which was the universal language of learned
people and of the Church.
It was only during Alfred’s reign that a literary prose began to
flourish. King Alfred, known as «the Great», in order to educate his
people, translated Latin works such as Cura Pastoralis by Pope Gregory the Great, and Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius.
This period dates the start of the most representative prose work,
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a report of historical events from the beginning of Christianity to the 12th century.
In the 10th century prose writing reached its best: outstanding writers
were Aelfric (c. 955-c. 1020) and Bishop Wulfstan (?-1023).
Because of his knowledge of Latin, Aelfric was nicknamed «Grammaticus»; he wrote the Lives of Saints and Catholic Homilies, in which
he resumed the practice of instructing people.
13
Anglo-Saxon literature
2) Prose
Chapter 1 - Literary context
The works of Wulfstan, archbishop of York, reflected wider concerns. Deeply interested in the problems of his time, he wrote a treatise about the administration of the State and a reform of the Church;
his most famous work is the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos.
However, on the whole, the existing body of Anglo-Saxon prose is
much more valuable as historical and philological (→ Glossary, see
«philology») documents than as literary works.
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Questions
1. The first inhabitants of Britain were the Iberians. In what period did a
new race, coming from the Low Countries, reach Britain?
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❏
❏
❏
❏
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
About 2000 B.C.
Between 3000 and 2000 B.C.
About 1000 B.C.
In the Bronze Age
After the Celtic invasion
2. In which groups can the Celtic tribes, that invaded Britain from 700
to 100 B.C., be distinguished?
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❏
❏
❏
❏
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
The
The
The
The
The
Beaker folk, the Goidels and the Helvetii
Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes
Picts and the Scots
Danes and the Iceni
Gaels, the Brythons and the Belgae
3. Why did Julius Caesar land in Britain in 55 and 54 B.C.?
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❏
❏
❏
❏
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
To expand the domains of the Roman Empire
To prevent a British invasion
He was intentioned to conquer the country
To assure the occupation of Gaul
To stop the increasing menace of Barbarian tribes
4. Did the Roman rule, which lasted for about four centuries, interfere
with the Celtic tribal organization?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Yes
No
Only in a small part
Only in the military defence system
Britain was completely romanized
Questions
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❏
❏
❏
❏
15
5. What new political asset was imposed on Britain by the Anglo-Saxons, after their conquest of the country?
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Their tribal organization
The so called «Heptarchy»
A warlike civilization
The unification of the kingdoms
Peace treaties with Scandinavian tribes
6. What did the so called «Danegeld» consist of?
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
In
In
In
In
In
a debt of war
a tax system imposed on people
the Danish invasion
the payment of big sums to the Danes
the part of the country subdued by the Danes
7. The Anglo-Saxon «scopas» composed their verses and recited them
in the halls of warriors as entertainment. So, how was Anglo-Saxon
poetry handed down?
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Orally
The poets used to write them down
An oral and written tradition existed
By the work of clerks in monasteries
It is still a controversial point
8. Which other elements or motives characterized the Anglo-Saxon poetry, besides the celebration of bravery and heroism?
Chapter 1
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
16
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
The exaltation of pagan themes
The struggle of men in a bright and friendly world
Delightful descriptions of the natural landscape
The knowledge of what precedes and follows life
Pensive moods and a sense of pessimism
9. What change can be noted in poetry after the conversion of the
Anglo-Saxons to Christianity?
❏ a) The loss of pessimism
❏ b) The achievement of a better artistic standard
❏ c) The most warlike and heroic themes are replaced by religious subjects
❏ d) The vocabulary is more sophisticated
❏ e) The alteration of the poetical metre
10. Which prose-work of the time is considered as the most representative?
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The Cura Pastoralis
The Lives of Saints
The Catholic Homilies
The Sermo Lupi ad Anglos
1. Answer: a). The first inhabitants of Britain were the Iberians;
they had settled in the country between 3000 and 2000 B.C.
About 2000 B.C. a new race of Alpine stock, coming from the
Low Countries, reached Britain. They blended with the Iberians
and achieved a good standard of civilization: they are known as
the Beaker folk.
2. Answer: e). Among the first waves of Celtic tribes that invaded
Britain there were the Gaels, who were followed by the Brythons
in 500 B.C. and by the Belgae in 100 B.C. They blended peacefully
with the Iberians and imposed their tribal organization.
3. Answer: d). Julius Caesar’s expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 B.C.
were not due to a definite plan of conquest but to the exigency of
preventing the Celtics interference in Gaul, as they used to help
and encourage the Gaulish rebels. Once obtained the formal prom17
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Answers and explanations
Answers and explanations
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Chapter 1
9.
ise of no further intervention in Gaul, Julius Caesar considered his
mission ended and left the country.
Answer: c). During the Roman rule the outward aspect of Britain
changed remarkably: forests were opened up, new towns and
networks of roads were built. In spite of this, Britain was never
completely romanized: only the upper classes followed Roman
patterns; the rest of the population was slightly influenced and
their tribal organization was never seriously interfered with.
Answer: b). The conquest of the country was brought to a conclusion in 613; from this time onwards the Anglo-Saxons tried to
impose the so called «Heptarchy». Britain was divided into seven
kingdoms: Essex, Wessex, Sussex, Kent, East Anglia, Mercia and
Northumbria. Every kingdom was ruled by a king elected by the
«Witan», a council composed of the dignitaries of the State and the
Church. The national unity was preserved by the institution of a
«bretwalda» that acted as overlord over the kingdoms and its kings.
Answer: d). King Alfred of Wessex, the greatest king of the period,
succeeded in checking the Danish advance and confining them to
the «Danelaw». But in the 10th century, during the reign of Ethelred,
new bands of Danes began to raid the country; the king paid
them the «Danegeld» to keep them off, but this did not save the
kingdom from Sweyn’s invasion.
Answer: a). The «scopas», as the Anglo-Saxon poets were called,
composed their verses exalting heroic deeds and recited them as
entertainment. Their poems were handed down orally, and no
written original has reached us.
Answer: e). Anglo-Saxon poetry, together with the celebration of
bravery and heroism, expressed more intimate moods such as
meditations on human life, pervaded with the sense of melancholy caused by the northern gloomy landscape and the struggle
against a primitive and dangerous existence. This gave their poetry a touch of sadness and pessimism.
Answer: c). The change invested the aims and the contents of
poetry, while the poetical metre and the vocabulary remained the
same. The touch of melancholy and pessimism persisted, the most
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Answers and explanations
warlike themes and pagan elements were replaced by religious
subjects and the new aim of poetry was to instruct people by
offering them edifying examples.
10. Answer: a). Prose developed during the reign of King Alfred, who
did much to improve the education of his people. Alfred’s time
also dates the start of The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the most
representative prose-work of the time, consisting in a chronological report of the events in England from the Christian era to the
middle of the 12th century.
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CHAPTER 2
Historical context
The growth of feudalism in the Middle Ages
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The Norman Conquest. The Normans belonged to the stock of Scandinavian peoples, whose development was mainly due to the use of
the large iron axe. Around 700 A.D. they spread along the coast of
Norway and began to clear forests and build ships, which enabled
them to make considerable voyages.
A part of this adventurous group of people reached France and
obtained from the Frankish kings the concession of the land, now
known as Normandy. They came to Britain because the English King
Edward the Confessor had promised William Duke of Normandy,
his distant cousin, to recognize him as his lawful heir. But, on Edward’s death, the Witan proclaimed Harold of Wessex king of England. William denounced him as an usurper, and to enforce his claim
to the throne he assembled an army and invaded England. The unfortunate King Harold was defeated and killed at Hastings (1066). Then
William found a weak opposition and the last bulk of resistance, assembled in London, was easily won by his troops, and on Christmas
day of 1066, he was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey.
The Normans brought with them a body of laws which gave a new
asset to the country: feudalism (though it was taking shape before the
Conquest) was fully established in England. It consisted in a downward delegation of power: the king, as the only owner of the land,
granted part of it to his followers in return for services in war or other
customary dues. The vassals also received, together with the lands, the
political right of governing them. They, in their turn, subdivided them
among others on similar terms, thus forming a sort of pyramid. As
feudalism was imposed in England deliberately from above, it developed in a more complete and regular way than in other European
countries. For the first time a strong central power was created, which
afterwards met oppositions above all from the barons.
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William’s successors. As we have seen, the Norman Conquest put
an end to a series of invasions and laid the basis for a stable national
unity. William’s successors, William II (1087-1100) and Henry I (11001135), continued to strengthen the power of the State.
At Henry’s death the country plunged into civil war: a group of
barons refused to recognize the right to the throne of Henry’s daughter, Matilda, and supported his nephew Stephen of Blois (1135-1154).
A compromise between the opposed parties was reached in 1152:
Stephen was to reign during his life and Matilda’s son, Henry of Anjou,
was to succeed him. When Stephen died, Henry II (1154-1189) was
the first Plantagenet king. The nickname «Plantagenet» comes from
the Latin word planta genesta, because of the habit of Henry’s father
of wearing a sprig of broom flower in his hat.
Henry II, who had married Eleanor of Aquitaine, was one of the
most powerful kings of the time. His kingdom extended from the Scottish borders to the south of France; even if his continental possessions
were held by the king of France in a feudal tenure, he was in effect
their absolute ruler.
Henry II improved the State machinery created by his predecessors
by establishing the Curia Regis or Royal Council (1178), to deal with
the special affairs, from which Parliament developed later on.
Henry carried out important financial and judicial reforms. When
he attempted to try members of the clergy in the royal courts, the
Church claimed the right to judge them in the ecclesiastical tribunals.
The Church, which had in those times gained great advantages and
power, aimed at being recognized as independent. It was part of a
wider movement investing all European countries, known as the Investiture Struggle.
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The growth of feudalism in the Middle Ages
William the Conqueror (1066-1087) is regarded as one of the
most outstanding figures of the Middle Ages for his military genius and
his wise policy. During his reign the Domesday Book, a survey of the
economic resources of the country and their distribution, was drawn
up. The Book is still important nowadays because of the accurate picture it gives of the period.
Chapter 2 - Historical context
In order to extend his influence over the Church, Henry favoured
the election of his Chancellor Thomas Becket (c. 1118-1170) as Archbishop of Canterbury (1162). But Becket, who as Chancellor had helped
the king to carry out his plans, now opposed him as Archbishop. The
dispute became more critical after the Constitutions of Clarendon
(1164), a body of laws asserting the king’s supremacy over the Church,
and ended with the brutal murder of the Archbishop. The scandal that
followed forced Henry II to give up his projects. Thomas Becket was
canonized, and his tomb became a popular place for pilgrimages.
Richard I Lionhearted (1189-1199), son of Henry II, succeeded
him. He was an adventurous king, who preferred the pursuit of fame
and glory to the affairs of the State. Together with other European
monarchs he took an active share in the Third Crusade to recapture
the Holy Places from the Moslem invaders. It was the first time that
English ships afforded so long a voyage. Richard adopted St. George
as his patron. The Crusade in itself proved to be a failure, as it cost a
lot of lives and money, but had the advantage of establishing important trade connections between England and other countries.
Richard’s short reign was a time of important development within the
feudal system framework. The bi-national character of kings and barons
had favoured trade between England and France: iron, tin, salt, spices,
wine and above all clothes were imported from Flanders and Gascony.
With the trade flourishing, money became the normal system of payment
and replaced the old duties in kind and services, a process also known as
commutation. Moreover Richard’s need of money to equip his army
induced him to extend the selling of Charter to towns: through paying a
sum of money they freed themselves from their obligations. This brought
out the rise of chartered towns freed from personal relations and services,
and contributed to the formation of new classes.
The Great Charter. At Richard’s sudden death in 1199, his brother
John Lackland (1199-1216) became king of England. He committed
every sort of abuse by imposing excessive taxes and confiscating the
estates of his vassals without a judgement. The Church was treated in
the same way and the result was the complete isolation of the Crown.
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The origin of Parliament. During the reign
of John’s son, Henry III (1216-1272), the
principles of the Charter were not observed.
Opposition came firstly from the barons and
in 1227 a special committee, responsible
to the Council for the detailed continuation of the Government, was set up: it was
the first step in transforming the Council
into Parliament.
him or send against him, unless by legal judgement of his
peers, or by the law of the
land.
This meant the king must
judge individuals according to
the law, and not according to
his own will. This was a check
on the power of the king and
the first step in the long road
to a constitutional monarchy.
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The growth of feudalism in the Middle Ages
John’s foreign policy turned out to be equally unhappy; a dispute
over succession led him into a long war with France which ended in
1204, with the loss of all French possessions except Aquitaine.
His refusal to accept William Laughton as Archbishop of Canterbury, involved him in a new dispute with Pope Innocent III, who
excommunicated him and persuaded the kings of France and Scotland
to make war against him. John’s forces were defeated at Bouvines
(1214) and William Laughton became the leader of the baronial revolt:
in June 1215 John was forced to accept the programme embodied in
the Magna Charta Libertatum.
The document contained sixty-three The Charter : the text displays
clauses concerning feudal obligations, the its origin as a product of nerights of the State and the Church, justice gotiation, haste and many
hands. It is composed of 63
and taxation, and prevented further unlaw- different clauses of articles,
ful practices, by setting up a permanent com- the majority of which are very
mittee of twenty-four barons. The Charter specific to the 13th century
of temporary importance.
was a turning point in English history be- and
One of the most important
cause it formed a basis for the form of rep- clauses, that would have the
resentative rule which is common in today’s longest lasting effect, was
western societies, but its importance has Article 39, establishing the
principle of habeas corpus:
often been exaggerated. It did not guarantee democratic rights and parliamentary gov- No free man shall be arrestor imprisoned, or deprived
ernment as Parliament did not exist yet, but ed,
of his property, or outlawed,
it paved the way for the entry of new class- or exiled, or in any way destroyed, or shall we go against
es into the political field.
Chapter 2 - Historical context
When Henry tried to create a split among the barons, the country
plunged into civil war and the group who opposed him, led by Simon
de Montfort, defeated him at Lewes (1264). Then the movement against
the Crown assumed a more popular character, including lower classes
such as merchants and lesser landowners.
The following year Simon de Montfort summoned to his Parliament the representatives of the shires, cities and boroughs besides the
normal members of the Council. Though a revolutionary body, this
Parliament was perfectly in line with the development of the time
and the changing of the social structure.
In the same year Simon de Montfort was defeated and killed in the
Battle of Evesham by Henry’s son, Edward I (1272-1307). But his
cause was not completely lost, for the new king found it wise to adopt
many of the changes proposed by the rebels, and Parliament assumed
a permanent form.
William Wallace: he is one of
Scotland’s most famous historical figures. Wallace fought
for Scotland’s independence
over seven hundred years
ago, leading his army in
raids on English forces and in
major battles at Stirling
Bridge and Falkirk. He was
eventually captured and taken to London, where he was
executed in a brutal manner
by King Edward I «Longshanks». Wallace’s brave
struggle has been an inspiration to many over the years
and his refusal to give up in
the face of overwhelming
odds has assured his place in
the hearts and minds of Scots
the world over.
(from www.wallacemanandmyth.org)
The conquest of Wales and Scotland. Edward I tried to affirm the English supremacy over the other nations of Britain. The
Norman Conquest extended only over the
area of England, while the kingdom of Scotland and the principality of Wales were still
independent.
It was Wales, governed by Llewellyn, that
Edward conquered first. An irregular war
went on for years around the Snowdon area,
where the bulk of resistance was centred,
and in 1285 the country was submitted. In a
gesture of conciliation, Edward proclaimed
his eldest son prince of Wales.
When Edward tried to impose his rule over
Scotland, he met a fierce resistance. The Scottish people well organized by their leaders, first
William Wallace and then Robert the Bruce,
succeeded in keeping their independence.
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