Download Clinical Practice Guideline on the Management of Hypertension

February 2008
MOH/P/PAK/156.08 (GU)
Clinical Practice Guidelines
Management of
Hypertension (3rd Edition)
Ministry of
Health Malaysia
Academy of Medicine
of Malaysia
Malaysian Society of
Hypertension
2008
STATEMENT OF INTENT
This guideline was developed to be a guide for best clinical practice in
the management of hypertension. All efforts were made to ensure
references quoted were the most current at the time of printing. Specific
attempts were made to use local data and publications to ensure local
relevance. Adherence to this guideline does not necessarily lead to the
best clinical outcome in individual patient care. Every health care
provider is responsible for the care of his/her unique patient based on
the clinical presentation and treatment options available locally.
Review of the Guideline
This guideline was issued in 2008 and will be reviewed in 2012 or earlier
if important new evidence becomes available.
CPG Secretariat
Health Technology Assessment Unit
Medical Development Division
Level 4, Block E1, Parcel E
Government Offices Complex
62590 Putrajaya, Malaysia
Available on the following websites:
www.moh.gov.my
www.acadmed.org.my
www.msh.org.my
This is an update to the Clinical Practice Guideline on
Hypertension (published 2002). This CPG supersedes the
previous CPG on Hypertension (2002).
KEY MESSAGES: CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
ON HYPERTENSION, 2008
1. Hypertension is defined as persistent elevation of systolic BP of 140
mmHg or greater and/or diastolic BP of 90 mmHg or greater.
2. The prevalence of hypertension in Malaysians aged 30 years and
above was 42.6% in 2006.
3. Hypertension is a silent disease; the majority of cases (64%) in the
country remain undiagnosed. Blood pressure should be measured
at every chance encounter.
4. Untreated or sub-optimally controlled hypertension leads to
increased cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and renal morbidity and
mortality.
5. A systolic BP of 120 to 139 and/or diastolic BP of 80 to 89 mmHg
is defined as prehypertension and should be treated in certain high
risk groups.
6. Therapeutic lifestyle changes should be recommended for all
individuals with hypertension and prehypertension.
7. Decisions on pharmacological treatment should be based on global
vascular risks and not on the level of blood pressure per se.
8. In patients with newly diagnosed uncomplicated hypertension and
no compelling indications, choice of first line monotherapy includes
ACEIs, ARBs, CCBs and diuretics. Beta blockers are no longer
recommended for first line monotherapy in this group of patients.
9. Only 26% of Malaysian patients achieved blood pressure control
(<140/90 mmHg) while on treatment. Every effort should be made
to achieve target blood pressure. Target blood pressure depends
on specific patient groups.
10. Combination therapy is often required to achieve target and may
be instituted early.
I
II
RATIONALE AND PROCESS OF GUIDELINE
DEVELOPMENT
FOREWORD
Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and
renal diseases. The third National Health and Morbidity Survey of 2006
showed that the prevalence of hypertension among adults 30 years old
and above was 43%, a relative increase of 30% from that of 10 years
earlier.
It is now estimated that there are 4.8 million individuals with hypertension
in Malaysia. The estimated figure worldwide is a staggering 1 billion
individuals. It is however alarming to note that, according to the findings of
the Third National Health and Morbidity Survey of 2006, close to two thirds
of individuals with hypertension in Malaysia were unaware that they have
hypertension. Although there was an increase in the treatment rate among
those who have been diagnosed, the control rate is still poor. The Third
National Health and Morbidity Survey revealed that among patients with
hypertension who were on drug treatment, only 26% of them achieved the
target blood pressure. This finding is consistent with a separate survey
conducted by the Institute of Health Management of the Ministry of Health
on the outpatient management of hypertension in government clinics.
Only 28.5% of patients treated for hypertension in government clinics
achieved the target blood pressure.
Although the management of cardiovascular disease has moved away
from the traditional single risk factor approach to a more comprehensive
global cardiovascular risk approach, optimum management of individual
risk factors must not be overlooked.
I hope this latest edition of the Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) on
Hypertension will help to address the current shortfalls in the detection,
awareness, treatment and control rates of hypertension in Malaysia. I
would like to thank all those who have worked hard to come out with this
latest edition. I hope this CPG will be utilised optimally by health care
professionals involved in the management of hypertension.
YB Tan Sri Datuk Dr. Hj. Mohd. Ismail b. Merican
Director-General of Health,
Ministry of Health, Malaysia
Rationale
The Clinical Practice Guideline on the Management of Hypertension was
developed to provide a clear and concise approach to all health care
providers on the current concepts in the management of hypertension.
Since hypertension is managed by various levels of health care providers
in Malaysia, attempts were made to ensure the different stakeholders will
benefit from this CPG. This is reflected by the representation of the
committee members which developed the guideline.
There were two previous guidelines on hypertension; in 1998 and 2002.
This edition is the third in the series and was deemed necessary due to
new evidence which has emerged since the last edition. Prior to the
publication of this edition, the Third National Health and Morbidity Survey
was completed and the results have since been made available. The
results of the survey showed that the prevalence of hypertension has
increased with very little difference in awareness rate and rate of blood
pressure control in the hypertensive population. The rate of blood pressure
control remained poor despite an increase in the prevalence of diagnosed
patients who were prescribed antihypertensive medication. This may
reflect the fact that clinicians are still not clear of the target blood pressure
to achieve in their patients while on treatment. It is hoped that this CPG
will contribute towards reversing this worrying trend.
Process
The current edition of the CPG was initiated by the Malaysian Society of
Hypertension. The guideline was developed in 2006/2007. A committee
was convened, comprising four nephrologists, 4 cardiologists, 2 family
physicians, 2 obstetrician/gynaecologists, an endocrinologist, a general
physician/clinical pharmacologist, a paediatrician, an epidemiologist and a
pharmacist (pharmacoeconomist). The involvement of a pharmacist (an
expert in pharmacoeconomy) and an epidemiologist is unique, making this
CPG more comprehensive in terms of committee membership. Besides
being experts in their own fields, some of the members hold important
positions in relevant non-governmental organizations and government
agencies dealing with hypertension.
The development of this guideline adheres closely to the methodology
outlined in the Guidelines for Clinical Practice Guideline 2003 by the
Medical Development Division of the Ministry of Health. All attempts were
made to ensure references quoted were current and relevant to the issues
discussed. Whenever clinical recommendations were made, the best
available evidence was used to support the recommendations.
The guideline was posted on both the Ministry of Health Malaysia and
Academy of Medicine, Malaysia websites for comment and feedback. This
guideline has also been presented to the Technical Advisory Committee for
Clinical Practice Guidelines, and the Health Technology Assessment and
Clinical Practice Guidelines Council, Ministry of Health Malaysia for review
and approval.
III
IV
OBJECTIVES, QUESTIONS AND TARGETS
HYPERTENSION GUIDELINE WORKING GROUP
OBJECTIVES
This guideline is intended to provide education and awareness on the proper
ways to
1. Diagnose hypertension
2. Assess and investigate a patient with hypertension
CHAIRPERSON
Dr. Abdul Rashid b A Rahman
Professor of Medicine & Clinical Pharmacology and Senior Consultant Physician
Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences and
An Nur Specialist Hospital
Selangor
This guideline is intended to provide evidence on the
1. optimal management of a patient with hypertension
2. latest therapeutics on subgroups of hypertensive patients
EXCLUSION
This guideline, however, does not cover
1. strategies for hypertension screening
2. strategies to reduce population blood pressure
CLINICAL QUESTIONS
The clinical questions to be addressed in this guideline include
1. What are the current best practices in the management of a patient with
hypertension?
2. How can hypertension management be done in tandem with the overall
strategy to manage global vascular risk of a patient?
TARGET POPULATION
This guideline is to be applied to adults (including the elderly and pregnant
women) and children with hypertension. It is also applicable to hypertensive
patients with various concomitant clinical conditions.
TARGET GROUP
This guideline is developed for all levels of health care providers involved in
the management of hypertension in adults, elderly, pregnant women and
children.
CLINICAL INDICATORS FOR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Treatment setting: Primary care/Secondary care
Name of indicator:
1. Rate of antihypertensive prescription for newly diagnosed cases of
hypertension.
2. Rate of blood pressure control among patients who are treated with
antihypertensive drug.
Definition of control:
<140/90 mmHg for all, <130/80 mmHg for patients with diabetes/ischaemic
heart disease/cerebrovascular disease/renal impairment and <125/75 mmHg
for patients with proteinuria of >1 gram per day.
Numerator:
1. Number of newly diagnosed cases of hypertension prescribed
antihypertensive drug per month.
2. Number of patients on treatment who achieved blood pressure control.
Denominator:
1. Total number of newly diagnosed cases of hypertension per month.
2. Total number of patients who are diagnosed and on antihypertensive drug
treatment per month.
Rate of treatment = (Numerator/Denominator) x 100%
Rate of blood pressure control= (Numerator/Denominator) x 100%
V
SECRETARY
Dr. Sunita Bavanandan
Consultant Nephrologist
Kuala Lumpur Hospital
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Anis Salwa Kamaruddin
Principal Assistant Director
Disease Control Division
Ministry of Health
Putrajaya
Dr. Hj. Azhari Rosman
Consultant Cardiologist &
Electrophysiologist
National Heart Institute
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Chia Yook Chin
Professor of Primary Care Medicine and
Senior Consultant
Primary Care Physician
University Malaya Medical Centre
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Chua Chin Teong
Consultant Nephrologist
Selangor
Dr. Fan Kin Sing
Consultant Nephrologist
Gleanagles Intan Medical Centre
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Faridah Aryani Md. Yusof
Clinical Trial Pharmacist and
Pharmacoeconomist
Clinical Research Centre
Kuala Lumpur Hospital
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Ghazali Ahmad
Consultant Nephrologist and
Head of Department
Department of Nephrology
Kuala Lumpur Hospital
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Guna Segaran
Consultant Obstetrician and
Gynaecologist
Damansara Specialist Hospital
Selangor
Dr. Khoo Ee Ming
Professor of Primary Care Medicine and
Senior Consultant Primary Care Physician
University Malaya Medical Centre
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Khoo Kah Lin
Consultant Cardiologist
Pantai Medical Centre
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Khalid Yusoff
Professor of Medicine and
Senior Consultant Cardiologist
Universiti Technologi MARA
Selangor
Dr. Lim Yam Ngo
Consultant Paediatric Nephrologist
Kuala Lumpur Hospital
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Robaayah Zambahari
Senior Consultant Cardiologist
National Heart Institute
Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Yap Piang Kian
Consultant Physician & Endocrinologist
Subang Jaya Medical Centre
Selangor
Dr. Zaleha Abdullah Mahdy
Professor and Senior Consultant Obstetrician
& Gynaecologist
Hospital Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur
VI
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
EXTERNAL REVIEWERS
Dato’ Dr. Balan Subrahmaniam
Consultant Anaesthesiologist & Head of Department
Department of Anaesthesiology
Hospital Sultanah Aminah, Johor
Issues
Recommendation
Grade
Measurement of The mercury sphygmomanometer
Blood Pressure remains the gold standard for
measurement.
C
All of the data upon which we base our
estimates of risk as well as benefits of
treatment have been accumulated from
casual BP readings taken in the office or
clinic setting and therefore ambulatory
blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) is
not necessary for the diagnosis and
management of most patients with
hypertension.
C
Blood pressure should be measured in
both arms and the higher reading is
taken as the systemic BP.
C
Dr. J Ravichandran Jeganathan
Consultant Obstetrician & Gynaecologist, & Head of Department
Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology
Hospital Sultanah Aminah, Johor
Blood pressure should be taken both
lying and at least one minute after
standing to detect any postural drop,
especially in the elderly and in diabetics.
C
Dr. Ruziatun Hasim
Family Medicine Specialist
Klinik Kesihatan Telok Datok, Selangor
On rising, the BP will transiently rise and
then fall. A systolic drop of >20 mmHg
is considered a significant postural
drop.
C
The data provided by ABPM does not
influence therapeutic decisions in the
vast majority of patients and as a result
has not been recommended by the
JNC-7, WHO-ISH and NICE guidelines
as a routine procedure in the initial
evaluation of the hypertensive patient.
C
Home BP measurement can be useful
in monitoring control of BP. It empowers
the patient with the control of his
condition and may improve compliance.
C
Refer to page 9 for recommendations
for follow-up based on initial BP
measurements for adults.
C
Prehypertension There should be yearly follow-up in
patients with prehypertension to detect
and treat hypertension as early as
possible.
C
Dato’ Dr. Ghazali Ismail
Consultant Obstetrician & Gynaecologist, & Head of Department
Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology
Hospital Tuanku Ampuan Afzan, Pahang
Dr. Ng Siew Han
Consultant Anaesthesiologist & Head of Department
Department of Anaesthesiology
Kuala Lumpur Hospital, Kuala Lumpur
Dr. Rashidi Ahmad
Emergency Medicine Specialist
Department of Emergency Medicine
Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kelantan
Prof. Madya Dr. Shaiful Bahari Ismail
Family Medicine Specialist
Klinik Kesihatan Telok Datok
Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Sim Kui Hian
Consultant Cardiologist & Head of Department
Department of Cardiology
Sarawak General Hospital, Sarawak
Dr. Florence Tan
Consultant Endocrinologist
Department of Medicine
Sarawak General Hospital, Sarawak
Diagnosis and
Assessment
Dr. Zanariah Hussein
Consultant Endocrinologist
Department of Medicine
Hospital Putrajaya, Putrajaya
VII
VIII
Decisions regarding pharmacological
treatment should be based on the
individual patient’s global CVD risk. In
diabetes mellitus or chronic kidney
disease, medical treatment is required if
BP is above 130/80 mmHg.
A
Similarly, in other high risk subjects such
as those with previous CVA or CAD, the
threshold for commencing hypertension
treatment should be lowered.
A
NonPharmacological
Management
As far as possible aim for an ideal Body
Mass Index [Weight (kg)/Height2 (m)] – for
Asians, the normal range has been
proposed to be 18.5 to 23.5 kg/m2.
However a weight loss as little as 4.5 kg
significantly reduces BP.
C
An intake of <100 mmol of sodium or 6g
of sodium chloride a day is
recommended (equivalent to <11/4
teaspoonfuls of salt or 3 teaspoonfuls of
monosodium glutamate).
A
Standard advice is to restrict intake to no
more than 21 units for men and 14 units
for women per week (1 unit equivalent to
1
/2 a pint of beer or 100ml of wine or
20ml of proof whisky).
C
General advice on cardiovascular health
would be for “milder” exercise, such as
brisk walking for 30 – 60 minutes at least
3 times a week.
A
A diet rich in fruits, vegetables and dairy
products with reduced saturated and
total fat can substantially lower BP (11/6
mmHg in hypertensive patients and 4/2
mmHg in patients with high normal BP).
A
Cessation of smoking is important in the
overall management of the patients with
hypertension in reducing cardiovascular
risk.
C
Pharmacological Figure 1 (page 14) outlines the management
of a patient with hypertension.
Management
C
BMI or weight
Salt intake
Alcohol
Exercise
Diet
Smoking
IX
Management
of Severe
Hypertension
Hypertensive
Urgencies
Initial treatment should aim for about 25%
reduction in BP over 24 hours but not
lower than 160/90 mmHg.
C
Hypertensive
Emergencies
The BP needs to be reduced rapidly. It is
suggested that the BP be reduced by
25% depending on clinical scenario over 3
to 12 hours but not lower than 160/90
mmHg.
C
Rapid reduction Several serious side effects have been
reported with the administration of
of Blood
sublingual fast-acting nifedipine and
Pressure
therefore this is no longer recommended.
C
Pharmacological treatment should be
initiated in patients with diabetes when the
BP is persistently >130 mmHg systolic
and/or >80 mmHg diastolic.
A
SBP should be targeted to <130 mmHg
and DBP <80 mmHg.
A
The presence of microalbuminuria or overt
proteinuria should be treated even if the
BP is not elevated. An ACEI or ARB is
preferred.
A
In
a
proportion
of
patients,
microalbuminuria may be normalised by
higher doses of ACEIs and ARBs.
A
Tight BP control should take precedence
over the class of antihypertensive drug
used.
A
The BP should be lowered even further to
<125/75 mmHg in the presence of
proteinuria of >1 g/24 hours.
A
ACEIs are drugs of choice based on
extensive data attesting to their
cardiovascular and renal protective effects
in diabetic patients.
A
If an ACEI is not tolerated, an ARB should
be considered.
A
Beta-blockers, diuretics or calcium
channel blockers may be considered if
either ACEIs or ARBs cannot be used.
A
Hypertension
and Diabetes
Mellitus
X
Hypertension
and NonDiabetic Renal
Disease
The combination of ACEIs and ARBs has
also been proven to reduce the rate of
doubling of serum creatinine and ESRD
more than monotherapy with either agent in
nondiabetic proteinuric renal disease.
≥
A
Hypertension
in the Elderly
The goals of treatment in older patients
should be the same as in younger patients.
A
In those patients with marked systolic
hypertension and not tolerating treatment
well, reducing SBP to below 160 mmHg
initially is acceptable.
Subsequently,
attempts should be made to reduce BP to
target levels.
C
Weight loss and modest salt reduction may
be especially effective in the elderly
because of their greater sensitivity to
sodium intake.
A
If there is a persistent rise of serum
creatinine of 30% from baseline within two
months, ACEIs should be stopped. Similar
caution should be exercised with the use of
ARBs.
C
In patients with renal disease and
hypertension with an elevated serum
creatinine of >200 mcmol/L, thiazide
diuretics
may
not
be
effective
antihypertensive agents and therefore loop
diuretics are preferred.
C
A
The five major classes of drugs (diuretics,
β-blockers, CCBs, ACEIs and ARBs) have
been shown to reduce cardiovascular
events in the elderly.
A
In those with proteinuria, the nondihydropyridine group of calcium channel
blockers (CCBs) namely diltiazem or
verapamil are preferred, as they have an
additional antiproteinuric effect.
In post-infarction patients, ACEIs and betablockers especially in patients with LV
dysfunction, help to reduce future cardiac
events which include cardiac failure, cardiac
mortality and morbidity.
A
Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors
are the drugs of choice for those with
concomitant left ventricular systolic
dysfunction, post myocardial infarction or
diabetes mellitus.
A
Hypertension
and
Cardiovascular
Disease
Blood pressure is the most consistent and
powerful predictor of stroke and high blood
pressure is the most important modifiable
cause of stroke.
C
Standing BP should be measured to detect
postural hypotension.
C
Hypertension
and Stroke
C
Beta-blockers, diuretics, CCBs, ACEIs and
ARBs have been shown to reduce the risk
and mortality of stroke.
A
Korotkoff V should now be used as the cutoff point for diastolic BP, and Korotkoff IV
utilized only when Korotkoff V is absent.
A
Pregnant women with hypertension should
be referred to an obstetrician for further
management.
C
Calcium channel blockers in particular,
provided significantly better protection
against stroke compared with diuretics
and/or beta-blockers in Asian and
Caucasian populations.
B
Combination of an ACEI and diuretic has
been shown to reduce stroke recurrence in
both normotensive and hypertensive
patients when treatment was started at
least two weeks after the stroke.
A
Early diagnosis and referral to an
obstetrician for further management may
prevent progression to eclampsia.
The drugs of choice in pregnancy are still
methyldopa and labetalol.
C
A
In haemorrhagic stroke, in general, it is best
to avoid lowering BP in the first few days
after a stroke unless there is evidence of
accelerated hypertension or patients
presenting concurrently with hypertensive
emergencies.
C
In the event of an acute hypertensive crisis,
IV hydrallazine (2.5-5 mg bolus, or infusion)
or IV labetalol (10-20 mg slow bolus over 5
minutes, or infusion), or oral nifedipine (10
mg stat dose), may be used to lower the
BP.
A
The morbidity and mortality from further
strokes were also shown to be significantly
lower in patients receiving ARBs compared
to CCBs for the same level of BP control.
Sublingual nifedipine is no longer
recommended and its use is confined to
acute pulmonary edema.
C
XI
Hypertension
in Pregnancy
XII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Parenteral magnesium sulphate is currently
the drug of choice for the prevention of
eclampsia and to abort an eclamptic fit.
A
Pregnant women who are at high risk of
developing preeclampsia should be
referred to an obstetrician. Specialist
management will include doppler
ultrasonography
and
aspirin
pharmacoprophylaxis.
A
High calcium supplementation of 1.5 g/day
significantly reduces the risk of eclampsia,
severe gestational hypertension and
severe preeclamptic complication index in
pregnant women with low dietary calcium
intake.
A
Hypertension A woman who develops hypertension
while using combined oral contraceptives
and Oral
Contraceptives (COC) should be advised to stop taking
them and should be offered alternative
forms of contraception.
C
Blood pressure should be reviewed
regularly, at least every six months.
C
All women treated with HRT should have
their BP monitored every six months.
C
Greater caution and closer monitoring is
required for hypertensive patients on
conjugated equine estrogen (CEE).
C
Hypertension
and Hormone
Replacement
Therapy
Hypertension
in Children
and
Adolescents
Once a child is diagnosed with
hypertension, he should be referred to a
paediatrician for further evaluation and
management.
C
Non-pharmacologic
management
particularly weight reduction in those who
are obese is recommended in all children
with hypertension as well as those with BP
in the 90th to 95th percentile.
C
The goal of pharmacologic therapy is to
reduce BP to lower than 95th percentile in
uncomplicated primary hypertension and
<90th percentile for children with TOD,
CKD and diabetes mellitus.
C
Pharmacoenomics Hypertension pharmacotherapy should not
B
be judged by the direct cost of the drug
alone.
Public
education
should
include
information on cost effectiveness and drug
compliance.
C
1. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF HYPERTENSION
2. MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD PRESSURE
3. DIAGNOSIS AND ASSESSMENT
4. PREHYPERTENSION
5. NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT
6. PHARMACOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT
7. MANAGEMENT OF SEVERE HYPERTENSION
8. HYPERTENSION IN SPECIAL GROUPS:
8.1 Hypertension and Diabetes Mellitus
8.2 Hypertension and the Metabolic Syndrome
8.3 Hypertension and Non-Diabetic
Renal Disease
8.4 Renovascular Hypertension
8.5 Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease
8.6 Hypertension and Stroke
8.7 Hypertension in the Elderly
8.8 Hypertension in Pregnancy
8.9 Hypertension and Oral Contraceptives
8.10 Hypertension and Hormone Replacement Therapy
8.11 Hypertension in Children and Adolescents
9. PHARMACOECONOMICS
10. TYPES OF ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS
Diuretics
Beta-blockers
Calcium Channel Blockers
ACE Inhibitors
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers
Miscellaneous Drugs
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1 List of British Hypertension Societyvalidated electronic BP sets
APPENDIX 2 Cockroft–Gault Formula
APPENDIX 3 Antihypertensive drugs currently available
in Malaysia
APPENDIX 4 Normative tables of BP based on age and
sex adjusted for height percentiles
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
SOURCES OF FUNDING
LEVELS OF EVIDENCE & GRADES OF
RECOMMENDATIONS
XIV
XIII
1
2
5
10
11
12
17
20
22
23
24
26
28
29
31
35
36
36
38
39
40
41
41
42
43
45
62
63
63
64
68
69
69
69
69
LIST OF TABLES
1. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF
HYPERTENSION
Table 1.
Classification of blood pressure for adults
age 18 and older
1
Table 2.
Secondary causes of hypertension
6
Table 3.
Cardiovascular risk factors
6
Table 4.
Manifestations of target organ damage (TOD)/
target organ complication (TOC)
8
Table 5.
Risk stratification
8
Table 6.
Recommendations for follow-up based
on initial blood pressure measurements for adults
9
Choice of antihypertensive drugs in parients with
concomitant conditions
15
Table 8.
Effective antihypertensive combinations
15
Table 9.
Common causes of severe hypertension
17
Table 10.
Oral treatment for hypertensive urgencies
18
Table 11.
Treatment options for hypertensive emergencies
19
Table 12.
NCEP ATP III and IDF criteria for the metabolic
syndrome
23
Category
Antihypertensive drugs commonly used in
pregnancy
35
Optimal
Table 7.
Table 13.
Table 14.
Table 15.
Classification of hypertension in children and
adolescents with measurement frequency and
recommended therapy
37
Diuretics commonly used for the treatment of
hypertension in Malaysia
39
Table 1. Classification of blood pressure for adults age 18 and
older
Systolic
(mmHg)
Diastolic
(mmHg)
Prevalence in
Malaysia2
<120
and
<80
32%
120-139
and/or
80-89
37%
Stage 1
140-159
and/or
90-99
20%
Stage 2
160-179
and/or
100-109
Stage 3
40
Table 17.
CCBs commonly used for the treatment of
hypertension in Malaysia
41
Table 18.
ACEIs commonly used for the treatment of
hypertension in Malaysia
42
Table 19.
ARBs commonly used for the treatment of
hypertension in Malaysia
43
Table 21.
α, β-blockers
43
Table 22.
Centrally-acting agents
44
Table 23.
Direct vasodilators
44
XV
The classification of high BP, although arbitrary, is useful as clinicians
must make treatment decisions based on the measured BP and the
patients’ associated cardiovascular/cerebrovascular risks and comorbidities. Table 1 provides a classification of BP for adults (age 18
and older). The WHO-ISH guidelines in principle have adopted a
similar classification.1 These criteria are for subjects who are not on
any antihypertensive medication and who are not acutely ill.
Hypertension
Beta-blocker commonly used for the treatment
of hypertension in Malaysia
α-blockers
There is a positive relationship between systolic blood pressure
(SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and the risk of developing
cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and renal diseases. Therefore the
main aim of identifying and treating high BP is to reduce these risks.
Hence BP should be measured at every clinic encounter.
Prehpertension
Table 16.
Table 20.
Hypertension is defined as persistent elevation of systolic BP of
140 mmHg or greater and/or diastolic BP of 90 mmHg or greater.
≥180
and/or
≥110
8%
4%
The classification is based on the average of two or more readings
taken at two or more visits to the doctor. When SBP and DBP fall
into different categories, the higher category should be selected to
classify the individual’s BP.
Doctors should explain to patients the significance of their BP
readings. The need for follow-up and treatment if necessary should
be emphasized. Table 6 on page 9 provides follow-up
recommendations based on the initial set of BP measurements.
1
1.1 Isolated office (“white-coat”) hypertension
Isolated office (“white-coat”) hypertension is a condition noted in
patients whose BP is consistently elevated in the physician’s clinic
but normal at other times. In these subjects the clinic BP is
persistently above 140/90 mmHg but the home or ambulatory
systolic/diastolic BP measurements are 125/80 mmHg or lower.3
Isolated office hypertension accounts for 10 – 15% of hypertensive
patients.4 Clinicians should aim to identify this whenever clinical
suspicion is raised, by use of home or ambulatory measurements.5
There is also a potential impact of this phenomenon on the costbenefit ratio of anti-hypertensive treatment.
It is still debatable whether isolated office hypertension is an
innocent phenomenon or whether it carries an increased
cardiovascular risk. The decision to initiate treatment should be
based on the individual patient’s overall risk factors and the
presence of target organ damage (TOD). If a decision is made not to
treat then close follow-up is warranted.
1.2 Isolated systolic hypertension
Isolated systolic hypertension is defined as SBP of >140 mmHg and
DBP <90 mmHg. It should be staged appropriately. Treatment of this
condition is effective in reducing cardiovascular risk.6
2.
MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood pressure should be measured correctly. It can be measured
directly or indirectly. There are four common devices used for the
indirect measurement of BP namely:
• mercury column sphygmomanometer
• aneroid sphygmomanometer
• electronic devices
• automated ambulatory BP devices
There are many calibrated electronic or ambulatory BP devices
available in the market. Only professionally validated electronic
models should be used.
Various countries have their own validating bodies, e.g. British
Hypertension Society, American Association for the Advancement of
Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) and German Hypertension Society.
The mercury sphygmomanometer remains the gold standard for
measurement.7(Level III) However, it is gradually being replaced by the
electronic blood pressure measurement device due to environmental
and health concerns.
2.1 The mercury column sphygmomanometer
The following points should be noted when using this:
i) The key to the reservoir should be turned open
ii) The mercury meniscus should be at zero
iii) The calibrated glass tube must be clean – a dirty tube can cause
inaccurate readings.
2
iv) The cuff size should be appropriate
Both the length and width of the inflatable bladder are important.
The bladder length should encircle at least 80% of the
circumference whilst the width should be at least 40% of the
circumference of the arm. Standard bladder size is 13 cm x 24
cm.8 Too small a cuff will give a falsely higher reading and vice
versa.
v) Inflation-deflation bulb
It is important to ensure that inflation-deflation device functions
properly. The following may indicate malfunction of the device:
• Failure to achieve a pressure of 40 mmHg above the estimated
SBP or 200 mmHg after 3–5 seconds of rapid inflation.
• The inability of the equipment to deflate smoothly at a rate of
1 mmHg per second or at each pulse beat.8
vi) Auscultatory measurement of systolic and diastolic pressures
The following technique is recommended for the measurement of
BP using a sphygmomanometer:
• Patients should be adequately rested and seated with their
arms supported.
• The cuff and the mercury reservoir should be at the level of the
heart.
• They should not have smoked or ingested caffeine within 30
minutes of measurement.
• The SBP should be estimated initially by palpation. While
palpating the brachial/ radial artery, the cuff is inflated until the
pulse disappears. The cuff should then be inflated to a further
20 mmHg. The cuff is then slowly deflated and the pressure at
which the pulse is palpable is the estimated SBP.
• The bladder is again inflated to 20 mmHg above the previously
estimated SBP and the pressure reduced at 1-2 mmHg per
second whilst auscultating with the bell of the stethoscope.9
The bell should not be placed under the cuff. The point at
which repetitive, clear tapping sounds first appears (Korotkoff
Phase I) gives the SBP.
• Phase I sounds sometimes disappear as pressure is reduced
and reappears again at a lower reading (the auscultatory gap),
resulting in underestimation of the SBP.
• The complete disappearance of sound (Korotkoff Phase V)
should be taken as the diastolic reading.
In some groups, e.g. anaemic or elderly patients, the sounds may
continue until the zero point. In such instances the muffling of the
repetitive sounds (Korotkoff Phase IV) is taken as the diastolic
pressure. The point of muffling is usually higher than the true arterial
diastolic pressure. If Korotkoff Phase IV is used, this should be
clearly recorded.
BP should be measured in both arms and the higher reading is taken
as the systemic BP.(Level III)
If the difference in BP between the two arms is >20/10 mmHg, there
may be an arterial anomaly which requires further evaluation.
3
The BP should be taken both lying and at least one minute after
standing to detect any postural drop, especially in the elderly and in
diabetics.(Level III) On rising, the BP will transiently rise and then fall. A
systolic drop of >20 mmHg is considered a significant postural
drop.(Level III)
Blood pressure measurement can also be done from the thigh:• The patient must be supine.
• The correct size cuff must be chosen.
• The marker must be placed behind the knee, approximately 2
finger widths above the popliteal fossa.
• The popliteal artery must be palpated.
• The subsequent steps are similar to measuring blood pressure
from the arm.
2.2
Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM)
All of the data upon which we base our estimates of risk as well as
benefits of treatment have been accumulated from casual BP
readings taken in the office or clinic setting and therefore ABPM is
not necessary for the diagnosis and management of most patients
with hypertension.9 (Level III),10
The data provided by ABPM does not influence therapeutic
decisions in the vast majority of patients and as a result has not been
recommended by the JNC-711, WHO-ISH1 and NICE guidelines12 as a
routine procedure in the initial evaluation of the hypertensive patient. (Level III)
Furthermore the expense of this procedure is not justifiable at the
present time.
ABPM is useful in selected research and clinical situations. These
include:
• “white coat hypertension”
• borderline hypertension/labile hypertension
• resistant hypertension (BP >140/90 mmHg on a regimen of three
or more anti-hypertensive drugs), one of which must be a diuretic
• evaluation of suspected hypotensive symptoms
• establishing the duration of action of new drugs in clinical trials
There is increasing evidence that damage to target organs, e.g.
heart, kidney, brain and large arteries correlates better with out-ofoffice measurements including those of ABPM, and home BP
measurements than with office measurements.13
These machines should be serviced and calibrated every six months
to maintain accuracy or at least compared with the readings taken
by a mercury sphygmomanometer.
These electronic machines are generally less accurate in patients
with atrial fibrillation. They should not be used in pregnancy as the
BP reading may be underestimated.
Auscultatory electronic BP sets similar to the mercury sets but with
a digital instead of mercury column will be available in the future.
2.4
Home blood pressure measurement
Home BP measurement may be useful in the diagnosis and
monitoring of selected patients.
There is less extensive data on clinical correlation of home BP
measurement compared to ABPM. Information obtained from this
approach should only be regarded as supplementary to conventional
measurements and not as a substitute. The decision to treat should
finally be based upon the total risk stratification of the patient.
The recordings should be done at about the same time once in the
morning and evening. Home BP is generally lower than clinic BP by
approximately 10-20 mmHg systolic and 5-10 mmHg diastolic. The
use of home devices that measure BP in the fingers or the wrists is
not recommended.
Home BP measurement can be useful in monitoring control of BP. It
empowers the patient with the control of his condition and may
improve compliance. (Level III)
3. DIAGNOSIS AND ASSESSMENT
Evaluation of patients with documented hypertension has three
objectives:
(1) To exclude secondary causes of hypertension (Table 2).
(2) To ascertain the presence or absence of target organ damage.
(3) To assess lifestyle and identify other cardiovascular risk factors
(Table 3) or concomitant disorders that affect risk factors,
prognosis and guide treatment.
Such information is obtained from adequate history, physical
examination, laboratory investigations and other diagnostic
procedures.
2.3
Electronic BP sets
This is now increasingly being used. In the US, mercury
sphygmomanometers are already withdrawn. It is important to
realize that not all of the machines are accurate. The best are those
validated by a reputable body, e.g. national hypertension societies
such as British Hypertension Society or American Association for the
Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI). A list of validated
machines is listed in Appendix 1.
4
5
Table 2. Secondary causes of hypertension
Sleep apnoea
Drug-induced or drug-related
Chronic kidney disease
Primary aldosteronism
Renovascular disease
Chronic steroid therapy and Cushing syndrome
Phaeochromocytoma
Acromegaly
Thyroid or parathyroid disease
Coarctation of the aorta
Takayasu Arteritis
Table 3. Cardiovascular risk factors
Major risk factors
Hypertension
Cigarette smoking
Central obesity (waist circumference >90 cm for men,
>80 cm for women)
Physical inactivity
Dyslipidaemia
Diabetes mellitus
Microalbuminuria
Estimated GFR* <60 mL/min
Age (>55 years for men, >65 years for women)
Family history of premature cardiovascular disease
(men <55 years or women <65 years)
Target Organ Damage
Heart
• Left ventricular hypertrophy
• Angina or prior myocardial infarction
• Prior coronary revascularisation
• Heart failure
Brain
• Stroke or transient ischemic attack
Chronic kidney disease
Peripheral arterial disease
Retinopathy
*GFR, glomerular filtration rate.
Cockroft-Gault formula: See Appendix 2
A
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
complete history should include:
duration and level of elevated BP if known
symptoms of secondary causes of hypertension
symptoms of target organ damage, e.g. coronary heart disease
(CHD) and cerebrovascular disease
symptoms of concomitant disease that will affect prognosis or
treatment, e.g. diabetes mellitus, renal disease and gout
family history of hypertension, CHD, stroke, diabetes, renal
disease or dyslipidaemia
dietary history including salt, fat, caffeine and alcohol intake
drug history of either prescribed or over-the-counter medication
(NSAIDS, nasal decongestants) and herbal treatment
lifestyle and environmental factors that will affect treatment and
outcome, e.g. smoking, physical activity, work stress and
excessive weight gain since childhood
The physical examination should include the following:
• general examination including height, weight and waist
circumference
• two or more BP measurements separated by two minutes with
the patient either supine or seated; and after standing for at least
one minute
• measure BP on both arms
• fundoscopy
• examination for carotid bruit, abdominal bruit, presence of
peripheral pulses and radio-femoral delay
• cardiac examination
• chest examination for evidence of cardiac failure
• abdominal examination for renal masses, aortic aneurysm and
abdominal obesity
• neurological examination to look for evidence of stroke
• signs of endocrine disorders, e.g. Cushing syndrome, acromegaly
and thyroid disease
The initial investigations aim to exclude secondary causes of
hypertension, determine the presence of risk factors and assess the
extent of target organ damage (TOD). They should include the
following: (Level III)
• Full blood count
• Urinalysis
• Measurement of urine albumin excretion or albumin/creatinine
ratio
• Renal function tests (urea, creatinine, serum electrolytes and
uric acid)
• Fasting blood sugar
• Lipid profile (total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol
and triglycerides)
• Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• Chest X-ray
If the examination or investigations suggest the presence of a
secondary cause, the patient should be referred for specialist
evaluation. If there is evidence of TOD (Table 4), further tests should
be considered.
A local study has revealed that as high as 53% patients with
essential hypertension did not have their cardiovascular risks
adequately assessed.14
6
7
Table 4. Manifestations of target organ damage (TOD)/ target
organ complication (TOC)
Organ system
Cardiac
Manifestations
Left ventricular hypertrophy, coronary heart
disease, heart failure
Cerebrovascular
Transient ischaemic attack, stroke
Peripheral vasculature Absence of one or more major pulses in
extremities (except dorsalis pedis) with or
without intermittent claudication
Renal
GFR <60 ml/min / 1.73 m2, proteinuria (1+ or
greater), microalbuminuria (2 out of 3
positive tests over a period of 4-6 months)
Retinopathy
Haemorrhages or exudates, with or without
papilloedema
Table 5 stratifies the risk of a patient with hypertension developing a
major cardiovascular event, which includes cardiovascular death,
stroke or myocardial infarction. This classification is a useful guide
for therapeutic decisions.
Following initial clinical evaluation, investigation and risk
stratification, patients needs to be re-evaluated as recommended
below.
Table 6. Recommendations for follow-up based on initial blood
pressure measurements for adults.
Initial BP (mmHg)
Systolic
Diastolic
Follow-up recommended to confirm
diagnosis and/or review response
to treatment
<130
and
<85
130-139
and
85-89
Recheck within 3-6 months
140-159 and/or 90-99
Confirm within two months
Recheck in one year
160-179 and/or 100-109 Evaluate within one month and treat if confirmed
180-209 and/or 110-119 Evaluate within one week and treat if confirmed
≥210
and/or
≥120
Initiate drug treatment immediately
Modified from JNC-7 report11 (Level III)
Table 5. Risk stratification
Co-existing
Condition
Previous MI
TOD or
or
RF ( 3) or
Previous Stroke
Clinical
or
atherosclerosis
Diabetes
≥
No RF
No TOD
No TOC
TOD or
RF (1-2),
No TOC
SBP 120 – 139
and/or
DBP 80 – 89
Low
Medium
High
Very High
SBP 140 – 159
and/or
DBP 90 – 99
Low
Medium
High
Very High
SBP 160 – 179
and/or
DBP 100 – 109
Medium
High
Very High
Very High
SBP 180 – 209
and/or
DBP 110 – 119
High
High
Very High
Very High
Very High
Very High
Very High
Very High
BP Levels
(mmHg)
≥
≥
SBP 210
and/or
DBP 120
Risk Level
Low
Medium
High
Very high
Risk of major CV Event in
Management
10 years
<10%
Lifestyle changes
10 – 20%
Drug treatment and lifestyle changes
20 – 30%
Drug treatment and lifestyle changes
>30%
Drug treatment and lifestyle changes
TOD = Target organ damage (LVH, retinopathy, proteinuria)
TOC = Target organ complication (heart failure, renal failure)
RF = additional risk factors (smoking, TC >6.5 mmol/L, family history of premature vascular disease)
Clinical atherosclerosis (CHD, carotid stenosis, peripheral vascular disease, transient ischaemic
attack, stroke)
8
9
4. PREHYPERTENSION
It replaces former categories “high-normal” (130-139/85-89 mmHg)
and “above optimal” (120-129/80-84 mmHg). The term “borderline
hypertension” is discouraged from use as it is imprecise and
inconsistently defined.
Definition of prehypertension
Prehypertension is defined as systolic BP (SBP) 120 to 139 or
diastolic BP (DBP) 80 to 89 mmHg, based on 2 or more properly
measured seated BP readings on each of 2 or more office visits.11
4.1
Epidemiology of prehypertension
Based on the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES-III; 1999-2000) the prevalence of prehypertension in the
US population is 31% with no apparent difference by race or
ethnicity.15
In Malaysia, data from the National Health and Morbidity Survey
(NHMS) 1996 indicates that 37% of our populations has
prehypertension.2 (Level II-2)
Patients with prehypertension are at increased risk for progression to
hypertension. In the Framingham study, the high-normal BP group
conversion rate was 37% in 4 years.16 This conversion rate was even
higher in the Trial of Preventing Hypertension (TROPHY) study in
which over a period of 4 years, stage 1 hypertension developed in
nearly two thirds of patients with untreated prehypertension ( the
control group).17 The level of BP and age of the subject are major
determinants of this risk, with a higher rate of conversion associated
with older individuals and those with higher BP levels. Obesity and
weight gain also contribute to the progression of prehypertension to
hypertension.
Prehypertension tends to cluster with other CVD risk factors such as
dyslipidaemia, glucose abnormalities and obesity.18-20 However, the
weight of evidence suggests that the raised level of BP itself is an
independent CVD risk factor.20-21
Rationale for the shift/redefinition of this category of BP
1. To emphasize the excess cardiovascular risk associated with BP
in this range
- For individuals aged 40-70 years, the risk of CVD rises
progressively beginning at 115/75 mmHg 22
- It has been estimated that almost a third of BP-related deaths
from coronary heart disease occur in individuals with SBP
between 110 and 139 mmHg23
2. To focus increased clinical and public health attention on
prevention of hypertension
10
4.2
Management of prehypertension
• All patients should be managed with non-pharmacologic
interventions/therapeutic lifestyle modifications to lower BP.
(see Chapter 5)
• There should be yearly follow-up in patients with
prehypertension to detect and treat hypertension as early as
possible. (Level III)
• Decisions regarding pharmacological treatment should be
based on the individual patient’s global CVD risk. In diabetes
mellitus or chronic kidney disease, medical treatment is
required if BP is above 130/80 mmHg.25-27 (Level I) Similarly, in other
high risk subjects such as those with previous CVA or CAD, the
threshold for commencing hypertension treatment should be
lower in patients with prehypertension.28-31 (Level I)
There is presently inadequate evidence for pharmacological
intervention in prehypertensive patients at moderate or low total CV
risk. The TROPHY study17 assessed the effects of the angiotensin
receptor blocker candesartan versus placebo on prevention of the
onset of hypertension in subjects with BP in the previous “highnormal” range. While 2 years of active therapy reduced the incidence
of hypertension, after withdrawal of candesartan the BP differences
between groups narrowed, resulting in an overall minimal benefit.
5. NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT
Non-pharmacological
management
(therapeutic
lifestyle
modification) plays an important role in the management of
hypertension.32 It may be the only treatment necessary in Stage 1
hypertension. Unfortunately data from cross-sectional studies
showed that non-pharmacological treatment for patient with
hypertension is still inadequate. A high degree of motivation is also
needed to sustain the benefits of non-pharmacological treatment. In
the Treatment of Mild Hypertension Study (TOMHS), nonpharmacological intervention led to a fall of BP in the order of 9/9
mmHg and a reduction in the requirement for additional drugs in
patients already on monotherapy.33 It is also important to remember
that lifestyle modification requires a concerted effort and
reinforcement on behalf of the practitioner. Untreated patients with
pre- and mild hypertension responded better to behavioural
intervention on lifestyle modification than just passive advice on
lifestyle modification.34
5.1
Weight reduction
Weight reduction is most beneficial in patients who are more than
10% overweight. As far as possible aim for an ideal Body Mass Index
[Weight (kg)/Height2 (m)] – for Asians, the normal range has been
proposed to be 18.5 to 23.5 kg/m2.35 (Level III) A practical target for
overweight patients is a minimum reduction of 5% in body weight.
However a weight loss as little as 4.5 kg significantly reduces BP.36-37
(Level I)
Overweight patients on monotherapy receiving lifestyle
intervention have significantly lower BP than those without such
intervention.38
11
5.2
Sodium intake
The effect of sodium restriction in hypertensives can be variable.
Elderly subjects are more sensitive to sodium intake. On average, a
reduction of 4 mmHg systolic and 2 mmHg diastolic is achievable
with sodium restriction. An intake of <100 mmol of sodium or 6g of
sodium chloride a day is recommended (equivalent to <11/4
teaspoonfuls of salt or 3 teaspoonfuls of monosodium glutamate).3637, 39 (Level I), 40
5.3
Avoidance of alcohol intake
Alcohol has an acute effect in elevating BP. The standard advice is
to restrict intake to no more than 21 units for men and 14 units for
women per week (1 unit equivalent to 1/2 a pint of beer or 100ml of
wine or 20ml of proof whisky).(Level III) Hypertensives who are heavy
drinkers are more likely to have hypertension resistant to drug
treatment. The only way to reduce these patients’ BP effectively is by
reducing or stopping their alcohol intake.41 (Level I), 42
5.4
Regular physical exercise
Aerobic type exercise is more effective than exercise which involves
resistance training, (e.g. weightlifting). The effect of at least six
months of exercise on BP reduction amongst patients with
hypertension is however very modest. General advice on
cardiovascular health would be for “milder” exercise, such as brisk
walking for 30 – 60 minutes at least 3 times a week.43-44 (Level I)
5.5
Healthy eating
A diet rich in fruits, vegetables and dairy products with reduced
saturated and total fat can substantially lower BP (11/6 mmHg in
hypertensive patients and 4/2 mmHg in patients with high normal
BP).45 (Level II-1) This type of diet also has a beneficial effect on overall
cardiovascular health.
5.6
Cessation of smoking
This is important in the overall management of the patients with
hypertension in reducing cardiovascular risk.(Level III) Smoking can also
acutely increase BP. The effect of chronic smoking per se on BP is
not clear.
5.7
Others
These include stress management, micronutrient alterations and
dietary supplementation with fish oil, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and fibre. However, they have limited or unproven
efficacy.(Level III)
For patients with Stage 1 hypertension, an observational period of
three to six months is recommended unless target organ involvement
is already evident. During this period, appropriate advice should be
given on lifestyle modification. Follow-up at this juncture should be
about two monthly so that there will be between one to three visits
over the period. Efficacy of the above intervention should be
assessed. Figure 1 outlines the management of a patient with
hypertension. (Level III)
In patients with newly diagnosed uncomplicated hypertension and
no compelling indications, choice of first line monotherapy includes
ACEIs, ARBs, CCBs and diuretics. Beta-blockers are no longer
recommended for first line monotherapy in this group of patients.48
(Level I)
A recent meta-analysis has shown that it is not as effective in
lowering blood pressure and in the prevention of stroke compared to
the other antihypertensive agents.48 Incidence of new-onset diabetes
is also higher compared to the other drugs.49 However, beta-blockers
may be considered in younger people, particularly:
• those with an intolerance or contraindication to ACEIs and
ARBs or
• women of child-bearing potential or
• patients with evidence of increased sympathetic drive
Ideally, individualisation should be based on scientific evidence of
reduction in endpoints (Table 7). Otherwise, theoretical benefits may
determine the choice of drugs. Contraindications to the use of these
drugs must also be considered. Whilst numerous controlled trials
have shown that a diuretic and/or a beta-blocker reduce
cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, recent trials have reported
similar benefits with ACEIs and CCBs.50-54
In patients with stage 1 hypertension, treatment should be started
with a single drug at low dose. Monotherapy can lower BP to
<140/90 mmHg in approximately 40 – 60% of patients with mild to
moderate hypertension. If after a sufficient period of treatment (up
to six weeks) with monotherapy BP is still not controlled, three
options are available
• the dose of the initial drug can be increased
• the drug can be substituted with another class of drug
• a second drug can be added (Table 9).
6.1
General guidelines
There are many drugs available for the treatment of hypertension.
The ideal drug must be efficacious, free from side-effects, able to
prevent all the complications of hypertension, easy to use and
affordable. It may not matter which class of drug is used, it is the
reduction of BP which provides the main benefits in the general
hypertensive population.46 Appendix 3 lists the drugs currently
available in Malaysia.7
Increasing the dose of the initial antihypertensive agent or adding a
second agent is preferred if the patient shows response to the initial
drug but target BP is not achieved. The former, however, may give
rise to dose-related adverse effects. Properly selected
antihypertensive combinations may also mitigate the adverse effects
of each other. To improve compliance, a fixed-dose combination
drug may be considered. If the patient does not show response or
does not tolerate the initial drug, drug substitution is
recommended.(Level III)
12
13
6. PHARMACOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT
In patients presenting with stage 2 hypertension or beyond,
combination therapy is recommended.(Level III)
Table 7. Choice of antihypertensive drugs in patients with
concomitant conditions
Concomitant
disease
FIGURE 1. Algorithm for the Management of Hypertension
BLOOD PRESSURE
(Repeated Readings)
≥ 160 mmHg
AND/OR
DBP ≥ 100 mmHg
SBP = 120 - 159 mmHg
AND/OR
DBP = 80 - 99 mmHg
Assess global
cardiovascular risk
(refer to Table 4
and Table 5)
SBP
Medium/High/
Very High
Drug
Treatment
Diabetes mellitus
(without
nephropathy)
+
+/-
+++
+
+/-
++
Diabetes mellitus
(with
nephropathy)
++
+/-
+++
++*
+/-
+++
Gout
+/-
+
+
+
+
+
Dyslipidaemia
+/-
+/-
+
+
+
+
Coronary heart
disease
+
+++
+++
++
+
+
@
+++
+++
+
+
+++
Asthma
+
-
+
+
+
+
Peripheral
vascular disease
+
+/-
+
+
+
+
Non-diabetic
renal impairment
++
+
+++
+*
+
++
Renal artery
stenosis
+
+
++$
+
+
++$
+++
+
+
+++
+/-
+
The grading of recommendation from (+) to (+++) is based on increasing levels of evidence
and/or current widely accepted practice
+/- Use with care
- Contraindicated
* Only non-dihydropyridine CCB
# Metoprolol, bisoprolol, carvedilol – dose needs to be gradually titrated
@ Current evidence available for amlodipine and felodipine only
$ Contraindicated in bilateral renal artery stenosis
3-6 monthly follow-up with advice on
non-pharmacological management
SBP <140 mmHg
AND/OR
DBP <90 mmHg
SBP 140-149 mmHg
AND/OR
DBP 90-94 mmHg
3-6 monthly
follow-up and
assessment
14
#
+++
Heart failure
Elderly with
no co-morbid
conditions
Low
6-monthly
follow-up
Diuretics β-blockers ACEIs CCBs Peripheral ARBs
β-blockers
≥
≥
SBP 150 mmHg
AND/OR
DBP 95 mmHg
Drug treatment
Table 8. Effective antihypertensive combinations
Effective combination Comments
β-blockers + diuretics
However, may
Benefits proven in the elderly, cost-effective.
increase risk of new onset diabetes
β-blockers + CCBs
Relatively cheap, appropriate for concurrent CHD
CCBs + ACEIs/ARBs
Appropriate for concurrent dyslipidaemias and
diabetes mellitus
ACEIs + diuretics
mellitus and
Appropriate for concurrent heart failure, diabetes
stroke
ARBs + diuretics
diabetes
Appropriate for concurrent heart failure and
mellitus
15
Efforts must be made to reach target BP. For patients <65 years old, the
target BP should be <140/8555 mmHg and <130/80 mmHg for
diabetics.25 For elderly patients >65 years old, refer to section 8.7. In
general once the BP is controlled, most patients will require life-long
treatment. If BP is still >140/90 mmHg with three drugs, including a
diuretic at near maximal doses, patients by definition have resistant
hypertension.56 A quick check on the possible causes of resistant
hypertension is required. These include:
• non-compliance
• secondary hypertension
• white coat hypertension
• excessive sodium intake, excessive liquorice intake and drug
interactions.
• complications of long standing hypertension such as
nephrosclerosis, loss of aortic distensibility and atherosclerotic renal
artery stenosis
6.2
Follow–up visits
Recommended duration of follow up is as shown in Table 6. Once
target BP is achieved, follow-up at three to six-month interval is
appropriate.
6.3
Step-down therapy
An effort to decrease the dosage and number of antihypertensive drugs
should be considered after hypertension has been controlled effectively
for at least 1 year. The reduction should be made in a deliberate, slow
and progressive manner. Step down therapy is more often successful in
patients who also are making lifestyle modifications. Patients whose
drugs have been discontinued should have scheduled follow-up visits
because BP usually rises again to hypertensive levels, sometimes
months or years after discontinuance, especially in the absence of
sustained improvements in lifestyle.
6.4
When to refer
Most patients can be effectively managed by their own family
practitioners, patients with the following conditions should be referred
to the appropriate specialist for further assessment:
Indications for referral to the appropriate specialist include:
• accelerated or malignant hypertension
• suspected secondary hypertension
• resistant hypertension
• recent onset of target organ damage
• pregnancy
• children <18 years old
7.
MANAGEMENT OF SEVERE HYPERTENSION
Definition of severe hypertension:
Severe hypertension is defined as BP >180/110 mmHg.
These patients may present in the following manner:
• incidental finding in an asymptomatic patient
• non-specific symptoms like headache, dizziness, lethargy
• symptoms and signs of acute target organ damage. These
include acute heart failure, acute coronary syndromes, acute
renal failure, dissecting aneurysm, hypertensive encephalopathy
and stroke
Management of these patients depends on the clinical presentation
and laboratory investigations. The evaluation of these patients
should include a thorough history and physical examination,
particularly looking for signs of acute target organ damage and
causes of secondary hypertension. (Table 9)
Table 9. Common causes of severe hypertension*
Cause
Renal parenchymal disease
Example
Chronic pyelonephritis
Primary glomerulonephritis
Tubulointerstitial nephritis
Systemic disorders with
renal involvement
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Systemic sclerosis
Vasculitides
Renovascular
Atherosclerotic disease
Fibromuscular dysplasia
Polyarteritis nodosa
Phaechromocytoma
Conn syndrome (primary
hyperaldosteronism)
Cushing syndrome
Endocrine
Drugs
Cocaine
Amphetamines
Cyclosporin
Clonidine withdrawal
Phencyclidine
Coarctation of Aorta
-
Pre-eclampsia/eclampsia
-
Recommendations
• Target BP should be <140/85 mmHg for most55
• Target BP for patients with Diabetes Mellitus or
Chronic Kidney Disease should be <130/80 mmHg
• Treatment should be individualised
• For patients with stage 1 hypertension, start with a single drug at
the lowest dosage
• For patients with stage 2 and beyond, consider combination therapy
* The most common cause of severe hypertension is still longstanding poorly controlled essential hypertension.57
16
17
Patients are then categorised as having:
a) asymptomatic severe hypertension,
b) hypertensive urgencies, or
c) hypertensive emergencies
(b) and (c) are also referred to as hypertensive crises.58
7.1
Specific management
The aim of drug therapy in patients with severe hypertension is to
reduce BP in a controlled, predictable and safe manner in order to
avoid acute coronary, cerebral or renal ischaemia; or if ischaemia is
already present, to avoid aggravating the situation.
7.1.1
Asymptomatic severe hypertension
Admission may be necessary in the newly diagnosed, or where
compliance may be a problem. Patients already on treatment need
to have their drug regime reviewed.59 (Level III)
7.1.2
Hypertensive urgencies
These include patients with grade III or IV retinal changes (also
known as accelerated and malignant hypertension respectively), but
no overt organ failure. These patients may need admission. BP
measurement should be repeated after 30 minutes of bed rest. Initial
treatment should aim for about 25% reduction in BP over 24 hours
but not lower than 160/90 mmHg.60-61 (Level III) Oral drugs proven to be
effective are outlined in Table 10. Combination therapy is often
necessary.
Table 10. Oral treatment for hypertensive urgencies
Drug
Dose
Captopril
25 mg
Nifedipine 10 – 20 mg
Labetalol 200 – 400 mg
Onset of
action (hr)
Duration (hr)
Frequency
(prn)
0.5
0.5
2.0
6
3–5
6
1 – 2 hrs
1 – 2 hrs
4 hrs
7.1.3
Hypertensive emergencies
These include patients with complications of severe hypertension
such as acute heart failure, dissecting aneurysm, acute coronary
syndromes,
hypertensive
encephalopathy,
subarachnoid
haemorrhage and acute renal failure. These may occur in patients
with BP <180/110 mmHg, particularly if the BP has risen rapidly.
Table 11. Treatment options for hypertensive emergencies47
(References are from Malaysia Index of Medical Specialties
(MIMS), 108th edition, 2007)
Dose
Drugs
Onset of
action
seconds
Duration Remarks
Sodium
0.25 – 10 µg/kg/min
1–5
nitroprusside
min
IV bolus
5 min
3 - 6 hrs
Labetalol#
50 mg (over at least
1 minute) repeating if
necessary at 5 minute
intervals to a max of
200 mg then
2 mg/min IVI
Nitrates
5 – 100 µg /min
2 – 5 min 3 – 5 min
≤
Caution in renal
failure
Caution in heart
failure
Preferred in
acute coronary
syndromes and
acute pulmonary
oedema
Hydralazine* IV 5–10 mg maybe
10 – 20 min 3 – 8 hrs Caution in acute
repeated after 20 - 30 20 – 30 min
coronary
minutes
syndromes,
IVI 200-300 mcg/min
cerebrovascular
initially. Maintenance
accidents and
50-150 mcg /min
dissecting
aneurysm
Nicardipine
Esmolol
IV bolus 10-30 mcg/kg 5 – 10 min 1 – 4 hrs Caution in acute
over 1 minute IVI
heart failure and
2–10 mcg/kg/min
coronary
ischaemia
IV bolus1 – 2 min
3 – 10 minUsed in peri250–500 mcg/kg over
operative
1 min
situations
IVI 50–200 mcg/kg/min
and tachyfor 4 min. May repeat
arrhythmias
sequence
# In pregnancy, 200mg labetalol in 50 ml normal saline and start infusion at 4 ml/hour.
* In pregnancy, the initial dose is 25 g/min IV infusion (25 mg in 500 ml normal saline at 30 ml/hour).
All these patients should be admitted. The BP needs to be reduced
rapidly. It is suggested that the BP be reduced by 25% depending on
clinical scenario over 3 to 12 hours but not lower than 160/90
mmHg.62-64 (Level III)
This is best achieved with parenteral drugs. (Table 11)
7.2
Dangers of rapid reduction in blood pressure
Rapid reduction of BP (within minutes to hours) in asymptomatic
severe hypertension or hypertensive urgencies is best avoided as
it may precipitate ischaemic events.65
Oral or sublingual drugs with rapid onset of action can result in an
uncontrolled BP reduction. Several serious side effects have been
reported with the administration of sublingual fast-acting nifedipine
and therefore this is no longer recommended.66 (Level II-2),67
Following stabilization of patient's BP, subsequent management is
tailored towards achieving optimal control.
For management of patients with severe hypertension and stroke,
refer to section on Hypertension and Stroke.
18
19
8. HYPERTENSION IN SPECIAL GROUPS
8.1
Hypertension and diabetes mellitus
Hypertension is a common problem in patients with diabetes
mellitus. Its presence increases the risk of morbidity and mortality.
In type 1 diabetes, the incidence of hypertension increases from 5%
at 10 years to 33% at 20 years and 70% at 40 years, and appears to
be closely related to diabetic renal disease. In type 2 diabetes,
hypertension is even more prevalent. The Hypertension in Diabetes
Study Group reported a 39% prevalence of hypertension among
newly diagnosed patients, and in approximately half of them the
elevated BP predated the onset of microalbuminuria and was
strongly associated with obesity.68-69 In type 2 diabetes, hypertension
is frequently present as a component of the metabolic syndrome.
(Section 8.2)
Hypertension should be detected and treated early in the course of
diabetes mellitus to prevent cardiovascular disease and to delay the
progression of renal disease and diabetic retinopathy. Diabetic
patients should also be screened for proteinuria or microalbuminuria.
The presence of microalbuminuria strongly predicts overt
nephropathy and cardiovascular disease.
8.1.1
Threshold for treatment
Pharmacological treatment should be initiated in patients with
diabetes when the BP is persistently >130 mmHg systolic and/or >80
mmHg diastolic.1,25,70 (Level I)
The presence of microalbuminuria or overt proteinuria should be
treated even if the BP is not elevated. An ACEI or ARB is preferred.7177 (Level I)
In a proportion of patients, microalbuminuria may be
normalised by higher doses of ACEIs74 and ARBs.75-76 (Level I)
Normalisation of microalbuminuria is associated with a reduction in
the rate of decline in glomerular filtration rate.78
8.1.2
Target blood pressure
Tight BP control should take precedence over the class of
antihypertensive drug used.79-80 (Level I) This often will require combination
therapy. There are suggestions that a lower target BP may be
necessary to maximally protect against the development and
progression of cardiovascular and diabetic renal disease. In general,
the SBP should be targeted to <130 mmHg and diastolic pressure
<80 mmHg.81 (Level I) The BP should be lowered even further to <125/75
mmHg in the presence of proteinuria of >1 g/24 hours. 1,25,26,57,70 (Level I)
8.1.3
Management
The approach to the treatment of hypertension in diabetes should be
very much along the guidelines for treatment of hypertension in
general. Nonetheless, a few important issues concerning nonpharmacological management and drug treatment need to be
highlighted.
20
Non-pharmacological management
This cannot be over emphasised. Dietary counselling should target
at optimal body weight and take into consideration glycaemic control
and the management of concomitant dyslipidaemia.
Moderate dietary sodium restriction is advisable. It enhances the
effects of BP lowering drugs especially ACEIs and the ARBs. Further
sodium restriction, with or without a diuretic, may be necessary in
the presence of nephropathy or when the BP is difficult to control.82
Pharmacological management
The use of certain classes of antihypertensive drugs may be
disadvantageous to the diabetic patient by virtue of their modes of
action or adverse effects. (Table 7) Diabetic control may be
compromised and various diabetic complications aggravated.82
• decreased insulin responsiveness with higher doses of diuretics
• masking of early symptoms of hypoglycaemia with beta-blockers
and slowing of recovery from hypoglycaemia with non-selective
beta-blockers
• aggravation of symptoms of peripheral vascular disease with
beta-blockers
• dyslipidaemia with most beta-blockers and diuretics
• worsening of orthostatic hypotension with peripheral alphablockers or centrally acting drugs.
ACEIs are drugs of choice based on extensive data attesting to their
cardiovascular and renal protective effects in diabetic patients.83-84 (Level
I)
In addition they do not have adverse effects on lipid and
carbohydrate metabolism. If an ACEI is not tolerated, an ARB should
be considered.85 (Level I)
ARBs have been reported to be superior to conventional non-ACEI
antihypertensive drugs in terms of slowing the progress of
nephropathy at the microalbuminuric stage as well as the overt
nephropathy stage in type 2 diabetic patients. They have been
shown to be of similar efficacy as ACEIs but better tolerated.85 (Level I)
There have been no reports of adverse effects on carbohydrate and
lipid metabolism.75-77
Diuretics can be used as initial therapy or added on when
monotherapy is inadequate. The lowest possible dose should be
used to minimise adverse metabolic effects. However, adverse
metabolic effects with higher doses of diuretics have also been
reportedly reduced when used in combination with an ACEI or an
ARB.85
21
CCBs do not have significant adverse metabolic effects or
compromise diabetic control. Some studies suggest that nondihydropyridine CCBs may be superior to dihydropyridine CCBs in
reducing proteinuria in diabetic nephropathy.86
Notwithstanding this, all parties agree that the various components of
the metabolic syndrome should be treated separately.89-91 Hypertension
associated with the metabolic syndrome should therefore be treated
according to standard clinical practice guidelines.
Beta-blockers may be used when ACEIs, ARBs or CCBs cannot be
used or when there are concomitant compelling indications.
However, they should be used with caution, especially in patients
with type 1 diabetes.86
Beta-blockers and thiazide diuretics have the potential to increase
the incidence of new onset diabetes92,49 and this should be taken into
consideration when choosing drugs for patients diagnosed with the
metabolic syndrome.
Peripheral alpha blockers do not have adverse effects on
carbohydrate or lipid metabolism. Orthostatic hypotension due to
autonomic neuropathy may be aggravated with their use.
Table 12. NCEP ATP III and IDF criteria for the metabolic syndrome 87-88
Recommendations
• ACEIs are the agents of choice for patients with diabetes
without proteinuria
• ACEIs or ARBs are the agents of choice for patients with
diabetes and proteinuria
• Beta-blockers, diuretics or CCBs may be considered if either
of the above cannot be used.
8.2
Hypertension and the metabolic syndrome
The metabolic syndrome began life as “Syndrome X” in 1988 when
Reaven gave the Banting Lecture at the annual meeting of the
American Diabetes Association. Following this it was given a variety
of labels – the Insulin Resistance Syndrome, Plurimetabolic
Syndrome, Dysmetabolic Syndrome and Cardiometabolic Syndrome
before settling on its current designation.
In essence, it is a cluster of risk factors predisposing to
cardiovascular disease and diabetes. The problem was coming to a
consensus on the diagnostic criteria. Various organisations have
come out with their proposals, among them the WHO1, the European
Group on Insulin Resistance, and the American Association of
Clinical Endocrinologists. The most widely applied (and practical)
criteria are the National Cholesterol Education Programme Adult
Treatment Panel (NCEP ATP) III 87 and International Diabetic
Federation (IDF) 88 criteria. The IDF criteria are also known as the IDF
Consensus. The NCEP criteria have been modified for Asians by
changing the waist circumference to the Asian standard.
Hypertension is one of the criteria for the diagnosis of the metabolic
syndrome. In the original WHO1 criteria the cut-off point was 140/90
mm Hg but in the current guidelines this has been lowered to 130/85
mmHg. The others include the waist circumference, blood sugar,
HDL-cholesterol and triglyceride levels. (Table 12)
Controversy recently arose as to the usefulness of the metabolic
syndrome as a predictor of cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and
this debate is still ongoing.89-90
22
Components
of metabolic
syndrome
NCEP 2004
3 out of 5
criteria
Waist
(cm)
>90 (M)
>80 (F)
BP
FBS
TG
HDL
(mmHg) (mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L)
≥130/85 ≥5.6
IDF 2005
COMPULSORY
Waist criterion
>90 (M)
130/85
+ 2 out of 4
criteria
>80 (F)
≥
≥5.6
≥1.7
≥1.7
<1.0 (M)
<1.3 (F)
<1.0 (M)
<1.3 (F)
8.3
Hypertension and non-diabetic renal disease
Hypertension may be a cause or consequence of renal failure.93-94
Renal disease is the most important cause of secondary hypertension.
Hypertension in renal disease is often associated with an elevated
serum creatinine, proteinuria and/or haematuria. Approximately 5075% of individuals with GFR<60 ml/min/1.72m2 (CKD stages 3-5) have
hypertension.95 Hypertension accelerates the progression of renal
disease and may lead to end stage renal disease (ESRD). Tight control
of BP is therefore important. The target BP should be < 130/80 mmHg
for those with proteinuria of < 1g/24 hours and < 125/75 mmHg for
those with proteinuria of > 1g/24 hours.26,57 (Level I) All antihypertensive
drug classes can be used to achieve this goal.
In the management of hypertension in renal disease, control of BP and
proteinuria are the most important factors in terms of retarding the
progression of renal disease. Antihypertensive agents that reduce
proteinuria thus have an advantage. Meta-analyses of comparative
trials concluded that ACEI conferred an anti-proteinuric effect greater
than other anti-hypertensive drugs.96 Overall 30% reduction in
incidence of ESRD with ACEI can be expected.97 The anti-proteinuric
effect and reduction in ESRD was beyond that attributable to the BP
lowering effect.98-99 This anti-proteinuric effect of ACEI was most
prominent in patients on a low sodium diet or those treated with
diuretics. Patients with proteinuria >3g/24 hours benefited the
most.100-101 The advantage of ACEI is most readily apparent in patients
with rapid progression of renal disease associated with proteinuria.
ARBs are similar to ACEI in lowering BP and reducing proteinuria.102-103
The combination of ACEIs and ARBs has also been proven to reduce
the rate of doubling of serum creatinine and ESRD more than
monotherapy with either agent in nondiabetic proteinuric renal
disease.104 (Level I) Consultation with a specialist is advised prior to
initiation of this combination.
23
Renal insufficiency should not be a contraindication to starting ACEI
or ARB therapy, nor should it be a reason for discontinuing therapy.
Serum creatinine level should be checked within the first two weeks
of initiation of therapy. If there is a persistent rise of serum creatinine
of 30% from baseline within two months, ACEIs should be stopped.
Similar caution should be exercised with the use of ARBs.(Level III)
≥
In patients with renal disease and hypertension with an elevated serum
creatinine of >200 mcmol/L, thiazide diuretics may not be effective
antihypertensive agents and therefore loop diuretics are preferred.(Level
III)
Concurrent diuretic therapy will often be necessary in patients with
renal insufficiency since salt and water retention is an important
determinant of hypertension in this setting.
CCBs may be used in renal disease. In those with proteinuria, the
non-dihydropyridine group of CCBs namely diltiazem or verapamil
are preferred, as they have an additional antiproteinuric effect.96 (Level
I),106
The combination of an ACEI and a non-dihydropyridine CCB is
more anti-proteinuric than either drug alone.105-106 More recently,
aldosterone antagonists have been shown to have additive
antiproteinuric effects when administered with ACEI and/or ARB in
patients with CKD.107 However, larger randomised prospective trials
are needed to confirm the efficacy and safety of aldosterone
antagonists on proteinuria and CKD progression.
Recommendations
• Target BP should be <130/80 mmHg for those with proteinuria
of <1g/24 hours and <125/75 mmHg for those with proteinuria
of >1g/24 hours
• ACEIs are recommended as initial anti-hypertensive therapy
• ARBs should be used in patients intolerant to ACEIs
• Dietary salt and protein restriction is important
• Concurrent diuretic therapy is useful in patients with fluid
overload
• Non-dihydropyridine CCBs can be added on if the BP goal is
still not achieved
8.4
Renovascular hypertension
It is important to diagnose renovascular hypertension as it is
potentially reversible. The aetiology of renovascular hypertension
includes the following:
• atherosclerotic renovascular disease
• fibromuscular dysplasia
• Takayasu arteritis
• transplant renal artery stenosis
Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis (ARAS) is an important cause as
it can lead to ESRD. It is also associated with coronary heart disease,
cerebrovascular disease and peripheral vascular disease. In patients
with ARAS older than 60 years, the five-year-survival is 45% in
patients with bilateral ARAS and 18% in those requiring dialysis
therapy.108-109
24
The coexistence of a stenotic renal vessel and hypertension does not
equate to renovascular hypertension. Renovascular hypertension is
present if a cure or improvement of hypertension can be
demonstrated following revascularisation.
Some clinical features associated with renovascular hypertension
include:
• onset of hypertension before 30 years, especially without family
history
• recent onset of hypertension after 55 years
• resistant hypertension
• abdominal bruit; particularly if associated with a unilateral small
kidney
• flash pulmonary oedema
• hypokalemia in absence of diuretic
• renal failure of uncertain cause in the presence of normal urine
sediment
• renal failure induced by ACEIs or ARBs
• coexisting diffuse atherosclerotic vascular disease
Renal angiography including measurement of the pressure gradient
remains the gold standard in the diagnosis of renovascular
hypertension. Non-invasive investigations110 include spiral CT
angiography (CTA),111 colour coded duplex sonography (CDS),
captopril enhanced radionuclide renal scan (CR) and magnetic
resonance angiography (MRA).110
Revascularisation has been shown to alleviate renovascular
hypertension as well as to salvage renal function.112-113 It should be
considered under the following circumstances.114-115
• flash pulmonary oedema
• rapidly deteriorating renal function especially if leading to dialysis
• stenosis >70%
• refractory hypertension
• transplant renal artery stenosis
• fibromuscular dysplasia associated with hypertension
• Takayasu arteritis
The management of renal artery stenosis include conservative
treatment, angioplasty with or without stenting and surgery.
Conservative treatment can be considered for patients with stenosis
less than 70%. These lesions should be monitored for progression
using colour duplex sonography. Medical treatment of patients with
ARAS will include statins, low dose aspirin and cessation of
smoking. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and ARB can be
used in patients with suspected ARAS if renal function is carefully
monitored. A persistent rise in creatinine of >30% warrants cessation
of drug therapy. This is best done under specialist's supervision.
25
Ostial ARAS is best treated with angioplasty with stenting due to
problem of recoil post angioplasty. In patients with deteriorating renal
function or global obstructive atherosclerotic renovascular disease,
renal artery stenting improves or stabilizes renal function and
preserves kidney size.116-118 Patients with complex renovascular
disease such as renal artery aneurysm or failed endovascular
procedures may benefit from renal artery surgery.
Doctors have to distinguish patients with a high likelihood of
treatment benefit from those with incidental ARAS. The presence of
refractory hypertension, recent deterioration of renal function and
evidence of progression of the stenotic lesion will help to determine
the plan of management for these patients.
Duplex Doppler examination is ideal for screening and follow-up
monitoring of patients with renal transplant artery stenosis. These
lesions should only be treated if there is a recent worsening of renal
function as there is a possibility of spontaneous reversal of
stenosis.119 Percutaneous Renal Angioplasty (PTRA) is the treatment
of choice where indicated. Further studies comparing intervention
and conservative treatment are needed. Patients with fibromuscular
dysplasia rarely have excretory dysfunction, and hypertension in
these patients generally responds to ACE inhibitors.
Revascularisation is indicated for patients with refractory
hypertension.
8.5
Hypertension and cardiovascular disease
Hypertension is one of the major risk factors for atherosclerosis and
cardiovascular disease.
8.5.1
Left ventricular dysfunction
The early effects of hypertension on the myocardium are stiffness
and subsequently left ventricular hypertrophy. These would result in
abnormalities in left ventricular function manifested initially as
diastolic dysfunction and later as systolic dysfunction. In diastolic
dysfunction, left ventricular size and ejection fraction remain normal
but the left ventricular end diastolic pressure is increased and this
may result in pulmonary venous congestion presenting as dyspnoea.
When systolic dysfunction occurs, the left ventricle is dilated and
ejection fraction is reduced. This will lead to an increase in left
ventricular end diastolic pressure with ensuing pulmonary venous
congestion. Both diastolic and systolic left ventricular dysfunction
can cause congestive cardiac failure and death.120
Left ventricular hypertrophy can vary from isolated septal thickening
to concentric LVH. Left ventricular hypertrophy increases the risk of
LV dysfunction, ventricular arrhythmias and death.123 Treatment of
hypertension will lead to regression of LVH, improvement of LV
function and reduction of cardiovascular morbidity.124 All classes of
antihypertensive agents have been shown to cause regression of
LVH.125 In patients with diastolic heart failure, ARB has been shown
to reduce morbidity but not mortality.126
8.5.3
Coronary heart disease
Hypertension is a major risk factor for coronary atherosclerosis. With
LVH, there is increased oxygen demand and perfusion defects have
been demonstrated on radionuclear myocardial perfusion studies,
even in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease. With
decreased supply from coronary atherosclerotic obstruction, there is
further imbalance to the increased demands of a hypertrophied left
ventricle. This will lead to myocardial ischaemia and myocardial
infarction, which can result in further deterioration of left ventricular
function, congestive heart failure and death.
Hypertensive patients are more prone to silent myocardial ischaemia,
myocardial infarction and sudden death.127-128
Beta-blockers, ACEIs and long-acting CCBs are the preferred
antihypertensives. Short-acting CCBs, especially nifedipine in high
doses129 should be avoided as they are associated with increased
cardiac events.130 These agents should also be avoided in patients
with unstable angina.131 In post-infarction patients, ACEIs and betablockers especially in patients with LV dysfunction, help to reduce
future cardiac events which include cardiac failure, cardiac mortality
and morbidity.131-134 (Level I)
8.5.4
Congestive heart failure
In congestive heart failure, diuretics, aldosterone antagonists, betablockers, ACEIs and ARBs have been shown to be beneficial.135
8.5.5
Peripheral vascular disease
Hypertension is a major risk factor for peripheral vascular disease
(PVD). Care should be taken with beta-blockers in patients with
intermittent claudication. Its presence suggests an increased
likelihood of generalized atherosclerosis including coronary artery
disease.
8.5.2
Left ventricular hypertrophy
Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is diagnosed on echocardiography
or electrocardiography (ECG).121 Echocardiography is more sensitive
than ECG and can also be used to assess progression of LVH122 but
its usage may be limited due to cost considerations and availability.
26
27
Recommendations
• Hypertensive patients with LVH should receive an ARB as the
first line treatment128
• In CHD, beta-blockers138, ACEIs127 and long acting CCBs31 are
the drugs of choice
• Beta-blockers, ACEIs and aldosterone antagonists should be
considered in patients with CHD especially in post myocardial
infarction and when associated with LV dysfunction
• Beta-blockers need to be cautiously used in patients with
peripheral vascular disease. They are contraindicated in
patients with severe PVD
• Diuretics, ACEIs, beta-blockers, ARBs and aldosterone
antagonists are drugs of choice for heart failure
8.6
Hypertension and stroke
Blood pressure is the most consistent and powerful predictor of
stroke136 and high blood pressure is the most important modifiable
cause of stroke.137 (Level III) BP levels are continuously associated with
the risk for stroke.138-139 Although both SBP and DBP are associated
with stroke, SBP is more predictive.140 In the Asia Pacific region, up
to 66 % of strokes can be attributed to hypertension.141
Worldwide 15 million people suffer from stroke annually, of these 5.5
million people die and another 5 million are left permanently
disabled.137 In Malaysia, stroke is the fourth leading cause of death in
government hospitals in 2005, accounting for 8.19% of all deaths.142
8.6.1
Primary prevention of stroke
Both observational studies and meta-analyses of randomised control
trials have shown that a 10 mmHg reduction in SBP or a 5 mmHg
reduction in DBP in hypertensive patient can lead to a 34% reduction
in the risk of stroke.144-145 The benefits have been shown in both
systolic-diastolic hypertension and in isolated systolic
hypertension.138,145-147,6 Beta-blockers, diuretics, CCBs, ACEIs and
ARBs have been shown to reduce risk and mortality of stroke.125,127,145147,6(Level I)
Calcium channel blockers in particular, provided significantly
better protection against stroke compared with diuretics and/or
beta-blockers in Asian and Caucasian populations.136, 148-149 (Level I)
8.6.2
Secondary prevention of stroke
In patients who have suffered a cerebrovascular event, BP lowering
has been shown to reduce the risk of subsequent strokes.28,150-151
Combination of an ACEI and diuretic has been shown to reduce
stroke recurrence in both normotensive and hypertensive patients
when treatment was started at least two weeks after the stroke.28 (Level I)
The morbidity and mortality from further strokes were also shown to
be significantly lower in patients receiving ARBs compared to CCBs
for the same level of BP control.152 (Level I)
28
8.6.3
Treatment of hypertension in acute stroke
Treatment of elevated BP in acute stroke is still controversial.153 In
general, it is best to avoid lowering BP in the first few days after a
stroke unless there is evidence of accelerated hypertension or
patients presenting concurrently with hypertensive emergencies.(Level III)
Recommendations
• Lowering blood pressure is the key to both primary and
secondary prevention of stroke
• In acute stroke, lowering BP is best avoided in the first few days
unless hypertensive emergencies co-exist
• In primary prevention, a CCB-based therapy is preferred
• In secondary prevention, the benefits of BP lowering is seen in
both normotensive and hypertensive patients
• ACEI- or ARB- based treatment is preferred in secondary
prevention
8.7
Hypertension in the elderly
The definition of hypertension in the elderly is the same as the
general adult population.
Hypertension in the elderly (i.e., above age 65) is an increasingly
important public health concern as our population ages.
Hypertension further magnifies the risk for cardiovascular disease in
the elderly compared with younger populations. Systolic BP, unlike
DBP, increases linearly with age leading to an increase of isolated
systolic hypertension in elderly. Systolic BP is a better predictor of
cardiovascular events than DBP especially in the elderly.154
Recently it has also become clear that a widened pulse pressure (SBP
minus DBP) of >40 mm Hg, suggesting increased stiffness in large
arteries, may be an even better marker of increased cardiovascular
risk than either SBP or DBP alone.155-156,2 The prevalence of
hypertension in the elderly in Malaysia has been reported to be
62.4% of which 55% is isolated systolic hypertension.157
Several randomized controlled trials have shown that treatment of
hypertension in the elderly up to the age of 84 years reduces
cardiovascular
morbidity
and
mortality,
particularly
stroke.6,36,50,55,124,136,147-149,157-158,163-165 For those above the age of 85 years,
the results of ongoing trials are awaited.163
8.7.1
Detection and evaluation
Recommendations for BP measurements in the elderly patients are
similar to those for the general population. Postural hypotension, i.e.
a drop in systolic BP of >20 mmHg upon standing, is a common
problem in the elderly. Blood pressure should therefore be measured
in both the seated/supine and standing positions. If there is a
significant postural drop, the standing BP is used to guide treatment
decisions.
29
Evaluation of elderly patients with hypertension should not differ
from that of younger adult populations. Particular attention should be
paid to detect atheromatous renal artery disease as the cause of
secondary hypertension.
8.7.2
Treatment
The goals of treatment in older patients should be the same as in
younger patients.149 (Level I) In those patients with marked systolic
hypertension and not tolerating treatment well, reducing SBP to
below 160 mmHg initially is acceptable. Subsequently, attempts
should be made to reduce BP to target levels.154 (Level III)
Non-pharmacological management
Attempts at lifestyle modifications while beneficial may not be
practical in the elderly. However weight loss and modest salt
reduction may be especially effective in the elderly because of their
greater sensitivity to sodium intake.36 (Level I)
Pharmacological management
The five major classes of drugs (diuretics, β-blockers, CCBs, ACEIs
and ARBs) have been shown to reduce cardiovascular events in the
elderly.6,50,53,124,149,164 (Level I) In older patients with isolated systolic
hypertension, diuretics are preferred because they have been shown
to significantly reduce multiple endpoints.6 Several trials using
dihydropyridine CCBs have shown benefits particularly in stroke
reduction.147,148-149,136 Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors are the
drugs of choice for those with concomitant left ventricular systolic
dysfunction, post myocardial infarction or diabetes mellitus.165 (Level I)
Angiotensin receptor blockers have also been shown to reduce fatal
and non-fatal strokes in hypertensive patients aged 65 years or
older.124
The starting dose in older patients should be at the lowest available.
Drugs that exaggerate postural changes in BP (peripheral adrenegicblockers, alpha-blockers and high dose diuretics) or drugs that
cause cognitive dysfunction (central alpha-2-agonists) should be
used with caution.
8.7.3
Special considerations
In the treatment of hypertension in the elderly, certain considerations
should be taken into account. The elderly tends to be on many other
concomitant medications. They are also more vulnerable to side
effects and treatment therefore should follow the adage “start low
and go slow”. In order to maximise compliance, the drug regime
should be as simple as possible.124
Recommendations
• Isolated Systolic hypertension is particularly common in the
elderly and should be recognized and treated
• Standing BP should be measured to detect postural hypotension
• Decreasing dietary salt intake is particularly useful
• When prescribing drugs, remember to start low and go slow
30
8.8
Hypertension in pregnancy
8.8.1
Definition
Hypertension
Hypertension in Pregnancy is defined as a systolic blood pressure
(BP) 140mm Hg and/or a diastolic BP 90 mmHg.166
≥
≥
An increase of 15 mmHg and 30 mmHg diastolic and systolic BP
levels above baseline BP is no longer recognized as hypertension if
absolute values are below 140/90 mmHg. Nevertheless, this
warrants close observation, especially if proteinuria and
hyperuricaemia are also present.167-168
Korotkoff V should now be used as the cut-off point for diastolic BP,
and Korotkoff IV utilized only when Korotkoff V is absent.166 (Level III)
Measurement of BP is similar to that of the general population, as
stated earlier.
Proteinuria
Significant proteinuria in pregnancy is defined as 300 mg protein in
a 24 hour urine sample, or a spot urine protein-creatinine ratio 30
mg/mmol166. If the dipstick is the only test available, 1+ (30 mg/dl) is
often, but not always, associated with 300 mg/day proteinuria.166
Significant proteinuria reflects advanced disease, associated with
poorer prognosis.
≥
≥
≥
8.8.2
Classification
There are various classifications for Hypertension in Pregnancy. The
most recent is by the Australasian Society for the Study of
Hypertension in Pregnancy (ASSHP) and endorsed by the
International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy
(ISSHP).166-167
1. Preeclampsia-eclampsia: clinically diagnosed in the presence of
de novo hypertension after gestational week 20, and one or more
of the following:
i. Significant proteinuria.
ii. Renal insufficiency: serum creatinine 90 µmol/l or oliguria.
iii. Liver disease: raised transaminases and/or severe right upper
quadrant or epigastric pain.
iv. Neurological problems: convulsions (eclampsia), hyperreflexia
with clonus or severe headaches, persistent visual
disturbances (scotoma).
v. Haematological disturbances: thrombocytopenia, coagulopathy,
haemolysis.
vi. Fetal growth restriction.
≥
This is followed by normalisation of the BP by three months
postpartum.
Oedema is no longer part of the definition of preeclampsia.169
Either excessive weight gain or failure to gain weight in pregnancy
may herald the onset of preeclampsia.170
31
2. Gestational hypertension: hypertension alone, detected for the
first time after 20 weeks pregnancy. The definition is changed to
“transient” when pressure normalizes postpartum.
3. Chronic hypertension: hypertension diagnosed prior to
gestational week 20; or presence of hypertension preconception,
or de novo hypertension in late gestation that fails to resolve
postpartum.
4. Preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension:
This can be diagnosed by the appearance of any of the following
in a woman with chronic hypertension:
i) De novo proteinuria after gestational week 20
ii) A sudden increase in the severity of hypertension
iii) Appearance of features of preeclampsia-eclampsia, and
iv) A sudden increase in proteinuria in women who have preexisting proteinuria early in gestation
8.8.3
Key points in primary care practice
Although women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy should
be managed by an obstetrician, the primary care physician plays an
important role in preventing, detecting, monitoring and managing
preeclampsia and its complications to a certain extent, both during
the preconceptional and antenatal periods:
1. Preconception counseling and adjustment of treatment in women
with chronic hypertension.
Women with chronic hypertension may require a change in the type
of antihypertensive agent used pre-pregnancy.171 (Level III) The drugs of
choice in pregnancy are still methyldopa and labetalol (Table 13).
Atenolol has been shown to lead to fetal growth restriction. The use
of ARBs & ACEIs is contraindicated in pregnancy.
In pregnancy, BP tends to drop in early pregnancy and is at its lowest
mid-pregnancy. Subsequently it rises gradually to pre-pregnancy
levels at term.172 There is inadequate evidence for or against
continuing antihypertensive treatment in women with chronic
hypertension when their BP drops naturally in pregnancy.173
It should be noted that the treatment of hypertension in pregnancy is
solely for maternal safety. It does not reduce the risk of development
of preeclampsia or perinatal mortality, nor improve fetal growth.171
2. Recognition of women at high risk of preeclampsia and referral in
early pregnancy for screening and prophylaxis.
This includes women with
a. existing chronic medical disorders such as obesity, hypertension,
diabetes mellitus, renal disease, connective tissue disease and
thrombophilia,
b. previous history of preeclampsia or eclampsia or intrauterine
growth restriction (IUGR) or unexplained stillbirth
32
c. family history of preeclampsia or eclampsia, and
d. extremes of reproductive age (below 20 or above 40 years old)
They should be referred for specialist assessment and management
before 16 weeks of pregnancy.8 Specialist management will include
doppler ultrasonography and aspirin pharmacoprophylaxis.177,178 (Level I)
3. Nutritional supplementation for prevention of preeclampsia and/or
its complications.
High calcium supplementation of 1.5 g/day significantly reduces
the risk of eclampsia, severe gestational hypertension, and severe
preeclamptic complication index in pregnant women with low
dietary calcium intake (less than 600 mg/day).177 Other
supplements in pregnancy such as marine oil, garlic and
pyridoxine have no proven benefits.178-180
Combined vitamins C and E (in the form of tocopherol from
soybean) should be avoided as they appear to adversely affect
high risk pregnancies rather than confer any benefit.181 They
increase the incidence of low birth weight significantly without
any preventive effect against preeclampsia.
4. Prevention of eclampsia and other complications of preeclampsia
Patient education with regard to disease symptomatology, and
medical staff awareness of symptoms and signs of severe
disease are important. Early diagnosis and referral to an
obstetrician for further management may prevent progression to
eclampsia.182-183 (Level II-2)
8.8.4
Severe preeclampsia
Severe preeclampsia must be promptly identified so that the patient
can be urgently admitted to hospital for close observation and timely
delivery. The Royal College of Obstetrician and Gynecology (RCOG)
defines severe preeclampsia as follows184
≥
≥
≥
≥
1. Systolic BP 170 mmHg or diastolic BP 110 mmHg (acute
hypertensive crisis in pregnancy) on two occasions, with
proteinuria of 1 g/day.
2. Diastolic BP 100 mmHg on two occasions, with significant
proteinuria (1+ on dipstick), with two or more signs or symptoms
of imminent eclampsia, which include
a. severe headache
b. visual disturbance
c. epigastric pain and/or vomiting
d. clonus
e. papilloedema
f. liver tenderness
g. platelet count below 100,000/cmm
h. abnormal liver enzymes (elevated ALT or AST)
i. HELLP syndrome (haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low
platelets)
j. intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)
k. pulmonary oedema and / or congestive cardiac failure.
33
In diagnosing severe preeclampsia, caution should be exercised in
relying on overly precise criteria. Diagnosis should err on the side of
caution.
In the event of an acute hypertensive crisis, IV hydrallazine (2.5-5 mg
bolus, or infusion) or IV labetalol (10-20 mg slow bolus over 5
minutes, or infusion), or oral nifedipine (10 mg stat dose), may be
used to lower the BP.185-186 (Level I) Sublingual nifedipine is no longer
recommended.184 (Level III)
Diuretics are, in general, contraindicated as they reduce plasma
volume, may cause IUGR and may possibly increase perinatal
mortality. Their only use is in the treatment of acute pulmonary
oedema.170 (Level III)
Anti-hypertensive treatment should be initiated if diastolic BP is
persistently 100 mmHg. The aim is a diastolic BP not lower than 90
mmHg so as not to compromise placental blood flow.
≥
8.8.5
Anticonvulsants in preeclampsia-eclampsia
Parenteral magnesium sulphate is currently the drug of choice for the
prevention of eclampsia and to abort an eclamptic fit.187-188 (Level I) The
alternative is intravenous diazepam (intravenous bolus 10 mg slowly
over 10-15 minutes followed by infusion), bearing in mind that it is
inferior in efficacy compared to magnesium sulphate.
8.8.6
Postpartum care
Postpartum women with hypertensive disorders in pregnancy are
advised to have their BP checked regularly at local clinics if there is
a significant delay in their scheduled hospital follow-up. In these
patients, the dose of antihypertensive should be tailed down
gradually and not stopped suddenly.
De novo onset of hypertension or aggravation of BP levels during the
postpartum period, can occur.189 These patients should be promptly
referred to hospital especially if there is significant proteinuria. (Level III)
Eclampsia may occur in the postpartum period.
Chronic hypertension is diagnosed when the hypertension and/or
proteinuria fails to disappear within three months postpartum.166-167
Long Term Follow-up
Evidence suggests that up to 13% of women with preeclampsia will
have underlying essential hypertension that was not suspected
antenatally.184 In addition, the same factors that predispose to
preeclampsia also predispose to cardiovascular disease in later
life.173 Long-term follow-up of patients with a history of hypertension
in pregnancy is therefore advisable. (Level III)
34
Table 13. Antihypertensive drugs commonly used in pregnancy.
Drug
Remarks
Methyldopa
Oral 250 mg tds, doubling every 48 hours (up to 1
gm tds) until BP well controlled. Oldest
antihypertensive agent used in pregnancy, with best
safety profile.
Labetalol
Oral 100 mg bd, doubling every 48 hours (up to 400
mg bd) until BP well controlled.
IV bolus or infusion in acute hypertensive crisis. May
cause fetal bradycardia.
Nifedipine
Oral 10 mg tds, up to 20 mg tds, usually as second
line antihypertensive, when BP poorly controlled
despite maximum doses of methyldopa ± labetalol.
Oral 10 mg stat can also be used in acute
hypertensive crisis, especially prior to transferring a
patient from a peripheral clinic to hospital.
Hydralazine* IV infusion (or IM 6.25 mg to 12.5 mg stat in
postpartum women) in acute hypertensive crisis.
* The dose quoted is for dihydrallazine (Nepresol®), which is no longer available in Malaysia.
Recommendations
• Diagnosis and treatment is based on Korotkoff V as DBP
• Pregnant women who are at high risk of developing
preeclampsia should be referred to the obstetrican for screening
and commencement of prophylaxis with aspirin
• Prophylactic calcium supplementation from early pregnancy is
beneficial and recommended
• Pregnant women with hypertension should be referred to the
obstetrician for further management
• The antihypertensives of choice are methyldopa and labetalol
• Oral nifedipine 10mg stat dose can be used to rapidly control BP
in an acute hypertensive crisis prior to transfer to hospital
8.9
Hypertension and oral contraceptives
The incidence of hypertension is reported to be higher in women
taking combined oral contraceptives (COC), especially in obese and
older women.190 The mechanism by which the BP rises is unknown.
A woman who develops hypertension while using COC should be
advised to stop taking them and should be offered alternative forms
of contraception.191 (Level III) Progesterone Only Pills191 and low dose
COC192 are not known to raise BP nor increase the risk of myocardial
infarction.193 They are recommended alternatives for patients with
hypertension or those who develop hypertension and yet wish to
continue oral contraception. A prudent approach to the use of oral
contraception would be to measure baseline BP before initiating
treatment. Blood pressure should be reviewed regularly, at least
every six months. (Level III)
35
8.10
Hypertension and hormone replacement therapy
The presence of hypertension is not a contraindication to oestrogenbased hormonal replacement therapy (HRT). It is recommended that
all women treated with HRT should have their BP monitored every six
months.(Level III) The decision to continue or discontinue HRT in these
patients should be individualised.
The Women's Health Initiative (WHI) trial involving 98,705 women
aged 50-79 years, concluded that the use of HRT increased
cardiovascular events.194-195 Conjugated equine estrogen (CEE), alone
or in combination with medroxyprogesterone acetate, was used in
the study. In view of this, greater caution and closer monitoring is
required for hypertensive patients on CEE.196 (Level III)
Table 14. Classification of hypertension in children and
adolescents with measurement frequency and recommended
therapy200
Normal
The Fourth Report on the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of
High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents has provided
normative tables of BP based on age and gender adjusted for height
percentiles from the National Centre for Health Statistics (NCHS)
growth chart (Appendix 4).199 This is to allow for a more precise
classification of BP and avoids mislabelling children who are either
too tall or too short.
Measurement of BP in children follows the same principles as set out
in the section on BP measurement. Special attention needs to be
paid in the selection of an appropriate cuff size in relation to the
child’s right upper arm.
To assist clinicians in the further evaluation and management of
hypertensive children and adolescents, hypertension in this group
has been arbitrarily divided into normal, prehypertension (previously
classified as high normal), stage 1 and stage 2 hypertension. (Table
14)
36
Frequency of BP
measurement
<90th
No data available
-
Recheck
6 months
None unless
compelling
indications, e.g.
CKD, DM,
heart failure
Recheck in 1-2
week, sooner if
symptomatic,
refer within
1 month
Secondary or
symptomatic
hypertension,
TOD or failed
nonpharmacologic
measures
Prehypertension 90th to <95th or if
BP >120/80 even
if <90th percentile
up to 95th
percentile
Stage 1
hypertension
8.11
Hypertension in children and adolescents
Prevalence of hypertension in children and adolescents is increasing
in tandem with the increasing prevalence of obesity in this group of
individuals.197-198
The definition of hypertension in children and adolescents is based
on age, gender and height. Hypertension is defined as average
systolic or diastolic BP >95th percentile for age, gender and height
percentiles on at least 3 separate occasions.
SBP or DBP
percentile
Stage 2
hypertension
95th to 99th
percentile plus
5 mmHg
Pharmacologic
therapy*
>99th percentile
Immediately if
Initiate therapy
plus 5 mmHg symptomatic; refer
within a week
* nonpharmacologic measures recommended in all prehypertensives and hypertensive children.
A patient with BP levels >95th percentile in a doctor’s office but who
is normotensive outside a clinical setting has “white-coat
hypertension” and may need referral for ambulatory BP monitoring.
Identifiable causes of hypertension particularly of renal parenchymal
and renovascular origin account for about 80-90 % of hypertension
in children <10 years of age. Once a child is diagnosed with
hypertension, he should be referred to a paediatrician for further
evaluation and management.(Level III)
Non-pharmacologic management particularly weight reduction in
those who are obese is recommended in all children with
hypertension as well as those with BP in the 90th to 95th
percentile.198 (Level III) The recommendations for drug therapy in children
are similar as for adults, with children requiring more careful dose
adjustment. The goal of pharmacologic therapy is to reduce BP to
lower than 95th percentile in uncomplicated primary hypertension
and <90th percentile for children with TOD, CKD and diabetes
mellitus.199 (Level III)
37
9. PHARMACOECONOMICS
10. TYPES OF ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS
The public impact and economic burden of hypertension extend far
beyond that related to treating high blood pressure. Hypertension
pharmacotherapy should not be judged by the direct cost of the drug
alone. For example, ARB reduced stroke by 25% as compared to a betablocker in patients with hypertension and LVH. This corresponded to a
reduction in the cost per patient directly related to stroke of €1141
(approximately RM5,000).200
All stated drug dosages are referenced from MIMS 108th edition 200747
unless otherwise indicated.
In Malaysia, 33% of persons aged 30 years and above were
hypertensive201 and about RM145 million was spent on antihypertensive
medicines alone in year 2004.202 In 2005, there were 37,580
hypertension-related admissions to government hospitals.203 The cost
per admission of managing hypertension was RM2,927 for those without
comorbidity and complications, RM4,248 for hypertension with
comorbidity and complications, and RM4,716 for hypertension with
major comorbidity and complications.204 This amounts to at least RM110
million spent on managing hypertensive patients admitted to hospitals.
The above figures are an underestimation. They do not include the many
admissions due to heart failure, myocardial infarction and renal failure
where hypertension was the underlying cause.
There were 17,909 admissions for stroke to government hospitals in
2005. The cost of treating stroke without complications is RM3,420, with
minor complications is RM4,276, and with major complications, is
RM6,129 per patient per admission.4 The total cost of managing stroke
in government for the year 2005 is estimated to be at least RM76 million.
Hypertension is the second most common primary cause (7%) of ESRD
in 2005205, amounting to 185 cases for that year. The cost of dialysis in a
MOH facility was approximately RM26,000 per patient per year206,
amounting to RM5 million in 2005. Importantly, secondary hypertension
is very common in CKD and is an important factor in the progression of
renal disease. Up to 90% of patients entering dialysis have associated
hypertension.
Treating hypertension reduced strokes approximately 40%, myocardial
infarction by 25%, fewer CKD deaths and non fatal MI.207 Efforts should
be focused on increasing public awareness, choice of cost effective
treatment and patient drug compliance. This should translate to better
rates of hypertension control and reduction in the total cost of managing
its sequelae.
Recommendations
• Hypertension pharmacotherapy should not be judged by the direct
cost of the drug alone
• Public education should include information on cost effectiveness
and drug compliance
38
10.1
Diuretics
The use of diuretics is well established in the treatment of hypertension.
Thiazide diuretics are especially cheap and are one of the most widely
used antihypertensive agents. When used in patients with essential
hypertension and relatively normal renal function, thiazides are more
potent than loop diuretics. However, in patients with renal insufficiency
(serum creatinine 200 mcmol/L or higher), thiazides are less effective and
loop diuretics should be used instead.209-210
Diuretics may be used as initial therapy. They also enhance the efficacy
of other classes of antihypertensive drugs when used in combination.211-213
In the elderly with no co-morbid conditions, diuretics are the drugs of
choice in the treatment of systolic-diastolic hypertension and isolated
systolic hypertension. Diuretics not only reduce the incidence of fatal and
non-fatal strokes but also cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.50,54,158,160-161,214
Diuretics should be used with care in patients with gout as they may
precipitate an acute attack. Potassium-sparing diuretics may cause
hyperkalaemia if given together with ACEIs or ARBs or in patients with
underlying renal insufficiency. Aldosterone antagonists and potassiumsparing diuretics should be avoided in patients with serum potassium
>5.0 mmol/L.215
Adverse effects are uncommon, unless high doses are used. These
include increased serum cholesterol, glucose and uric acid; decreased
potassium, sodium and magnesium levels and erectile dysfunction.
Serum electrolytes, in particular potassium, should be closely
monitored.215-218
Table 15. Diuretics commonly used for the treatment of hypertension
in Malaysia
Diuretics
Chlorothiazide
Hydrochlorothiazide
Chlorthalidone
Amiloride/hydrochlorothiazide
5 mg/50 mg
Indapamide SR
Indapamide
Triamterene/hydrochlorothiazide
50 mg/25 mg
39
Starting
Dose
250 mg od
25 mg od
50 mg od
1 tablet od
Maximum
Daily Dose
500 mg od
200 mg od
200 mg od
4 tablet od
1.5 mg od
2.5 mg od
1 tablet bd
1.5 mg od
2.5 mg od
2 tablets bd
10.2
Beta-blockers
Beta-blockers have long been established in the treatment of
hypertension. They are particularly useful in hypertensive patients with
effort angina, tachyarrhythmias or previous myocardial infarction where
they have been shown to reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
Certain beta-blockers such as bisoprolol and long-acting metoprolol
have been shown to be beneficial in patients with heart failure.
Beta-blockers are contraindicated in patients with obstructive airways
disease, severe peripheral vascular disease and heart block (2nd and 3rd
degree).
They are generally well tolerated. Adverse effects reported include
dyslipidaemia, masking of hypoglycaemia, increased incidence of new
onset diabetes mellitus, erectile dysfunction, nightmares and cold
extremities.
Table 16. Beta-blockers commonly used for the treatment of
hypertension in Malaysia
β-blockers
Acebutolol
Atenolol
Betaxolol
Bisoprolol
Metoprolol
Propranolol
Starting Dose
200 mg bd
50 mg od
10 mg od
5 mg od
50 mg bd
40 mg bd
Maximum Daily Dose
400 mg bd
100 mg od
40 mg od
10 mg od
200 mg bd
320 mg bd
However, with the advent of newer antihypertensive agents with better
efficacy and better safety profile, concern has been voiced over their
widespread use in the treatment of hypertension.219-21 The Losartan
Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension (LIFE) study is a
major landmark trial contributing to this reassessment of the use of betablockers in hypertension124. In this study, losartan was shown to provide
clear benefit compared to atenolol in the treatment of high risk
hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy. The benefit was
also seen in those with higher risks, i.e. hypertensive patients with left
ventricular hypertrophy and diabetes mellitus.221 This prompted a metaanalysis of the use of beta-blockers in the treatment of hypertension.48
Beta-blocker therapy was associated with a significant 16% higher risk
for stroke when compared to non-beta-blocker therapy and that atenolol
in particular was associated with a significant 26% increase in the risk of
stroke when compared to other antihypertensive agents. Similar profile
was also seen by another meta-analysis222 which also showed that betablockers were associated with a significant increase in their withdrawal
due to side effects. Conlin et al. documented the steady decrease in
persistence of therapy with beta-blockers as compared to other
antihypertensive agents.223 National Institute for Clinical Excellence
(NICE) Guideline12 in 2006 had placed beta-blockers at Step 4 in their
recommendation of antihypertensive therapy. It is therefore
recommended that beta-blockers should not be the initial therapy for
patients with hypertension who do not have compelling indications for
beta-blockade.
40
10.3
Calcium channel blockers (CCBs)
Long-acting CCBs have been shown to be safe and effective in lowering
blood pressure, both as first-line agents and in combination with other
classes of antihypertensive drugs.148,225 There are three major classes of
CCBs (phenylalkylamines, dihydropyridines and benzothiazepines) with
different characteristics and all are effective in lowering BP. With few
exceptions, they have no undesirable metabolic effects and their safety
profile in hypertension is good. Dihydropyridine CCBs are particularly
effective in reducing isolated systolic hypertension.145-147,215 They are also
effective in reducing cerebrovascular events by 10% compared with
other active therapies.228
Short acting CCBs are no longer recommended and should be phased
out. The use of sublingual nifedipine is also discouraged.
Long acting CCBs may also be useful in treating hypertensives with
coronary heart disease.54,227
Adverse effects include initial tachycardia, headache, flushing,
constipation and ankle oedema. Unlike other CCBs, Verapamil may
reduce heart rate and care should be exercised when used with betablockers.
Table 17. CCBs commonly used for the treatment of hypertension in
Malaysia
CCBs
Amlodipine
Diltiazem
Diltiazem SR
Diltiazem R
Felodipine
Isradipine
Lacidipine
Lercanidipine
Nicardipine
Nifedipine
Nifedipine SR
Verapamil
Verapamil CR
Starting Dose
5 mg od
30 mg tds
90 mg bd
100-200 mg od
2.5 mg od
1.5 mg bd
2 mg od
10 mg od
10 mg tds
10 mg tds
30 mg od
80 mg bd
200 mg od
Maximum Daily Dose
10 mg od
60 mg tds
90 mg bd
100-200 mg od
10 mg od
2.5 mg bd
6 mg od
20 mg od
20 mg tds
30 mg tds
120 mg od
240 mg tds
200 mg bd
10.4
ACE inhibitors
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) are generally well
tolerated and do not have adverse effects on lipid and glucose
metabolism. Their safety profile is good. ACEIs have been shown to
reduce mortality and morbidity in patients with congestive heart
failure.229-230 and in post myocardial infarction patients with reduced left
ventricular ejection fraction.29,231-234 In patients at increased cardiovascular
risk, ACEIs are been shown to reduce morbidity and mortality.
41
In the diabetic patient, ACEIs have been shown to reduce cardiovascular
mortality.29,231 In addition, they have been shown to prevent the onset of
microalbuminuria, reduce proteinuria and retard the progression of renal
disease. ACEIs have also been shown to reduce proteinuria and retard
progression of non-diabetic renal disease.
In patients with established vascular disease but normal left ventricular
function, ACEIs reduce mortality, myocardial infarction, stroke and newonset congestive heart failure.29,30 These benefits are independent of their
effects on left ventricular function and blood pressure.
Adverse effects include cough and, rarely, angioedema. In patients with
renovascular disease or renal impairment, deterioration in renal function
may occur. Serum creatinine should be checked before initiation and
repeated within one to two weeks after initiation. Any increase should be
confirmed immediately and monitored. If there is a rise of serum
creatinine of more than 30% from baseline within two months, ACEIs
should be stopped.
ACEIs may increase foetal and neonatal mortality and therefore are
contraindicated in pregnancy, and should be avoided in those planning
pregnancy.
Table 18. ACEIs commonly used for the treatment of hypertension in
Malaysia
ACEIs
Captopril
Enalapril
Fosinopril
Lisinopril
Perindopril
Quinapril
Ramipril
Imidapril
Starting Daily Dose
25 mg bd
2.5 mg od
10 mg od
5 mg od
2 mg od
2.5 mg od
2.5 mg od
2.5 mg od
Maximum Daily Dose
50 mg tds
20 mg bd
40 mg od
80 mg od
8 mg od
40 mg bd
10 mg od
10 mg od
10.5
Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs)
ARBs are drugs specifically blocked angiotensin II receptor. Unlike
ACEIs, persistent dry cough is less of a problem. As such ARBs are
recommended in ACEI intolerance patients. As with ACEIs, they are
contraindicated in pregnancy and bilateral renal artery stenosis.
ARBs are effective in preventing progression of diabetic
nephropathy76,86,235 and may reduce the incidence of major cardiac events
in patients with heart failure235-236 hypertensive LVH124 and diastolic heart
failure.126
The Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialist Collaboration (BPLTTC)
in a meta-analysis of 21 randomised trial238 found that there were no clear
differences between ACE inhibitors and ARBs for the outcomes of stroke
and heart failure.
42
Table 19. ARBs commonly used for the treatment of hypertension in
Malaysia
ARBs
Candesartan
Irbesartan
Losartan
Telmisartan
Valsartan
Olmesartan
Starting Dose
8 mg od
150 mg od
50 mg od
20 mg od
80 mg od
20 mg od
Maximum Daily Dose
16 mg od
300 mg od
100 mg od
80 mg od
160 mg od
40 mg od
10.6
Miscellaneous drugs
10.6.1
The α-blockers and the combined α‚ β-blockers
The peripheral α1-adrenergic blockers lower BP by reducing peripheral
resistance. They also reduce prostatic and urethral smooth muscle tone
and provide symptomatic relief for patients with early benign prostatic
hypertrophy (BPH). They should be the logical choice for hypertensive
patients with BPH. The use of non-specific α-adrenergic blockers like
phentolamine and phenoxybenzamine has been restricted to the
treatment of phaechromocytoma.
Alpha 1-adrenergic blockers have favourable effects on lipid metabolism.
However postural hypotension is a known side effect, especially at
initiation of therapy.239-240
Combined α‚ β-blockers offer enhanced neurohormonal blockade.
Labetalol has been in use for over 20 years and is safe in pregnancy
(Section 8.8). The intravenous formulation is useful in hypertensive
emergencies, including pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.241
Carvedilol has been shown to be effective in hypertension and also to
improve mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure.242-245 In
addition, it has no adverse effects on insulin resistance and lipid
metabolism.246 However, its safety in pregnancy has not been
established.
Table 20. α-blockers
α-blockers
Doxazosin
Prazosin
Terazosin
Starting Dose
1 mg od
0.5 mg bd
1 mg od
Maximum Daily Dose
16 mg od
10 mg bd
5 mg od
Starting Dose
100 mg bd
12.5 mg od
Maximum Daily Dose
800 mg tds
50 mg od
Table 21. α‚ β-blockers
α‚ β-blockers
Labetalol@
Carvedilol
@
In the elderly, start with 50 mg bd
43
10.6.2
Centrally acting agents
The centrally acting agents available in this country are methyldopa,
clonidine and recently, moxonidine. The common side effects of the
centrally acting agents include drowsiness, dry mouth, headace,
dizziness and mood change. Moxonidine is less likely to cause these
reactions. The side-effects may decrease after a few weeks of continued
treatment. In general, treatment should begin with the lowest possible
dose to minimise the side-effects.
Methyldopa has been in use for many years. It is the drug of choice for
hypertension in pregnancy. It may be considered for resistant
hypertension in combination with other classes of antihypertensive
agents.247
Clonidine should NOT be withdrawn suddenly because rebound
hypertension may occur.247 The use of clonidine is discouraged because
safer and more potent drugs are available.
Moxonidine is an orally active imidazoline I1 receptors agonist. It acts
centrally to reduce peripheral sympathetic activity, thus decreasing
peripheral vascular resistance. It can be used as monotherapy in patients
with mild to moderate hypertension or in combination with other
antihypertensive agents. Studies have suggested that it may improve the
metabolic profile of patients with impaired glucose tolerance or
diabetes.249-250 Rebound hypertension does not occur on cessation of the
drug. Absorption is rapid and unaffected by food.251
Table 22. Centrally-acting agents
Centrally-acting agents
Starting Dose
Maximum Daily Dose
125 mg bd
50 mcg tds
0.2 mg od
1 g bd
400 mcg tds
0.3 mg bd
Methyldopa*
Clonidine#
Moxonidine#
* For dosage in pregnancy, refer to page 35.
#
Referenced from British National Formulary (BNF), Sept 2007208
10.6.3
Direct vasodilators
The direct vasodilators include hydralazine and minoxidil. Hydralazine is
only available in parenteral formulation for hypertensive emergencies
(Sections 7.1.3 and 8.8). Minoxidil is used for refractory hypertension.
The usefulness of this class of drugs is limited by their side-effects
including headache, compensatory tachycardia and salt and water
retention. Hirsutism is a troublesome effect with long-term use of
minoxidil. It should only be prescribed by doctors familiar with their
usage.
Table 23. Direct vasodilators
Direct vasodilator
Minoxidil
Starting Dose
5 mg od
44
Maximum Daily Dose
50 mg od
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APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
List of British Hypertension Society-validated electronic BP sets commonly
available in Malaysia for clinical use and home/self assessment
Cockroft–Gault Formula
Device/Grade
Weight Dimensions Number/type of
(l x w x h, mm) batteries
(g)
Cuff sizes (cm)
130 x 105 x 52 4 x AA 1.5v
included. Mains
adaptor available
Microlife BP-3AG1
Last reading memory
Standard adult (22-32,
included)
Large adult (32-42)
365
Microlife 3BT0-A
Standard adult (22-32,
included)
Large adult (32-42)
430
Microlife BP A100
Pulse arrhythmia
detection. Last
reading memory
Standard adult (22-32,
included)
Large adult (32-42)
525
152 x 125 x 95 4 x AA 1.5v
included. Mains
adaptor available
Microlife BP 3AC1-1
60 reading memory
capacity
Standard adult (22-32,
included)
Large adult (32-42)
510
170 x 118 x 88 4 x AA 1.5v
included. Mains
adaptor available
Microlife BPA 100
Standard adult (22-32,
Plus
included)
Derivative of 3BTO-A. Large adult (32-42)
Automatic averaging of
3 readings, arrhythmia
detection, 99 reading
memory capacity.
565
152 x 140 x 95 4 x AA 1.5v
included. Mains
adaptor available
Omron T9P (HEM759P)
Small adult (17-22)
Standard adult (22-32)
Large adult (32-42)
380
177 x 115 x 71 4 x AA Battery
Omron M5 (HEM-742) Small adult (17-22)
Standard adult (22-32,
included)
Large adult (32-42).
NB Cuff depth on
Small is 11cm,
Standard is 15cm and
Large is 17.5 cm. The
Standard and Large
cuffs are deeper than
average.
380
177 x 135 x 112 4 x AA Battery
Omron T5/T5-M
(HEM-762/752)
Small adult (17-22)
Standard adult (22-32,
supplied)
Large adult (32-42)
420
126 x 198 x 102 4 x AA Battery
Omron IA1 (HEM7000)
Small adult (17-22)
Standard adult (22-32,
supplied)
Large adult (32-42)
355
152 x 122 x 79 4 x AA Battery
Omron IA1B (HEM7000C1L)
One-Size Cuff fits
22-42
350
131 x 155 x 84 4 x AA Battery or
AC/DC adaptor
Omron HEM-907
(HEM-907)
Small adult (17-22)
Standard adult (22-32)
Large adult (32-42)
910
203 x 139 x 131 AC Adaptor (with
battery pack)
62
180 x 114 x 75 4 x AA 1.5v
included. Mains
adaptor available
Creatinine Clearance =
(ml/min/1.73m2)
[140 - Age (years)] x Weight (kg)
0.812 x s. creatinine (mcmol/L)
APPENDIX 3
Antihypertensive drugs currently available in Malaysia
Diuretics
Amiloride-Hydrochlorothiazide
Bumetanide
Chlorothiazide
Chlorthalidone
Frusemide
Hydrochlorothiazide
Indapamide
Spironolactone
Triamterene-Hydrochlorothiazide
Combined alpha/beta-blockers
Carvedilol
Labetalo
Direct vasodilators
Hydralazine
Minoxidil
Nitroglycerin
Sodium Nitroprusside
ACE inhibitors
Captopril
Enalapril
Fosinopril
Imidapril
Lisinopril
Perindopril
Quinapril
Ramipril
Beta-blockers
Acebutolol
Atenolol
Betaxolol
Bisoprolol
Esmolol
Metoprolol
Nadolol
Nebivolo
Oxprenolol
Pindolol
Propranolol
Sotalol
Timolol
Alpha-blockers
Alfuzosin
Doxazosin
Prazosin
Terazosin
Angiotensin receptor blockers
Candesartan
Irbesartan
Losartan
Olmesartan
Telmisartan
Valsartan
Calcium channel blockers
Amlodipine
Diltiazem
Felodipine
Isradipine
Lacidipine
Lercanidipinel
Nicardipine
Nifedipine
Verapamil
Fixed-dose combination drugs
Atenolol/chlorthalidone
Candesartan/hydrochlorothiazide
Irbesartan/hydrocholorothiazide
Losartan/hydrochlorothiazide
Metoprolol/chlorthalidone
Oxprenolol/chlorthalidone
Perindopril/indapamide
Pindolol/clopamide
Valsartan/hydrochlorothiazide
Telmisartan/hydrocholorothiazide
Centrally acting drugs
Alpha-methyldopa
Clonidine
Moxonidine
63
APPENDIX 4
Normative tables of BP based on age and sex adjusted for
height percentiles
BP Levels for Boys by Age and Height Percentile
Age, BP
y Percentile
SBP, mm Hg
DBP, mm Hg
Percentile of Height
Percentile of Height
Age, BP
y Percentile
5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th 5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th
SBP, mm Hg
DBP, mm Hg
Percentile of Height
Percentile of Height
5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th 5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th
1
50
80
90th 94
95th 98
99th 105
81
95
99
106
83
97
101
108
85
99
103
110
87
100
104
112
88
102
106
113
89
103
106
114
34
49
54
61
35
50
54
62
36
51
55
63
37
52
56
64
38
53
57
65
39
53
58
66
39
54
58
66
11
50
99 100 102
90th 113 114 115
95th 117 118 119
99th 124 125 127
104
117
121
129
105
119
123
130
107
120
124
132
107
121
125
132
59
74
78
86
59
74
78
86
60
75
79
87
61
76
80
88
62
77
81
89
63
78
82
90
63
78
82
90
2
50th 84 85
90th 97 99
95th 101 102
99th 109 110
87
100
104
111
88
102
106
113
90
104
108
115
90
105
109
117
92
106
110
117
39
54
59
66
40
55
59
67
41
56
60
68
42
57
61
69
43
58
62
70
44
58
63
71
44
59
63
71
12
50th
90th
95th
99th
101
115
119
126
102 104
116 118
120 122
127 129
106
120
123
131
108
121
125
133
109
123
127
134
110
123
127
135
59
74
78
86
60
75
79
87
61
75
80
88
62
76
81
89
63
77
82
90
63
78
82
90
64
79
83
91
3
50th 86 87 89
90th 100 101 103
95th 104 105 107
99th 111 112 114
91
105
109
116
93
107
110
118
94
108
112
119
95
109
113
120
44
59
63
71
44
59
63
71
45
60
64
72
46
61
65
73
47
62
66
74
48
63
67
75
48
63
67
75
13
50th
90th
95th
99th
104
117
121
128
105 106
118 120
122 124
130 131
108
122
126
133
110
124
128
135
111
125
129
136
112
126
130
137
60
75
79
87
60
75
79
87
61
76
80
88
62
77
81
89
63
78
82
90
64
79
83
91
64
79
83
91
4
50th 88 89 91
90th 102 103 105
95th 106 107 109
99th 113 114 116
93
107
111
118
95
109
112
120
96
110
114
121
97
111
115
122
47
62
66
74
48
63
67
75
49
64
68
76
50
65
69
77
51
66
70
78
51
66
71
78
52
67
71
79
14
50th
90th
95th
99th
106
120
124
131
107 109
121 123
125 127
132 134
111
125
128
136
113
126
130
138
114
128
132
139
115
128
132
140
60
75
80
87
61
76
80
88
62
77
81
89
63
78
82
90
64
79
84
92
65
79
84
92
65
80
84
92
5
50th 90 91 93
90th 104 105 106
95th 108 109 110
99th 115 116 118
95
108
112
120
96
110
114
121
98
111
115
123
98
112
116
123
50
65
69
77
51
66
70
78
52
67
71
79
53
68
72
80
54
69
73
81
55
69
74
81
55
70
74
82
15
50th
90th
95th
99th
109
122
126
134
110 112
124 125
127 129
135 136
113
127
131
138
115
129
133
140
117
130
134
142
117
131
135
142
61
76
81
88
62
77
81
89
63
78
82
90
64
79
83
91
65
80
84
92
66
80
85
93
66
81
85
93
6
50th 91 92 94
90th 105 106 108
95th 109 110 112
99th 116 117 119
96
110
114
121
98
111
115
123
99
113
117
124
100
113
117
125
53
68
72
80
53
68
72
80
54
69
73
81
55
70
74
82
56
71
75
83
57
72
76
84
57
72
76
84
16
50th
90th
95th
99th
111
125
129
136
112 114
126 128
130 132
137 139
116
130
134
141
118
131
135
143
119
133
137
144
120
133
137
145
63
78
82
90
63
78
83
90
64
79
83
91
65
80
84
92
66
81
85
93
67
82
86
94
67
82
87
94
7
50th 92 94 95
90th 106 107 109
95th 110 111 113
99th 117 118 120
97
111
115
122
99
113
117
124
100
114
118
125
101
115
119
126
55
70
74
82
55
70
74
82
56
71
75
83
57
72
76
84
58
73
77
85
59
74
78
86
59
74
78
86
17
50th
90th
95th
99th
114
127
131
139
115 116
128 130
132 134
140 141
118
132
136
143
120
134
138
145
121
135
139
146
122
136
140
147
65
80
84
92
66
80
85
93
66
81
86
93
67
82
87
94
68
83
87
95
69
84
88
96
70
84
89
97
8
50th 94 95 97
90th 107 109 110
95th 111 112 114
99th 119 120 122
99
112
116
123
100
114
118
125
102
115
119
127
102
116
120
127
56
71
75
83
57
72
76
84
58
72
77
85
59
73
78
86
60
74
79
87
60
75
79
87
61
76
80
88
9
50th 95 96 98
90th 109 110 112
95th 113 114 116
99th 120 121 123
100
114
118
125
102
115
119
127
103
117
121
128
104
118
121
129
57
72
76
84
58
73
77
85
59
74
78
86
60
75
79
87
61
76
80
88
61
76
81
88
62
77
81
89
10
50th 97 98 100
90th 111 112 114
95th 115 116 117
99th 122 123 125
102
115
119
127
103
117
121
128
105
119
122
130
106
119
123
130
58
73
77
85
59
73
78
86
60
74
79
86
61
75
80
88
61
76
81
88
62
77
81
89
63
78
82
90
th
64
th
65
BP Levels for Girls by Age and Height Percentile
Age, BP
y Percentile
SBP, mm Hg
DBP, mm Hg
Percentile of Height
Percentile of Height
Age, BP
y Percentile
5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th 5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th
SBP, mm Hg
DBP, mm Hg
Percentile of Height
Percentile of Height
5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th 5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th
1
50
83 84
90th 97 97
95th 100 101
99th 108 108
85
98
102
109
86
100
104
111
88
101
105
112
89
102
106
113
90
103
107
114
38
52
56
64
39
53
57
64
39
54
58
65
40
54
58
65
41
55
59
66
41
55
59
67
42
56
60
67
11
50th
90th
95th
99th
100
114
118
125
101
114
118
125
102
116
119
126
103
117
121
128
105
118
122
129
106
119
123
130
107
120
124
131
60
74
78
85
60
74
78
85
60
74
78
86
61
75
79
87
62
76
80
87
63
77
81
88
63
77
81
89
2
50th 85 85
90th 98 99
95th 102 103
99th 109 110
87
100
104
111
88
101
105
112
89
103
107
114
91
104
108
115
91
105
109
116
43
57
61
69
44
58
62
69
44
58
62
70
45
59
63
70
46
60
64
71
46
61
65
72
47
61
65
72
12
50th
90th
95th
99th
102
116
119
127
103
116
120
127
104
117
121
128
105
119
123
130
107
120
124
131
108
121
125
132
109
122
126
133
61
75
79
86
61
75
79
86
61
75
79
87
62
76
80
88
63
77
81
88
64
78
82
89
64
78
82
90
3
50th 86 87 88
90th 100 100 102
95th 104 104 105
99th 111 111 113
89
103
107
114
91
104
108
115
92
106
109
116
93
106
110
117
47
61
65
73
48
62
66
73
48
62
66
74
49
63
67
74
50
64
68
75
50
64
68
76
51
65
69
75
13
50th
90th
95th
99th
104
117
121
128
105
118
122
129
106
119
123
130
107
121
124
132
109
122
126
133
110
123
127
134
110
124
128
135
62
76
80
87
62
76
80
87
62
76
80
88
63
77
81
89
64
78
82
89
65
79
83
90
65
79
83
91
4
50th 88 88 90
90th 101 102 103
95th 105 106 107
99th 112 113 114
91
104
108
115
92
106
110
117
94
107
111
118
94
108
112
119
50
64
68
76
50
64
68
76
51
65
69
76
52
66
70
77
52
67
71
78
53
67
71
79
54
68
72
79
14
50th
90th
95th
99th
106
119
123
130
106
120
123
131
107
121
125
132
109
122
126
133
110
124
127
135
111
125
129
136
112
125
129
136
63
77
81
88
63
77
81
88
63
77
81
89
64
78
82
90
65
79
83
90
66
80
84
91
66
80
84
92
5
50th 89 90 91
90th 103 103 105
95th 107 107 108
99th 114 114 116
93
106
110
117
94
107
111
118
95
109
113
120
96
109
113
120
52
66
70
78
53
67
71
78
53
67
71
79
54
68
72
79
55
69
73
80
55
69
73
81
56
70
74
81
15
50th 91 92 93
90th 104 105 106
95th 108 109 110
99th 115 116 117
94
108
111
119
96
109
113
120
97
110
114
121
98
111
115
122
54
68
72
80
54
68
72
80
55
69
73
80
56
70
74
81
56
70
74
82
57
71
75
83
58
72
76
83
50th
90th
95th
99th
107
120
124
131
108
121
125
132
109
122
126
133
110
123
127
134
111
125
129
136
113
126
130
137
113
127
131
138
64
78
82
89
64
78
82
89
64
78
82
90
65
79
83
91
66
80
84
91
67
81
85
92
67
81
85
93
16
50th 93 93 95
90th 106 107 108
95th 110 111 112
99th 117 118 119
96
109
113
120
97
111
115
122
99
112
116
123
99
113
116
124
55
69
73
81
56
70
74
81
56
70
74
82
57
71
75
82
58
72
76
83
58
72
76
84
59
73
77
84
50th
90th
95th
99th
108
121
125
132
108
122
126
133
110
123
127
134
111
124
128
135
112
126
130
137
114
127
131
138
114
128
132
139
64
78
82
90
64
78
82
90
65
79
83
90
66
80
84
91
66
81
85
92
67
81
85
93
68
82
86
93
17
50th 95 95 96
90th 108 109 110
95th 112 112 114
99th 119 120 121
98
111
115
122
99
113
116
123
100
114
118
125
101
114
118
125
57
71
75
82
57
71
75
82
57
71
75
83
58
72
76
83
59
73
77
84
60
74
78
85
60
74
78
86
50th
90th
95th
99th
108
122
125
133
109
122
126
133
110
123
127
134
111
125
129
136
113
126
130
137
114
127
131
138
115
128
132
147
64
78
82
90
65
79
83
90
65
79
83
91
66
80
84
91
67
81
85
92
67
81
85
93
68
82
86
93
9
50th 96 97 98
90th 110 110 112
95th 114 114 115
99th 121 121 123
100
113
117
124
101
114
118
125
102
116
119
127
103
116
120
127
58
72
76
83
58
72
76
83
58
72
76
84
59
73
77
84
60
74
78
85
61
75
79
86
61
75
79
87
10
50th 98 99 100
90th 112 112 114
95th 116 116 117
99th 123 123 125
102
115
119
126
103
116
120
127
104
118
121
129
105
118
122
129
59
73
77
84
59
73
77
84
59
73
77
85
60
74
78
86
61
75
79
86
62
76
80
87
62
76
80
88
6
7
8
th
66
Source: Mational High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure
in Children and Adolescents2
67
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABPM
ACEI
ALT
ARB
AST
BP
BPH
CCB
CEE
CHD
CAD
CKD
COC
CVA
CVD
DBP
DM
ECG
ESRD
FBS
GFR
HDL
HRT
LDL
LV
LVH
MI
NSAID
PVD
RF
SBP
TG
TOC
TOD
ambulatory blood pressure monitoring
angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor
alanine aminotransferase
angiotensin receptor blocker
aspartate aminotransferase
blood pressure
benign prostate hypertrophy
calcium channel blocker
conjugated equine estrogen
coronary heart disease
coronary artery disease
chronic kidney disease
combined oral contraceptive
cerebral vascular accident
cardiovascular disease
diastolic blood pressure
diabetes mellitus
electrocardiogram/electrocardiography
end-stage renal disease
fasting blood sugar
glomerular filtration rate
high-density lipoprotein
hormone replacement therapy
low-density lipoprotein
left ventricle
left ventricular hypertrophy
myocardial infarction
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
peripheral vascular disease
risk factor
systolic blood pressure
triglycerides
target organ complication
target organ damage
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The committee of this guideline would like to express its gratitude and
appreciation to the following for their contribution:
• Panel of external reviewers.
• Technical Advisory Committee for Clinical Practice Guidelines.
• Health Technology Assessment Unit, Ministry of Health.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The panel members have completed disclosure forms. None of them
holds shares in pharmaceutical firms or acts as consultants to such firms.
(Details are available upon request from the CPG secretariat.)
SOURCES OF FUNDING
The development of the CPG was supported by an educational grant
from Merck, Sharp & Dohme (I.A. Corp.).
KEY TO EVIDENCE STATEMENTS
LEVEL
I
Evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized
controlled trial
II - 1 Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without
randomization
II - 2 Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control
analytic studies, preferable from more than one center or
research group
II – 3 Evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the
intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled experiments (such
as the results of the introduction of penicillin treatment in the
1940s) could also be regarded as this type of evidence
III
Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience;
descriptive studies and case reports; or reports of expert
committees
SOURCE: U.S./CANADIAN PREVENTIVE SERVICES TASK FORCE
GRADES OF RECOMMENDATIONS
A
At least one meta analysis, systematic review, or RCT, or
evidence rated as good and directly applicable to the target
population
B
Evidence from well conducted clinical trials, directly applicable
to the target population, and demonstrating overall consistency
of results; or evidence extrapolated from meta-analysis,
systematic review, or RCT
C
Evidence from expert committee reports, or opinions and/or
clinical experiences of respected authorities; indicates absence
of directly applicable clinical studies of good quality
SOURCE: MODIFIED FROM SCOTTISH INTERCOLLEGIATE CUIDELINES
NETWORK [SIGN]
68
69
This guideline has been produced
with an educational grant from