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Appendix F
Further Concepts in Geometry
F.1 Exploring Congruence and Similarity
Identifying Congruent Figures ■ Identifying Similar Figures ■
Reading and Using Definitions ■ Congruent Triangles ■ Classifying Triangles
Identifying Congruent Figures
Two figures are congruent if they have the same shape and the same size. Each
of the triangles in Figure F.1 is congruent to each of the other triangles. The
triangles in Figure F.2 are not congruent to each other.
Congruent
Figure F.1
Not Congruent
Figure F.2
Notice that two figures can be congruent without having the same orientation. If two figures are congruent, then either one can be moved (and turned or
flipped if necessary) so that it coincides with the other figure.
Example 1
Dividing Regions into Congruent Parts
Divide the region into two congruent parts.
Solution
There are many solutions to this problem. Some of the solutions are shown in
Figure F.3. Can you think of others?
F1
F2
Appendix F
Further Concepts in Geometry
Figure F.3
Identifying Similar Figures
Two figures are similar if they have the same shape. (They may or may not have
the same size.) Each of the quadrilaterals in Figure F.4 is similar to the others. The
quadrilaterals in Figure F.5 are not similar to each other.
Not Similar
Figure F.5
Similar
Figure F.4
Example 2
Determining Similarity
Two of the figures are similar. Which two are they?
(a)
(b)
(c)
Solution
The first figure has five sides and the other two figures have four sides. Because
similar figures must have the same shape, the first figure is not similar to either
of the others. Because you are told that two figures are similar, it follows that the
second and third figures are similar.
Example 3
Determining Similarity
You wrote an essay on Euclid, the Greek mathematician who is famous for writing a geometry book titled Elements of Geometry. You are making a copy of the
essay using a photocopier that is set at 75% reduction. Is each image on the
copied pages similar to its original?
Solution
Every image on a copied page is similar to its original. The copied pages are
smaller, but that doesn’t matter because similar figures do not have to be the same
size.
F3
APPENDIX F Further Concepts in Geometry
Example 4
Drawing an Object to Scale
You are drawing a floor plan of a building. You choose a scale of 81 inch to 1 foot.
That is, 18 inch of the floor plan represents 1 foot of the actual building. What
dimensions should you draw for a room that is 12 feet wide and 18 feet long?
Solution
1
Because each foot is represented as 8 inch, the width of the room should be
3
1
1218 12
8 2 12
9
in.
4
and the length of the room should be
9
1
1818 18
8 4 24 .
The scale dimensions of the room are 112 inches by 214 inches. See Figure F.6.
3
2 in.
Reading and Using Definitions
Figure F.6
A definition uses known words to describe a new word. If no words were known,
then no new words could be defined. So, some words such as point, line, and
plane must be commonly understood without being defined. Some statements
such as “a point lies on a line” and “point C lies between points A and B” are also
not defined. See Figure F.7.
B
D
A
Segments and Rays
↔
Consider the line AB that contains the points A and B. (In geometry, the
word line means a straight line.)
The line segment (or simply segment) AB consists of the endpoints A
↔
and B and all points on the line AB that lie between A and B.
→
↔
The ray AB consists of the initial point A and all points on the line AB
that lie on the same side of A as B lies. If C is between A and B, then
→
→
CA and CB are opposite rays.
Points, segments, or rays that lie on the same line are collinear.
C
C is between A and B. D is
not between A and B.
Figure F.7
Lines are drawn with two arrowheads, line segments are drawn with no
arrowhead, and rays are drawn with a single arrowhead. See Figure F.8.
A
B
(a)
A
(c)
Ray BA
(d)
Figure F.8
A
B
(b)
A
Ray AB
Line segment AB or BA
Line AB or BA
Opposite rays CA and CB
B
A
(e)
C
B
B
F4
Appendix F
Further Concepts in Geometry
→
→
It follows that AB and BA denote the same segment, but AB and BA do not
denote the same ray. No length is given to lines or rays because each is infinitely
long. The length of the line segment AB is denoted by AB.
C
A
Angles
B
P
S
O
R
The top angle can be denoted by A
or by BAC. In the lower figure, the
angle ROS should not be denoted
by O because the figure contains
three angles whose vertex is O.
Figure F.9
3
2
1
1 and 2 are adjacent.
1 and 3 are not adjacent.
Figure F.10
An angle consists of two different rays that have the same initial point.
The rays are the sides of the angle. The angle that consists of the rays
→
→
AB and AC is denoted by BAC, CAB, or A. The point A is the
vertex of the angle. See Figure F.9.
The measure of A is denoted by mA. Angles are classified as acute,
right, obtuse, and straight.
0 < mA < 90
mA 90
90 < mA < 180
mA 180
Acute
Right
Obtuse
Straight
In geometry, unless specifically stated otherwise, angles are assumed to have a
measure that is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 180.
Every nonstraight angle has an interior and an exterior. A point D is in the
interior of A if it is between points that lie on each side of the angle. Two angles
(such as ROS and SOP shown in Figure F.9) are adjacent if they share a
common vertex and side, but have no common interior points. In Figure F.10, 1
and 3 share a vertex, but not a common side, so 1 and 3 are not adjacent.
Segment and Angle Congruence
Two segments are congruent, AB CD, if they have the same length.
Two angles are congruent, P Q, if they have the same measure.
A
B
Q
D
C
AB CD
P
mP mQ
Definitions can always be interpreted “forward” and “backward.” For
instance, the definition of congruent segments means (1) if two segments have the
same measure, then they are congruent, and (2) if two segments are congruent,
then they have the same measure. You learned that two figures are congruent if
they have the same shape and size.
APPENDIX F Further Concepts in Geometry
F5
Congruent Triangles
If ABC is congruent to PQR, then there is a correspondence between their
angles and sides such that corresponding angles are congruent and corresponding
sides are congruent. The notation ABC PQR indicates the congruence and
the correspondence, as shown in Figure F.11. If two triangles are congruent, then
you know that they share many properties.
ABC PQR
Corresponding
angles are
Corresponding
sides are
A P
B Q
C R
AB PQ
BC QR
CA RP
Q
B
C
P
R
A
Figure F.11
Example 5
Naming Congruent Parts
You and a friend have identical drafting triangles, as shown in Figure F.12. Name
all congruent parts.
E
S
T
D
F
R
Figure F.12
Solution
Given that DEF RST, the congruent angles and sides are as follows.
Angles: D R,
Sides: DE RS,
E S,
EF ST,
F T
FD TR
F6
Appendix F
Further Concepts in Geometry
Classifying Triangles
A triangle can be classified by relationships among its sides or among its angles,
as shown in the following definitions.
Classification by Sides
1. An equilateral triangle has three congruent sides.
2. An isosceles triangle has at least two congruent sides.
3. A scalene triangle has no sides congruent.
Equilateral
Isosceles
Scalene
Classification by Angles
1. An acute triangle has three acute angles. If these angles are all congruent, then the triangle is also equiangular.
2. A right triangle has exactly one right angle.
3. An obtuse triangle has exactly one obtuse angle.
Equiangular
Acute
Right
Obtuse
In ABC, each of the points A, B, and C is a vertex of the triangle. (The
plural of vertex is vertices.) The side BC is the side opposite A. Two sides that
share a common vertex are adjacent sides (see Figure F.13).
C
Opposite
side of ∠A
Adjacent
sides of ∠ A
B
A
Vertex
Figure F.13
APPENDIX F Further Concepts in Geometry
F7
The sides of right triangles and isosceles triangles are given special names.
In a right triangle, the sides adjacent to the right angle are the legs of the triangle.
The side opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse of the triangle (see Figure
F.14).
Hypotenuse
Base
Legs
Legs
Figure F.14
Figure F.15
An isosceles triangle can have three congruent sides. If it has only two, then
the two congruent sides are the legs of the triangle. The third side is the base of
the triangle (see Figure F.15).
F.1 Exercises
In Exercises 1–3, copy the region on a piece of dot
paper. Then divide the region into two congruent parts.
How many different ways can you do this?
1.
2.
3.
In Exercises 6 and 7, copy the region on a piece of paper.
Then divide the region into four congruent parts.
6.
7.
In Exercises 8–11, use the triangular grid below. In the
grid, each small triangle has sides of one unit.
4. Two of the figures are congruent. Which are they?
(a)
(b)
(c)
5. Two of the figures are similar. Which are they?
(a)
(b)
(c)
8. How many congruent triangles with one-unit sides
are in the grid?
9. How many congruent triangles with two-unit sides
are in the grid?
10. How many congruent triangles with three-unit sides
are in the grid?
11. Does the grid contain triangles that are not similar to
each other?
F8
APPENDIX F
Further Concepts in Geometry
12. If two figures are congruent, are they similar?
Explain.
13. If two figures are similar, are they congruent?
Explain.
14. Can a triangle be similar to a square? Explain.
15. Are any two squares similar? Explain.
In Exercises 16–19, match the description with its
correct notation.
↔
→
(a) PQ
(b) PQ
(c) PQ
(d) PQ
16.
17.
18.
19.
The line through P and Q
The ray from P through Q
The segment between P and Q
The length of the segment between P and Q
20. The point R is between points S and T. Which of the
following are true?
(a) R, S, and T are collinear.
→
→
(b) SR is the same as ST.
(c) ST is the same as TS.
→
→
(d) ST is the same as TS.
In Exercises 21–23, use the figure below.
In Exercises 24–29, match the triangle with its name.
(a) Equilateral
(d) Equiangular
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
(b) Scalene
(e) Isosceles
(c) Obtuse
(f ) Right
Side lengths: 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm
Angle measures: 60, 60, 60
Side lengths: 3 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm
Angle measures: 30, 60, 90
Side lengths: 4 cm, 4 cm, 4 cm
Angle measures: 20, 145, 15
In Exercises 30–32, use the figure, in which
LMP ONQ.
M
L
P
N
O
Q
30. Name three pairs of congruent angles.
31. Name three pairs of congruent sides.
32. If LMP is isosceles, explain why ONQ must be
isosceles.
In Exercises 33–36, use the definition of congruence to
complete the statement.
Z
33.
34.
35.
36.
Y
X
W
21. The figure shows three angles whose vertex is X.
Write two names for each angle. Which two angles
are adjacent?
22. Is Y in the interior or exterior of WXZ?
23. Which is the best estimate for mWXY?
(a) 15
(b) 30
(c) 45
If ABC TUV, then mC .
If PQR XYZ, then P .
If LMN TUV, then LN .
If DEF NOP, then DE .
37. Copy and complete the table. Write Yes if it is possible to sketch a triangle with both characteristics.
Write No if it is not possible. Illustrate your results
with sketches. (The first is done for you.)
Scalene
Isosceles
Equilateral
Acute
Yes
?
?
Obtuse
?
?
?
Right
?
?
?
Acute and Scalene
APPENDIX F Further Concepts in Geometry
In Exercises 38–41, ABC is isosceles with AC BC.
Solve for x. Then decide whether the triangle is equilateral. (The figures are not necessarily drawn to scale.)
38.
39.
C
F9
In Exercises 44 and 45, use the
Coordinate Geometry
following figure.
y
5
C
4
3
2x + 2
6
2x + 6
R
T
2
12
P
40.
A
x+1
B
C
x+1
B
A
41.
4x
B
4x − 2
2x
B
x+3
A
−1
−1
Q
1
2
3
4
5
x
44. Find a location of S such that PQR PQS.
45. Find two locations of V such that PQR TUV.
C
4x − 6
2x − 1
U
A
46. Logical Reasoning Arrange 16 toothpicks as
shown below. What is the least number of toothpicks
you must remove to create four congruent triangles?
(Each toothpick must be the side of at least one
triangle.) Sketch your result.
42. Landscape Design You are designing a patio. Your
plans use a scale of 18 inch to 1 foot. The patio is 24
feet by 36 feet. What are its dimensions on the plans?
43. Architecture The Pentagon, near Washington D.C.,
covers a region that is about 1200 feet by 1200 feet.
About how large would a 18-inch to 1-foot scale drawing of the Pentagon be? Would such a scale be
reasonable?
47. Logical Reasoning Show how you could arrange
six toothpicks to form four congruent triangles. Each
triangle has one toothpick for each side, and you cannot bend, break, or overlap the toothpicks. (Hint:
The figure can be three-dimensional.)
F.2
Angles
Identifying Special Pairs of Angles ■ Angles Formed by a Transversal ■ Angles of a Triangle
Identifying Special Pairs of Angles
2
1
1 and 2 are complementary angles.
Figure F.16
You have been introduced to several definitions concerning angles. For instance,
you know that two angles are adjacent if they share a common vertex and side but
have no common interior points. Here are some other definitions for pairs of
angles. See Figure F.16.
F10
Appendix F
Further Concepts in Geometry
Definitions for Pairs of Angles
Two angles are vertical angles if their sides form two pairs of opposite
rays.
Two adjacent angles are a linear pair if their noncommon sides are
opposite rays.
Two angles are complementary if the sum of their measures is 90.
Each angle is the complement of the other.
Two angles are supplementary if the sum of their measures is 180.
Each angle is the supplement of the other.
Example 1
Use the terms defined above to describe relationships between the labeled angles
in Figure F.17.
3
6
4
5
Figure F.17
Identifying Special Pairs of Angles
Solution
(a) 3 and 5 are vertical angles. So are 4 and 6.
(b) There are four sets of linear pairs:
3 and 4, 4 and 5, 5 and 6, and 3 and 6.
The angles in each of these pairs are also supplementary angles.
In Example 1(b), note that the linear pairs are also supplementary. This result
is stated in the following postulate.
Linear Pair Postulate
If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary—i.e., the
sum of their measures is 180.
The relationship between vertical angles is stated in the following theorem.
Vertical Angles Theorem
If two angles are vertical angles, then they are congruent.
Angles Formed by a Transversal
A transversal is a line that intersects two or more coplanar lines at different
points. The angles that are formed when the transversal intersects the lines have
the following names.
APPENDIX F Further Concepts in Geometry
Angles Formed by a Transversal
t
4
1
3
8
5
6
In Figure F.18, the transversal t intersects the lines l and m.
l
2
7
F11
Two angles are corresponding angles if they occupy corresponding
positions, such as 1 and 5.
Two angles are alternate interior angles if they lie between l and m on
opposite sides of t, such as 2 and 8.
Two angles are alternate exterior angles if they lie outside l and m on
opposite sides of t, such as 1 and 7.
Two angles are consecutive interior angles if they lie between l and m
on the same side of t, such as 2 and 5.
m
Figure F.18
Example 2
Naming Pairs of Angles
In Figure F.19, how is 9 related to the other angles?
n
4
3
Solution
m
1
You can consider that 9 is formed by the transversal l as it intersects m and n,
or you can consider 9 to be formed by the transversal m as it intersects l and n.
Considering one or the other of these, you have the following.
10
9
11
12
2
l
8
5
7
6
Figure F.19
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
9 and 10 are a linear pair. So are 9 and 12.
9 and 11 are vertical angles.
9 and 7 are alternate exterior angles. So are 9 and 3.
9 and 5 are corresponding angles. So are 9 and 1.
To help build understanding regarding angles formed by a transversal,
consider relationships between two lines. Parallel lines are coplanar lines that do
not intersect. (Recall that two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they have
the same slope.) Intersecting lines are coplanar and have exactly one point in
common. If intersecting lines meet at right angles, they are perpendicular; otherwise, they are oblique. See Figure F.20.
Parallel
Figure F.20
Perpendicular
Oblique
Many of the angles formed by a transversal that intersects parallel lines are
congruent. The following postulate and theorems list useful results.
Corresponding Angles Postulate
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the pairs of corresponding angles are congruent.
F12
Appendix F
Further Concepts in Geometry
1
l
2
m
l m, 1 2
Figure F.21
2
Angle Theorems
Alternate Interior Angles Theorem If two parallel lines are cut by a
transversal, then the pairs of alternate interior angles are congruent.
Consecutive Interior Angles Theorem If two parallel lines are cut by
a transversal, then the pairs of consecutive interior angles are supplementary.
Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem If two parallel lines are cut by a
transversal, then the pairs of alternate exterior angles are congruent.
Perpendicular Transversal Theorem If a transversal is perpendicular
to one of two parallel lines, then it is perpendicular to the second.
t
1
Note that the hypothesis of this postulate states that the lines must be parallel, as shown in Figure F.21. If the lines are not parallel, then the corresponding
angles are not congruent, as shown in Figure F.22.
l
m
Example 3
Using Properties of Parallel Lines
t
l m, 1 2
Figure F.22
In Figure F.23, lines r and s are parallel lines cut by a transversal, l. Find the
measure of each labeled angle.
l
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 75°
r
s
Figure F.23
Solution
1 and the given angle are alternate exterior angles and are congruent. So
m1 75. 5 and the given angle are vertical angles. Because vertical angles
are congruent, they have the same measure. So, m5 75. Similarly, 1 4
and m1 m4 75. There are several sets of linear pairs, including
1 and 2; 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 5 and 7.
The angles in each of these pairs are also supplementary angles; the sum of the
measures of each pair of angles is 180. Because one angle of each pair measures
75, the supplements each measure 105. So 2, 3, 6, and 7 each measure
105.
Angles of a Triangle
The word “triangle” means “three angles.” When the sides of a triangle are
extended, however, other angles are formed. The original three angles of the triangle are the interior angles. The angles that are adjacent to the interior angles
are the exterior angles of the triangle. Each vertex has a pair of exterior angles,
as shown in Figure F.24 on the following page.
APPENDIX F Further Concepts in Geometry
Original
triangle
Extend sides
Exterior
angle
F13
Exterior
angle
Interior
angle
Figure F.24
You could cut a triangle out of a piece of paper. Tear off the three angles and
place them adjacent to each other, as shown in Figure F.25. What do you observe?
(You could perform this investigation by measuring with a protractor or using a
computer drawing program.) You should arrive at the conclusion given in the following theorem.
1
2
3
Triangle Sum Theorem
2
1
The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is 180.
3
Figure F.25
Example 4
Using the Triangle Sum Theorem
In the triangle in Figure F.26, find m1, m2, and m3.
28°
51°
Solution
To find the measure of 3, use the Triangle Sum Theorem, as follows.
1
2
m3 180 51 42 87
3
Knowing the measure of 3, you can use the Linear Pair Postulate to write
m2 180 87 93. Using the Triangle Sum Theorem, you have
42°
m1 180 28 93 59.
Figure F.26
B
B
A
C
Exterior Angle Theorem
Figure F.27
Remote
interior
angles
B
Exterior
angle
1
A
Figure F.28
A
The next theorem is one that you might have anticipated from the investigation earlier. As shown in Figure F.27, if you had torn only two of the angles from
the paper triangle, you could put them together to cover exactly one of the exterior angles.
C
The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of
the measures of the two remote (nonadjacent) interior angles. (See
Figure F.28.)
F14
APPENDIX F
F.2
Further Concepts in Geometry
Exercises
In Exercises 1–6, sketch a pair of angles that fits the
description. Label the angles as 1 and 2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A linear pair of angles
Supplementary angles for which 1 is acute
Acute vertical angles
Adjacent congruent complementary angles
Obtuse vertical angles
Adjacent congruent supplementary angles
In Exercises 19–24, find the value of x.
19.
20.
x
110°
21.
75°
In Exercises 7–12, use the figure to determine relationships between the given angles.
C
30°
x
2x − 5°
F
22.
B
A
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
90°
90°
23.
D
O
3x + 6°
E
AOC and COD
AOB and BOC
BOC and COE
AOB and EOD
BOC and COF
AOB and AOE
In Exercises 13–18, use the following information to
decide whether the statement is true or false. (Hint:
Make a sketch.)
Vertical angles: 1 and 2;
Linear pairs: 1 and 3, 1 and 4.
13. If m3 30, then m4 150.
14. If m1 150, then m4 30.
15. 2 and 3 are congruent.
16. m3 m1 m4 m2
17. 3 4
18. m3 180 m2
3x + 20°
5x − 50°
x
24.
4x
x + 30°
25. In the figure, P, S, and T are collinear. If mP 40
and mQST 110, what is mQ? (Hint:
mP mQ mPSQ 180
(a) 40
(b) 55
(c) 70
Q
40°
P
110°
S
T
(d) 110
(e) 140
APPENDIX F Further Concepts in Geometry
In Exercises 26–29, use the figure below.
36.
t
1
n
k
2
5
(2b − 30)°
a°
l
3
4
F15
b°
l
6
8
7
m
In Exercises 37–39, use the following figure.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Name two corresponding angles.
Name two alternate interior angles.
Name two alternate exterior angles.
Name two consecutive interior angles.
110°
2
4
31.
l1
120°
1
70°
155°
7
8
37. Name the interior angles of the triangle.
38. Name the exterior angles of the triangle.
39. Two angle measures are given in the figure. Find the
measure of the eight labeled angles.
l1
l2
1
5
6
In Exercises 30–33, l1 l2. Find the measures of 1 and
2. Explain your reasoning.
30.
3
1
In Exercises 40–43, use the following figure, in which
ABC DEF.
2
2
l2
32.
35°
80°
1
2
105°
A
2
l1
l2
l2
B
In Exercises 34–36, m n and k l. Determine the values
of a and b.
34.
m
D
110°
l1
1
E
C
33.
n
35.
(60 − b)°
a°
m
k
100° a° (b − 10)°
n
(4a − 90)°
(2b)°
l
40.
41.
42.
43.
F
What is the measure of D?
What is the measure of B?
What is the measure of C?
What is the measure of F?
44. Can a right triangle have an obtuse angle? Explain.
45. Is it true that a triangle that has two 60 angles must
be equiangular? Explain.
46. If a right triangle has two congruent angles, does it
have two 45 angles? Explain.
F16
APPENDIX F
Further Concepts in Geometry
In Exercises 47 and 48, find the measure of each labeled
angle.
In Exercises 53–56, find the measures of the interior
angles.
47.
53.
1
60°
2
7 8
70° 55°
6
5
x°
(x + 60)°
9
54.
3 4
48.
(x + 30)°
x°
1
2
125°
3
4
85°
6
5
(x − 25)°
(x + 25)°
7
50°
8
9
65°
55.
(6x + 11)°
(3x + 2)°
(5x − 1)°
In Exercises 49 and 50, draw and label a right triangle,
ABC, for which the right angle is C. What is mB?
49. mA 13
50. mA 47
In Exercises 51 and 52, draw two noncongruent, isosceles triangles that have an exterior angle with the given
measure.
51. 130
52. 145
56.
(2x)°
(3x − 10)°
(110 − x)°