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Chapter 16: Distributed System Structures Chapter 17: Distributed-File Systems Chapter 18: Distributed Coordination 國立台灣大學 資訊工程學系 Chapter 16: Distributed System Structures 國立台灣大學 資訊工程學系 Chapter Objectives To provide a high-level overview of distributed systems and the networks that interconnect them To discuss the general structure of distributed operating systems 資工系網媒所 2/119 NEWS實驗室 Chapter 16: Distributed System Structures Motivation Types of Network-Based Operating Systems Network Structure Network Topology Communication Structure Communication Protocols Robustness Design Issues An Example: Networking 資工系網媒所 3/119 NEWS實驗室 Motivation Distributed system is collection of loosely coupled processors interconnected by a communications network Processors variously called nodes, computers, machines, hosts Site is location of the processor Reasons for distributed systems Resource sharing sharing and printing files at remote sites processing information in a distributed database using remote specialized hardware devices Computation speedup – load sharing Reliability – detect and recover from site failure, function transfer, reintegrate failed site Communication – message passing 資工系網媒所 4/119 NEWS實驗室 A Distributed System 資工系網媒所 5/119 NEWS實驗室 Types of Distributed Operating Systems Network Operating Systems Distributed Operating Systems 資工系網媒所 6/119 NEWS實驗室 Network-Operating Systems Users are aware of multiplicity of machines. Access to resources of various machines is done explicitly by: Remote logging into the appropriate remote machine (telnet, ssh) Remote Desktop (Microsoft Windows) Transferring data from remote machines to local machines, via the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) mechanism 資工系網媒所 7/119 NEWS實驗室 Distributed-Operating Systems Users not aware of multiplicity of machines Access to remote resources similar to access to local resources Data Migration – transfer data by transferring entire file, or transferring only those portions of the file necessary for the immediate task Computation Migration – transfer the computation, rather than the data, across the system 資工系網媒所 8/119 NEWS實驗室 Distributed-Operating Systems (Cont.) Process Migration – execute an entire process, or parts of it, at different sites Load balancing – distribute processes across network to even the workload Computation speedup – subprocesses can run concurrently on different sites Hardware preference – process execution may require specialized processor Software preference – required software may be available at only a particular site Data access – run process remotely, rather than transfer all data locally 資工系網媒所 9/119 NEWS實驗室 Network Structure Local-Area Network (LAN) – designed to cover small geographical area. Multiaccess bus, ring, or star network Speed 10 – 1000 megabits/second Broadcast is fast and cheap Nodes: usually workstations and/or personal computers a few (usually one or two) mainframes 資工系網媒所 10/119 NEWS實驗室 Depiction of typical LAN 資工系網媒所 11/119 NEWS實驗室 Network Types (Cont.) Wide-Area Network (WAN) – links geographically separated sites Point-to-point connections over long-haul lines (often leased from a phone company) Speed 1.544 – 45 megbits/second Broadcast usually requires multiple messages Nodes: usually a high percentage of mainframes TCP, IP, UDP, UUCP, PPP, … 資工系網媒所 12/119 NEWS實驗室 Communication Processors in a Wide-Area Network 資工系網媒所 13/119 NEWS實驗室 Network Topology Sites in the system can be physically connected in a variety of ways; they are compared with respect to the following criteria: Installation cost - How expensive is it to link the various sites in the system? Communication cost - How long does it take to send a message from site A to site B? Reliability - If a link or a site in the system fails, can the remaining sites still communicate with each other? The various topologies are depicted as graphs whose nodes correspond to sites An edge from node A to node B corresponds to a direct connection between the two sites The following six items depict various network topologies 資工系網媒所 14/119 NEWS實驗室 Network Topology 資工系網媒所 15/119 NEWS實驗室 Communication Structure The design of a communication network must address four basic issues: Naming and name resolution - How do two processes locate each other to communicate? Routing strategies - How are messages sent through the network? Connection strategies - How do two processes send a sequence of messages? Contention - The network is a shared resource, so how do we resolve conflicting demands for its use? 資工系網媒所 16/119 NEWS實驗室 Naming and Name Resolution Name systems in the network Address messages with the process-id Identify processes on remote systems by <host-name, identifier> pair Domain name service (DNS) – specifies the naming structure of the hosts, as well as name to address resolution (Internet) 資工系網媒所 17/119 NEWS實驗室 Routing Strategies Fixed routing - A path from A to B is specified in advance; path changes only if a hardware failure disables it Since the shortest path is usually chosen, communication costs are minimized Fixed routing cannot adapt to load changes Ensures that messages will be delivered in the order in which they were sent Virtual circuit - A path from A to B is fixed for the duration of one session. Different sessions involving messages from A to B may have different paths Partial remedy to adapting to load changes Ensures that messages will be delivered in the order in which they were sent 資工系網媒所 18/119 NEWS實驗室 Routing Strategies (Cont.) Dynamic routing - The path used to send a message form site A to site B is chosen only when a message is sent Usually a site sends a message to another site on the link least used at that particular time Adapts to load changes by avoiding routing messages on heavily used path Messages may arrive out of order This problem can be remedied by appending a sequence number to each message 資工系網媒所 19/119 NEWS實驗室 Connection Strategies Circuit switching - A permanent physical link is established for the duration of the communication (i.e., telephone system) Message switching - A temporary link is established for the duration of one message transfer (i.e., post-office mailing system) Packet switching - Messages of variable length are divided into fixed-length packets which are sent to the destination Each packet may take a different path through the network The packets must be reassembled into messages as they arrive Circuit switching requires setup time, but incurs less overhead for shipping each message, and may waste network bandwidth Message and packet switching require less setup time, but incur more overhead per message 資工系網媒所 20/119 NEWS實驗室 Contention Several sites may want to transmit information over a link simultaneously. Techniques to avoid repeated collisions include: CSMA/CD - Carrier sense with multiple access (CSMA); collision detection (CD) A site determines whether another message is currently being transmitted over that link. If two or more sites begin transmitting at exactly the same time, then they will register a CD and will stop transmitting When the system is very busy, many collisions may occur, and thus performance may be degraded CSMA/CD is used successfully in the Ethernet system, the most common network system 資工系網媒所 21/119 NEWS實驗室 Contention (Cont.) Token passing - A unique message type, known as a token, continuously circulates in the system (usually a ring structure) A site that wants to transmit information must wait until the token arrives When the site completes its round of message passing, it retransmits the token A token-passing scheme is used by some IBM and HP/Apollo systems Message slots - A number of fixed-length message slots continuously circulate in the system (usually a ring structure) Since a slot can contain only fixed-sized messages, a single logical message may have to be broken down into a number of smaller packets, each of which is sent in a separate slot This scheme has been adopted in the experimental Cambridge Digital Communication Ring 資工系網媒所 22/119 NEWS實驗室 Communication Protocol The communication network is partitioned into the following multiple layers: Physical layer – handles the mechanical and electrical details of the physical transmission of a bit stream Data-link layer – handles the frames, or fixed-length parts of packets, including any error detection and recovery that occurred in the physical layer Network layer – provides connections and routes packets in the communication network, including handling the address of outgoing packets, decoding the address of incoming packets, and maintaining routing information for proper response to changing load levels 資工系網媒所 23/119 NEWS實驗室 Communication Protocol (Cont.) Transport layer – responsible for low-level network access and for message transfer between clients, including partitioning messages into packets, maintaining packet order, controlling flow, and generating physical addresses Session layer – implements sessions, or process-to-process communications protocols Presentation layer – resolves the differences in formats among the various sites in the network, including character conversions, and half duplex/full duplex (echoing) Application layer – interacts directly with the users’ deals with file transfer, remote-login protocols and electronic mail, as well as schemas for distributed databases 資工系網媒所 24/119 NEWS實驗室 Communication Via ISO Network Model 資工系網媒所 25/119 NEWS實驗室 The ISO Protocol Layer 資工系網媒所 26/119 NEWS實驗室 The ISO Network Message 資工系網媒所 27/119 NEWS實驗室 The TCP/IP Protocol Layers 資工系網媒所 28/119 NEWS實驗室 Robustness Failure detection Reconfiguration 資工系網媒所 29/119 NEWS實驗室 Failure Detection Detecting hardware failure is difficult To detect a link failure, a handshaking protocol can be used Assume Site A and Site B have established a link At fixed intervals, each site will exchange an I-am-up message indicating that they are up and running If Site A does not receive a message within the fixed interval, it assumes either (a) the other site is not up or (b) the message was lost Site A can now send an Are-you-up? message to Site B If Site A does not receive a reply, it can repeat the message or try an alternate route to Site B 資工系網媒所 30/119 NEWS實驗室 Failure Detection (Cont.) If Site A does not ultimately receive a reply from Site B, it concludes some type of failure has occurred Types of failures: - Site B is down - The direct link between A and B is down - The alternate link from A to B is down - The message has been lost However, Site A cannot determine exactly why the failure has occurred 資工系網媒所 31/119 NEWS實驗室 Reconfiguration When Site A determines a failure has occurred, it must reconfigure the system: 1. If the link from A to B has failed, this must be broadcast to every site in the system 2. If a site has failed, every other site must also be notified indicating that the services offered by the failed site are no longer available When the link or the site becomes available again, this information must again be broadcast to all other sites 資工系網媒所 32/119 NEWS實驗室 Design Issues Transparency – the distributed system should appear as a conventional, centralized system to the user Fault tolerance – the distributed system should continue to function in the face of failure Scalability – as demands increase, the system should easily accept the addition of new resources to accommodate the increased demand Clusters – a collection of semi-autonomous machines that acts as a single system 資工系網媒所 33/119 NEWS實驗室 Example: Networking The transmission of a network packet between hosts on an Ethernet network Every host has a unique IP address and a corresponding Ethernet (MAC) address Communication requires both addresses Domain Name Service (DNS) can be used to acquire IP addresses Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to map MAC addresses to IP addresses If the hosts are on the same network, ARP can be used If the hosts are on different networks, the sending host will send the packet to a router which routes the packet to the destination network 資工系網媒所 34/119 NEWS實驗室 An Ethernet Packet 資工系網媒所 35/119 NEWS實驗室 End of Chapter 16 資工系網媒所 36/119 NEWS實驗室 Chapter 17: Distributed-File Systems 國立台灣大學 資訊工程學系 Chapter Objectives To explain the naming mechanism that provides location transparency and independence To describe the various methods for accessing distributed files To contrast stateful and stateless distributed file servers To show how replication of files on different machines in a distributed file system is a useful redundancy for improving availability To introduce the Andrew file system (AFS) as an example of a distributed file system 資工系網媒所 38/119 NEWS實驗室 Chapter 17 Distributed-File Systems Background Naming and Transparency Remote File Access Stateful versus Stateless Service File Replication An Example: AFS 資工系網媒所 39/119 NEWS實驗室 Background Distributed file system (DFS) – a distributed implementation of the classical time-sharing model of a file system, where multiple users share files and storage resources A DFS manages set of dispersed storage devices Overall storage space managed by a DFS is composed of different, remotely located, smaller storage spaces There is usually a correspondence between constituent storage spaces and sets of files 資工系網媒所 40/119 NEWS實驗室 DFS Structure Service – software entity running on one or more machines and providing a particular type of function to a priori unknown clients Server – service software running on a single machine Client – process that can invoke a service using a set of operations that forms its client interface A client interface for a file service is formed by a set of primitive file operations (create, delete, read, write) Client interface of a DFS should be transparent, i.e., not distinguish between local and remote files 資工系網媒所 41/119 NEWS實驗室 Naming and Transparency Naming – mapping between logical and physical objects Multilevel mapping – abstraction of a file that hides the details of how and where on the disk the file is actually stored A transparent DFS hides the location where in the network the file is stored For a file being replicated in several sites, the mapping returns a set of the locations of this file’s replicas; both the existence of multiple copies and their location are hidden 資工系網媒所 42/119 NEWS實驗室 Naming Structures Location transparency – file name does not reveal the file’s physical storage location Location independence – file name does not need to be changed when the file’s physical storage location changes 資工系網媒所 43/119 NEWS實驗室 Naming Schemes — Three Main Approaches Files named by combination of their host name and local name; guarantees a unique system wide name Attach remote directories to local directories, giving the appearance of a coherent directory tree; only previously mounted remote directories can be accessed transparently Total integration of the component file systems A single global name structure spans all the files in the system If a server is unavailable, some arbitrary set of directories on different machines also becomes unavailable 資工系網媒所 44/119 NEWS實驗室 Remote File Access Remote-service mechanism is one transfer approach Reduce network traffic by retaining recently accessed disk blocks in a cache, so that repeated accesses to the same information can be handled locally If needed data not already cached, a copy of data is brought from the server to the user Accesses are performed on the cached copy Files identified with one master copy residing at the server machine, but copies of (parts of) the file are scattered in different caches Cache-consistency problem – keeping the cached copies consistent with the master file Could be called network virtual memory 資工系網媒所 45/119 NEWS實驗室 Cache Location – Disk vs. Main Memory Advantages of disk caches More reliable Cached data kept on disk are still there during recovery and don’t need to be fetched again Advantages of main-memory caches: Permit workstations to be diskless Data can be accessed more quickly Performance speedup in bigger memories Server caches (used to speed up disk I/O) are in main memory regardless of where user caches are located; using main-memory caches on the user machine permits a single caching mechanism for servers and users 資工系網媒所 46/119 NEWS實驗室 Cache Update Policy Write-through – write data through to disk as soon as they are placed on any cache Reliable, but poor performance Delayed-write – modifications written to the cache and then written through to the server later Write accesses complete quickly; some data may be overwritten before they are written back, and so need never be written at all Poor reliability; unwritten data will be lost whenever a user machine crashes Variation – scan cache at regular intervals and flush blocks that have been modified since the last scan write-on-close Variation – , writes data back to the server when the file is closed Best for files that are open for long periods and frequently modified 資工系網媒所 47/119 NEWS實驗室 Cachefs and its Use of Caching 資工系網媒所 48/119 NEWS實驗室 Consistency Is locally cached copy of the data consistent with the master copy? Client-initiated approach Client initiates a validity check Server checks whether the local data are consistent with the master copy Server-initiated approach Server records, for each client, the (parts of) files it caches When server detects a potential inconsistency, it must react 資工系網媒所 49/119 NEWS實驗室 Comparing Caching and Remote Service In caching, many remote accesses handled efficiently by the local cache; most remote accesses will be served as fast as local ones Servers are contracted only occasionally in caching (rather than for each access) Reduces server load and network traffic Enhances potential for scalability Remote server method handles every remote access across the network; penalty in network traffic, server load, and performance Total network overhead in transmitting big chunks of data (caching) is lower than a series of responses to specific requests (remote-service) 資工系網媒所 50/119 NEWS實驗室 Caching and Remote Service (Cont.) Caching is superior in access patterns with infrequent writes With frequent writes, substantial overhead incurred to overcome cache-consistency problem Benefit from caching when execution carried out on machines with either local disks or large main memories Remote access on diskless, small-memory-capacity machines should be done through remote-service method In caching, the lower intermachine interface is different form the upper user interface In remote-service, the intermachine interface mirrors the local user-file-system interface 資工系網媒所 51/119 NEWS實驗室 Stateful File Service Mechanism Client opens a file Server fetches information about the file from its disk, stores it in its memory, and gives the client a connection identifier unique to the client and the open file Identifier is used for subsequent accesses until the session ends Server must reclaim the main-memory space used by clients who are no longer active Increased performance Fewer disk accesses Stateful server knows if a file was opened for sequential access and can thus read ahead the next blocks 資工系網媒所 52/119 NEWS實驗室 Stateless File Server Avoids state information by making each request selfcontained Each request identifies the file and position in the file No need to establish and terminate a connection by open and close operations 資工系網媒所 53/119 NEWS實驗室 Distinctions Between Stateful & Stateless Service Failure Recovery A stateful server loses all its volatile state in a crash Restore state by recovery protocol based on a dialog with clients, or abort operations that were underway when the crash occurred Server needs to be aware of client failures in order to reclaim space allocated to record the state of crashed client processes (orphan detection and elimination) With stateless server, the effects of server failure sand recovery are almost unnoticeable A newly reincarnated server can respond to a self-contained request without any difficulty 資工系網媒所 54/119 NEWS實驗室 Distinctions (Cont.) Penalties for using the robust stateless service: longer request messages slower request processing additional constraints imposed on DFS design Some environments require stateful service A server employing server-initiated cache validation cannot provide stateless service, since it maintains a record of which files are cached by which clients UNIX use of file descriptors and implicit offsets is inherently stateful; servers must maintain tables to map the file descriptors to inodes, and store the current offset within a file 資工系網媒所 55/119 NEWS實驗室 File Replication Replicas of the same file reside on failure-independent machines Improves availability and can shorten service time Naming scheme maps a replicated file name to a particular replica Existence of replicas should be invisible to higher levels Replicas must be distinguished from one another by different lower-level names Updates – replicas of a file denote the same logical entity, and thus an update to any replica must be reflected on all other replicas Demand replication – reading a nonlocal replica causes it to be cached locally, thereby generating a new nonprimary replica 資工系網媒所 56/119 NEWS實驗室 An Example: AFS A distributed computing environment (Andrew) under development since 1983 at Carnegie-Mellon University, purchased by IBM and released as Transarc DFS, now open sourced as OpenAFS AFS tries to solve complex issues such as uniform name space, location-independent file sharing, clientside caching (with cache consistency), secure authentication (via Kerberos) Also includes server-side caching (via replicas), high availability Can span 5,000 workstations 資工系網媒所 57/119 NEWS實驗室 ANDREW (Cont.) Clients are presented with a partitioned space of file names: a local name space and a shared name space Dedicated servers, called Vice, present the shared name space to the clients as an homogeneous, identical, and location transparent file hierarchy The local name space is the root file system of a workstation, from which the shared name space descends Workstations run the Virtue protocol to communicate with Vice, and are required to have local disks where they store their local name space Servers collectively are responsible for the storage and management of the shared name space 資工系網媒所 58/119 NEWS實驗室 ANDREW (Cont.) Clients and servers are structured in clusters interconnected by a backbone LAN A cluster consists of a collection of workstations and a cluster server and is connected to the backbone by a router A key mechanism selected for remote file operations is whole file caching Opening a file causes it to be cached, in its entirety, on the local disk 資工系網媒所 59/119 NEWS實驗室 ANDREW Shared Name Space Andrew’s volumes are small component units associated with the files of a single client A fid identifies a Vice file or directory - A fid is 96 bits long and has three equal-length components: volume number vnode number – index into an array containing the inodes of files in a single volume uniquifier – allows reuse of vnode numbers, thereby keeping certain data structures, compact Fids are location transparent; therefore, file movements from server to server do not invalidate cached directory contents Location information is kept on a volume basis, and the information is replicated on each server 資工系網媒所 60/119 NEWS實驗室 ANDREW File Operations Andrew caches entire files form servers A client workstation interacts with Vice servers only during opening and closing of files Venus – caches files from Vice when they are opened, and stores modified copies of files back when they are closed Reading and writing bytes of a file are done by the kernel without Venus intervention on the cached copy Venus caches contents of directories and symbolic links, for path-name translation Exceptions to the caching policy are modifications to directories that are made directly on the server responsibility for that directory 資工系網媒所 61/119 NEWS實驗室 ANDREW Implementation Client processes are interfaced to a UNIX kernel with the usual set of system calls Venus carries out path-name translation component by component The UNIX file system is used as a low-level storage system for both servers and clients The client cache is a local directory on the workstation’s disk Both Venus and server processes access UNIX files directly by their inodes to avoid the expensive path name-to-inode translation routine 資工系網媒所 62/119 NEWS實驗室 ANDREW Implementation (Cont.) Venus manages two separate caches: one for status one for data LRU algorithm used to keep each of them bounded in size The status cache is kept in virtual memory to allow rapid servicing of stat() (file status returning) system calls The data cache is resident on the local disk, but the UNIX I/O buffering mechanism does some caching of the disk blocks in memory that are transparent to Venus 資工系網媒所 63/119 NEWS實驗室 End of Chapter 17 資工系網媒所 64/119 NEWS實驗室 Chapter 18: Distributed Coordination 國立台灣大學 資訊工程學系 Chapter Objectives To describe various methods for achieving mutual exclusion in a distributed system To explain how atomic transactions can be implemented in a distributed system To show how some of the concurrency-control schemes discussed in Chapter 6 can be modified for use in a distributed environment To present schemes for handling deadlock prevention, deadlock avoidance, and deadlock detection in a distributed system 資工系網媒所 66/119 NEWS實驗室 Chapter 18 Distributed Coordination Event Ordering Mutual Exclusion Atomicity Concurrency Control Deadlock Handling Election Algorithms Reaching Agreement 資工系網媒所 67/119 NEWS實驗室 Event Ordering Happened-before relation (denoted by ) If A and B are events in the same process, and A was executed before B, then A B If A is the event of sending a message by one process and B is the event of receiving that message by another process, then A B If A B and B C then A C 資工系網媒所 68/119 NEWS實驗室 Relative Time for Three Concurrent Processes 資工系網媒所 69/119 NEWS實驗室 Implementation of Associate a timestamp with each system event Require that for every pair of events A and B, if A B, then the timestamp of A is less than the timestamp of B Within each process Pi a logical clock, LCi is associated The logical clock can be implemented as a simple counter that is incremented between any two successive events executed within a process Logical clock is monotonically increasing A process advances its logical clock when it receives a message whose timestamp is greater than the current value of its logical clock If the timestamps of two events A and B are the same, then the events are concurrent We may use the process identity numbers to break ties and to create a total ordering 資工系網媒所 70/119 NEWS實驗室 Global Ordering 行程P 行程Q 20 P1 20 Q1 50 P2 20 P1 20 Q1 50 P2 20 P1 20 Q1 50 P2 80 P3 time 40 60 Q3 Q2 (a) 行程P 行程Q (b) 行程P 行程Q time 80 P3 51 71 Q3 Q2 80 P3 time 51 Q2 81 Q3 (c) 資工系網媒所 71/119 NEWS實驗室 Distributed Mutual Exclusion (DME) Assumptions The system consists of n processes; each process Pi resides at a different processor Each process has a critical section that requires mutual exclusion Requirement If Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other process Pj is executing in its critical section We present two algorithms to ensure the mutual exclusion execution of processes in their critical sections 資工系網媒所 72/119 NEWS實驗室 DME: Centralized Approach One of the processes in the system is chosen to coordinate the entry to the critical section A process that wants to enter its critical section sends a request message to the coordinator The coordinator decides which process can enter the critical section next, and its sends that process a reply message When the process receives a reply message from the coordinator, it enters its critical section After exiting its critical section, the process sends a release message to the coordinator and proceeds with its execution This scheme requires three messages per critical-section entry: request reply release 資工系網媒所 73/119 NEWS實驗室 DME: Fully Distributed Approach When process Pi wants to enter its critical section, it generates a new timestamp, TS, and sends the message request (Pi, TS) to all other processes in the system When process Pj receives a request message, it may reply immediately or it may defer sending a reply back When process Pi receives a reply message from all other processes in the system, it can enter its critical section After exiting its critical section, the process sends reply messages to all its deferred requests 資工系網媒所 74/119 NEWS實驗室 DME: Fully Distributed Approach (Cont) The decision whether process Pj replies immediately to a request(Pi, TS) message or defers its reply is based on three factors: If Pj is in its critical section, then it defers its reply to Pi If Pj does not want to enter its critical section, then it sends a reply immediately to Pi If Pj wants to enter its critical section but has not yet entered it, then it compares its own request timestamp with the timestamp TS If its own request timestamp is greater than TS, then it sends a reply immediately to Pi (Pi asked first) Otherwise, the reply is deferred 資工系網媒所 75/119 NEWS實驗室 Desirable Behavior of Fully Distributed Approach Freedom from Deadlock is ensured Freedom from starvation is ensured, since entry to the critical section is scheduled according to the timestamp ordering The timestamp ordering ensures that processes are served in a first-come, first served order The number of messages per critical-section entry is 2 x (n – 1) This is the minimum number of required messages per critical-section entry when processes act independently and concurrently 資工系網媒所 76/119 NEWS實驗室 Three Undesirable Consequences The processes need to know the identity of all other processes in the system, which makes the dynamic addition and removal of processes more complex If one of the processes fails, then the entire scheme collapses This can be dealt with by continuously monitoring the state of all the processes in the system Processes that have not entered their critical section must pause frequently to assure other processes that they intend to enter the critical section This protocol is therefore suited for small, stable sets of cooperating processes 資工系網媒所 77/119 NEWS實驗室 Token-Passing Approach Circulate a token among processes in system Token is special type of message Possession of token entitles holder to enter critical section Processes logically organized in a ring structure Unidirectional ring guarantees freedom from starvation Two types of failures Lost token – election must be called Failed processes – new logical ring established 資工系網媒所 78/119 NEWS實驗室 Atomicity Either all the operations associated with a program unit are executed to completion, or none are performed Ensuring atomicity in a distributed system requires a transaction coordinator, which is responsible for the following: Starting the execution of the transaction Breaking the transaction into a number of subtransactions, and distribution these subtransactions to the appropriate sites for execution Coordinating the termination of the transaction, which may result in the transaction being committed at all sites or aborted at all sites 資工系網媒所 79/119 NEWS實驗室 Two-Phase Commit Protocol (2PC) Assumes fail-stop model Execution of the protocol is initiated by the coordinator after the last step of the transaction has been reached When the protocol is initiated, the transaction may still be executing at some of the local sites The protocol involves all the local sites at which the transaction executed Example: Let T be a transaction initiated at site Si and let the transaction coordinator at Si be Ci 資工系網媒所 80/119 NEWS實驗室 Phase 1: Obtaining a Decision Ci adds <prepare T> record to the log Ci sends <prepare T> message to all sites When a site receives a <prepare T> message, the transaction manager determines if it can commit the transaction If no: add <no T> record to the log and respond to Ci with <abort T> If yes: add <ready T> record to the log force all log records for T onto stable storage send <ready T> message to Ci 資工系網媒所 81/119 NEWS實驗室 Phase 1 (Cont) Coordinator collects responses All respond “ready”, decision is commit At least one response is “abort”, decision is abort At least one participant fails to respond within time out period, decision is abort 資工系網媒所 82/119 NEWS實驗室 Phase 2: Recording Decision in the Database Coordinator adds a decision record <abort T> or <commit T> to its log and forces record onto stable storage Once that record reaches stable storage it is irrevocable (even if failures occur) Coordinator sends a message to each participant informing it of the decision (commit or abort) Participants take appropriate action locally 資工系網媒所 83/119 NEWS實驗室 Two-Phase Commit Protocol coordinator Site A Log <PREPARE>, send to each site. Log <READY>, send back. Log <COMMIT>. Phase one Collect all ready messages. Site B Log <READY>, send back. Phase two Log <COMMIT>. Send to each site. Log <COMMIT>. 資工系網媒所 84/119 NEWS實驗室 Failure Handling in 2PC – Site Failure The log contains a <commit T> record In this case, the site executes redo(T) The log contains an <abort T> record In this case, the site executes undo(T) The contains a <ready T> record; consult Ci If Ci is down, site sends query-status T message to the other sites The log contains no control records concerning T In this case, the site executes undo(T) 資工系網媒所 85/119 NEWS實驗室 Failure Handling in 2PC – Coordinator Ci Failure If an active site contains a <commit T> record in its log, the T must be committed If an active site contains an <abort T> record in its log, then T must be aborted If some active site does not contain the record <ready T> in its log then the failed coordinator Ci cannot have decided to commit T Rather than wait for Ci to recover, it is preferable to abort T All active sites have a <ready T> record in their logs, but no additional control records In this case we must wait for the coordinator to recover Blocking problem – T is blocked pending the recovery of site Si 資工系網媒所 86/119 NEWS實驗室 Concurrency Control Modify the centralized concurrency schemes to accommodate the distribution of transactions Transaction manager coordinates execution of transactions (or subtransactions) that access data at local sites Local transaction only executes at that site Global transaction executes at several sites 資工系網媒所 87/119 NEWS實驗室 Locking Protocols Can use the two-phase locking protocol in a distributed environment by changing how the lock manager is implemented Nonreplicated scheme – each site maintains a local lock manager which administers lock and unlock requests for those data items that are stored in that site Simple implementation involves two message transfers for handling lock requests, and one message transfer for handling unlock requests Deadlock handling is more complex 資工系網媒所 88/119 NEWS實驗室 Single-Coordinator Approach (with replicated data) A single lock manager resides in a single chosen site, all lock and unlock requests are made a that site Simple implementation Simple deadlock handling Possibility of bottleneck Vulnerable to loss of concurrency controller if single site fails Multiple-coordinator approach distributes lock-manager function over several sites 資工系網媒所 89/119 NEWS實驗室 Majority Protocol Avoids drawbacks of central control by dealing with replicated data in a decentralized manner More complicated to implement Deadlock-handling algorithms must be modified; possible for deadlock to occur in locking only one data item 資工系網媒所 90/119 NEWS實驗室 Biased Protocol Similar to majority protocol, but requests for shared locks prioritized over requests for exclusive locks Request for locking at one site for shared locks Request for locking at all site for exclusive locks Less overhead on read operations than in majority protocol; but has additional overhead on writes Like majority protocol, deadlock handling is complex 資工系網媒所 91/119 NEWS實驗室 Primary Copy One of the sites at which a replica resides is designated as the primary site Request to lock a data item is made at the primary site of that data item Concurrency control for replicated data handled in a manner similar to that of unreplicated data Simple implementation, but if primary site fails, the data item is unavailable, even though other sites may have a replica 資工系網媒所 92/119 NEWS實驗室 Timestamping Generate unique timestamps in distributed scheme: Each site generates a unique local timestamp The global unique timestamp is obtained by concatenation of the unique local timestamp with the unique site identifier Use a logical clock defined within each site to ensure the fair generation of timestamps Timestamp-ordering scheme – combine the centralized concurrency control timestamp scheme with the 2PC protocol to obtain a protocol that ensures serializability with no cascading rollbacks 資工系網媒所 93/119 NEWS實驗室 Generation of Unique Timestamps +1 or not ? 資工系網媒所 94/119 NEWS實驗室 Deadlock Prevention Resource-ordering deadlock-prevention – define a global ordering among the system resources Assign a unique number to all system resources A process may request a resource with unique number i only if it is not holding a resource with a unique number grater than i Simple to implement; requires little overhead Banker’s algorithm – designate one of the processes in the system as the process that maintains the information necessary to carry out the Banker’s algorithm Also implemented easily, but may require too much overhead 資工系網媒所 95/119 NEWS實驗室 Timestamped Deadlock-Prevention Scheme Each process Pi is assigned a unique priority number Priority numbers are used to decide whether a process Pi should wait for a process Pj; otherwise Pi is rolled back The scheme prevents deadlocks For every edge Pi Pj in the wait-for graph, Pi has a higher priority than Pj Thus a cycle cannot exist 資工系網媒所 96/119 NEWS實驗室 Wait-Die Scheme Based on a nonpreemptive technique If Pi requests a resource currently held by Pj, Pi is allowed to wait only if it has a smaller timestamp than does Pj (Pi is older than Pj) Otherwise, Pi is rolled back (dies) Example: Suppose that processes P1, P2, and P3 have timestamps 10, 20, and 30 respectively (a) if P1 request a resource R held by P2, then P1 will wait (b) If P3 requests a resource held by P2, then P3 will be rolled back Request R Own R old P1:10 new P2:20 wait continue (a) Request R Own R new P3:30 old P2:20 rolled back continue (b) 資工系網媒所 97/119 NEWS實驗室 Would-Wait Scheme Based on a preemptive technique; counterpart to the wait-die system If Pi requests a resource currently held by Pj, Pi is allowed to wait only if it has a larger timestamp than does Pj (Pi is younger than Pj). Otherwise Pj is rolled back (Pj is wounded by Pi) Example: Suppose that processes P1, P2, and P3 have timestamps 10, 20, and 30 respectively (a) If P1 requests a resource held by P2, then the resource will be preempted from P2 and P2 will be rolled back (b) If P3 requests a resource held by P2, then P3 will wait Request R Own R old P1:10 new P2:20 preempt rolled back (a) Request R Own R new P3:30 old P2:20 wait continue (b) 資工系網媒所 98/119 NEWS實驗室 Deadlock Detection Use wait-for graphs Local wait-for graphs at each local site. The nodes of the graph correspond to all the processes that are currently either holding or requesting any of the resources local to that site May also use a global wait-for graph. This graph is the union of all local wait-for graphs. Two Local Wait-For Graphs Global Wait-For Graph 資工系網媒所 99/119 NEWS實驗室 Deadlock Detection – Centralized Approach Each site keeps a local wait-for graph A global wait-for graph is maintained in a single coordination process There are three different options (points in time) when the wait-for graph may be constructed: 1. Whenever a new edge is inserted or removed in one of the local wait-for graphs 2. Periodically, when a number of changes have occurred in a wait-for graph 3. Whenever the coordinator needs to invoke the cycle-detection algorithm Unnecessary rollbacks may occur as a result of false cycles 資工系網媒所 100/119 NEWS實驗室 Detection Algorithm Based on Option 3 Append unique identifiers (timestamps) to requests form different sites When process Pi, at site A, requests a resource from process Pj, at site B, a request message with timestamp TS is sent The edge Pi Pj with the label TS is inserted in the local wait-for of A. The edge is inserted in the local wait-for graph of B only if B has received the request message and cannot immediately grant the requested resource 資工系網媒所 101/119 NEWS實驗室 The Algorithm 1. The controller sends an initiating message to each site in the system 2. On receiving this message, a site sends its local wait-for graph to the coordinator 3. When the controller has received a reply from each site, it constructs a graph as follows: (a) The constructed graph contains a vertex for every process in the system (b) The graph has an edge Pi Pj if and only if (1) (2) there is an edge Pi Pj in one of the wait-for graphs, or an edge Pi Pj with some label TS appears in more than one wait-for graph If the constructed graph contains a cycle deadlock 資工系網媒所 102/119 NEWS實驗室 Local and Global Wait-For Graphs 資工系網媒所 103/119 NEWS實驗室 Fully Distributed Approach All controllers share equally the responsibility for detecting deadlock Every site constructs a wait-for graph that represents a part of the total graph We add one additional node Pex to each local wait-for graph If a local wait-for graph contains a cycle that does not involve node Pex, then the system is in a deadlock state A cycle involving Pex implies the possibility of a deadlock To ascertain whether a deadlock does exist, a distributed deadlockdetection algorithm must be invoked 資工系網媒所 104/119 NEWS實驗室 Augmented Local Wait-For Graphs 資工系網媒所 105/119 NEWS實驗室 Election Algorithms Determine where a new copy of the coordinator should be restarted Assume that a unique priority number is associated with each active process in the system, and assume that the priority number of process Pi is i Assume a one-to-one correspondence between processes and sites The coordinator is always the process with the largest priority number. When a coordinator fails, the algorithm must elect that active process with the largest priority number Two algorithms, the bully algorithm and a ring algorithm, can be used to elect a new coordinator in case of failures 資工系網媒所 106/119 NEWS實驗室 Bully Algorithm (1/3) Applicable to systems where every process can send a message to every other process in the system If process Pi sends a request that is not answered by the coordinator within a time interval T, assume that the coordinator has failed; Pi tries to elect itself as the new coordinator Pi sends an election message to every process with a higher priority number, Pi then waits for any of these processes to answer within T If no response within T, assume that all processes with numbers greater than i have failed; Pi elects itself the new coordinator If answer is received, Pi begins time interval T’, waiting to receive a message that a process with a higher priority number has been elected 資工系網媒所 107/119 NEWS實驗室 Bully Algorithm (2/3) If no message is sent within T’, assume the process with a higher number has failed; Pi should restart the algorithm If Pi is not the coordinator, then, at any time during execution, Pi may receive one of the following two messages from process Pj Pj is the new coordinator (j > i). Pi, in turn, records this information Pj started an election (j > i). Pi, sends a response to Pj and begins its own election algorithm, provided that Pi has not already initiated such an election After a failed process recovers, it immediately begins execution of the same algorithm If there are no active processes with higher numbers, the recovered process forces all processes with lower number to let it become the coordinator process, even if there is a currently active coordinator with a lower number 資工系網媒所 108/119 NEWS實驗室 Bully Algorithm (3/3) P1 process P2 P5 P1 P1 P2 P5 elect P3 P4 elect no P4 P3 P4 (a) P2 elects itself P2 P5 (b) P3 and P4 rejects P2 P3 (c) P3 and P4 elects themselves P1 P1 P2 P5 P2 P5 elected no P4 P3 (d) P4 rejects P3 P4 P3 (e) P4 is elected 資工系網媒所 109/119 NEWS實驗室 Ring Algorithm (1/3) Applicable to systems organized as a ring (logically or physically) Assumes that the links are unidirectional, and that processes send their messages to their right neighbors Each process maintains an active list, consisting of all the priority numbers of all active processes in the system when the algorithm ends If process Pi detects a coordinator failure, I creates a new active list that is initially empty. It then sends a message elect(i) to its right neighbor, and adds the number i to its active list 資工系網媒所 110/119 NEWS實驗室 Ring Algorithm (2/3) If Pi receives a message elect(j) from the process on the left, it must respond in one of three ways: 1. 2. 3. If this is the first elect message it has seen or sent, Pi creates a new active list with the numbers i and j It then sends the message elect(i), followed by the message elect(j) If i j, then the active list for Pi now contains the numbers of all the active processes in the system Pi can now determine the largest number in the active list to identify the new coordinator process If i = j, then Pi receives the message elect(i) The active list for Pi contains all the active processes in the system Pi can now determine the new coordinator process. 資工系網媒所 111/119 NEWS實驗室 Ring Structure P1 Token passing P4 Network P7 P2 P6 P3 P3 P5 P6 P2 P1 (a) Physical Connection P7 P5 P4 (b) Token Ring 資工系網媒所 112/119 NEWS實驗室 Ring Algorithm (3/3) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1 P2 P1 P2 detects failure of P7 active list 2 P3 P7 2, 3 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 P4 P6 P5 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4, 5 資工系網媒所 113/119 NEWS實驗室 Reaching Agreement There are applications where a set of processes wish to agree on a common “value” Such agreement may not take place due to: Faulty communication medium Faulty processes Processes may send garbled or incorrect messages to other processes A subset of the processes may collaborate with each other in an attempt to defeat the scheme 資工系網媒所 114/119 NEWS實驗室 Faulty Communications Process Pi at site A, has sent a message to process Pj at site B; to proceed, Pi needs to know if Pj has received the message Detect failures using a time-out scheme When Pi sends out a message, it also specifies a time interval during which it is willing to wait for an acknowledgment message form Pj When Pj receives the message, it immediately sends an acknowledgment to Pi If Pi receives the acknowledgment message within the specified time interval, it concludes that Pj has received its message If a time-out occurs, Pj needs to retransmit its message and wait for an acknowledgment Continue until Pi either receives an acknowledgment, or is notified by the system that B is down 資工系網媒所 115/119 NEWS實驗室 Faulty Communications (Cont) Suppose that Pj also needs to know that Pi has received its acknowledgment message, in order to decide on how to proceed In the presence of failure, it is not possible to accomplish this task It is not possible in a distributed environment for processes Pi and Pj to agree completely on their respective states 資工系網媒所 116/119 NEWS實驗室 Faulty Processes (Byzantine Generals Problem) Communication medium is reliable, but processes can fail in unpredictable ways Consider a system of n processes, of which no more than m are faulty Suppose that each process Pi has some private value of Vi Devise an algorithm that allows each nonfaulty Pi to construct a vector Xi = (Ai,1, Ai,2, …, Ai,n) such that:: If Pj is a nonfaulty process, then Aij = Vj. If Pi and Pj are both nonfaulty processes, then Xi = Xj. Solutions share the following properties A correct algorithm can be devised only if n 3 x m + 1 The worst-case delay for reaching agreement is proportionate to m + 1 message-passing delays 資工系網媒所 117/119 NEWS實驗室 Faulty Processes (Cont) An algorithm for the case where m = 1 and n = 4 requires two rounds of information exchange: Each process sends its private value to the other 3 processes Each process sends the information it has obtained in the first round to all other processes If a faulty process refuses to send messages, a nonfaulty process can choose an arbitrary value and pretend that that value was sent by that process After the two rounds are completed, a nonfaulty process Pi can construct its vector Xi = (Ai,1, Ai,2, Ai,3, Ai,4) as follows: Ai,j = Vi For j i, if at least two of the three values reported for process Pj agree, then the majority value is used to set the value of Aij Otherwise, a default value (nil) is used 資工系網媒所 118/119 NEWS實驗室 End of Chapter 18 資工系網媒所 119/119 NEWS實驗室