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Contents
1 Origins
Preface xi
Maps, Figures, and Tables xxxiii
Special Features xxxvii
Versions and Supplements xxxix
How to Use This Book xlii
ca. 400,000–1100 b.c.e. 2
What do we mean by “the West” and
“Western Civilization”? 4
Describing the West 4
What Is Western Civilization, and Why? 5
What was the significance of the advent of agriculture? 5
Paleolithic Life 6
Neolithic Life 6
What kind of civilization developed in Mesopotamia? 8
Environment and Mesopotamian Development 9
The Invention of Writing and the First Schools 10
Mesopotamian Thought and Religion 11
Sumerian Social and Gender Divisions 12
How did Mesopotamian culture spread in the
Near East? 14
The Triumph of Babylon 15
Life Under Hammurabi 16
What were the characteristics of Egyptian civilization? 18
The God-King of Egypt 18
The Life of the Pharaoh’s People 20
The Hyksos in Egypt 23
The New Kingdom: Revival and Empire 24
How did foreign invasions alter the Near East? 26
The Rise of the Hittites 26
The Fall of Empires and the Survival of Cultures 28
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 29
Chapter Study Guide 30
Listening to the Past Gilgamesh’s Quest for Immortality 14
Individuals in Society Nefertiti, the “Great Wife” 25
xvii
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2 Small Kingdoms and Mighty
3 The Development of
Empires in the Near East
ca. 1100–513 b.c.e. 32
What new kingdoms arose in the Near East after
1100 b.c.e.? 34
The End of Egyptian Power 34
The Rise of Phoenicia 35
What was unique about Hebrew civilization? 36
The Hebrew State 37
The Evolution of Jewish Religion 38
The Lives of the Hebrews 40
What explains the rise and fall of the Assyrians? 43
The Power of Assyria 43
Assyrian Rule and Culture 44
The Neo-Babylonian Empire 46
How did the Persian Empire differ from
its predecessors? 46
The Land of the Medes and Persians 47
The Rise of the Persian Empire 47
Persian Religion 49
Persian Art and Culture 49
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 51
Chapter Study Guide 52
Listening to the Past The Covenant Between Yahweh and
the Hebrews 40
Individuals in Society Cyrus the Great 50
Classical Greece
ca. 2000–338 b.c.e. 54
How did geography shape the early history of
the Greeks? 56
The Minoans and Mycenaeans 56
Homer, Hesiod, and the Epic 57
What was the polis and what was its role in
Greek society? 59
Origins of the Polis 59
Governing Structures 60
What were the major developments of the Greek
Archaic Age? 61
Overseas Expansion 61
The Growth of Sparta 63
The Evolution of Athens 64
How did war affect Greek civilization? 65
The Persian Wars 66
Growth of the Athenian Empire 67
The Peloponnesian War 68
Athenian Arts in the Age of Pericles 69
Daily Life in Periclean Athens 74
Gender and Sexuality 75
Greek Religion 78
The Flowering of Philosophy 79
How did Macedonia come to dominate Greece? 81
The Struggle for Hegemony 81
Philip II and Macedonian Supremacy 82
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 83
Chapter Study Guide 84
Listening to the Past Thucydides on the Great Plague at
­Athens, 430 b.c.e. 70
Individuals in Society Aspasia 77
xviii Contents
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4 The Hellenistic World
5 The Rise of Rome
336–30 b.c.e. 86
How and why did Alexander the Great create an empire? 88
How did Alexander’s conquests change the world? 90
From Hellenic to Hellenistic 90
The Political Legacy 90
The Cultural Legacy 93
How did Greek culture shape the Hellenistic kingdoms? 94
Cities and Kingdoms 94
The Lives of the Greeks in the East 96
Greeks and Easterners 98
What new economic connections were created in
this period? 99
Agriculture and Industry 99
Commerce 100
What was the lasting impact of Hellenism? 101
Religion in the Hellenistic World 102
Hellenism and the Jews 103
Philosophy and the People 104
Hellenistic Science 105
Hellenistic Medicine 108
ca. 750–31 b.c.e. 112
How did the Romans become the dominant power
in Italy? 114
The Geography of Italy 114
The Etruscans and the Roman Settlement of Italy 115
The Roman Conquest of Italy 116
What were the key institutions of the Roman republic? 118
The Roman State 118
The Struggle of the Orders 120
How did the Romans build a Mediterranean empire? 120
Italy Becomes Roman 121
The Age of Conquest 122
The Punic Wars 122
Rome Turns East 124
How did expansion affect Roman society and culture? 124
Marcus Cato: The Traditional Ideal 125
Scipio Aemilianus: Greek Culture and Urban Life 127
What led to the fall of the Roman republic? 128
Unrest in Rome and Italy 129
Civil War 131
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 109
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 135
Chapter Study Guide 110
Chapter Study Guide 136
Listening to the Past Alexander’s Prayer to Establish a
“Brotherhood of Man” 92
Listening to the Past Cicero and the Plot to Kill Caesar 132
Individuals in Society Archimedes, Scientist
and Inventor 106
Individuals in Society Queen Cleopatra 134
Contents xix
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6 The Pax Romana
7 Late Antiquity
31 b.c.e.–284 c.e. 138
How did Augustus create a foundation for the
Roman Empire? 140
The Principate and the Restored Republic 140
Administration of the Provinces 141
Roman Expansion into Northern and Western Europe 142
The Flowering of Latin Literature 145
Social Changes 146
The Legacy of Augustus 148
How did the Roman state develop after Augustus? 148
The Julio-Claudians and the Flavians 148
The Age of the Five Good Emperors 149
What was life like in Rome during the golden age? 150
Life in Imperial Rome 150
Provincial Life 152
How did Christianity grow into a major
religious movement? 156
Unrest in Judaea 156
The Life and Teachings of Jesus 157
The Spread of Christianity 159
The Appeal of Christianity 159
Christians and Pagans 160
What explains the chaos of the third century? 161
Civil Wars and Foreign Invasions 161
Turmoil in Farm and Village Life 162
The Crisis of the Third Century 162
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 163
Chapter Study Guide 164
Listening to the Past Augustus’s Res Gestae 142
Individuals in Society Bithus, a Typical Roman Soldier 154
250–600 166
How did Diocletian and Constantine try to reform
the empire? 168
Political Measures 168
Economic Issues 168
The Acceptance of Christianity 169
How did the Christian church become a major force
in Europe? 171
The Church and Its Leaders 171
The Development of Christian Monasticism 172
Monastery Life 173
Christianity and Classical Culture 174
Christian Teachings about Gender and Sexuality 174
Saint Augustine on Human Nature, Will, and Sin 175
What were the key characteristics of barbarian society? 176
Social and Economic Structures 177
Chiefs and Warriors 178
Barbarian Law 178
Barbarian Religion 179
What were the consequences of the
barbarian migrations? 179
Celtic and Germanic People in Gaul and Britain 180
Visigoths and Huns 182
Barbarian Kingdoms and the End of the Roman Empire 182
How did the church Christianize barbarian societies? 185
Missionaries’ Actions 186
The Process of Conversion 187
How did the Byzantine Empire preserve the legacy
of Rome? 188
Sources of Byzantine Strength 188
The Law Code of Justinian 189
Byzantine Intellectual Life 190
The Orthodox Church 191
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 193
Chapter Study Guide 194
Listening to the Past Gregory of Tours on the Conversion
of Clovis 184
Individuals in Society Theodora of Constantinople 192
xx Contents
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8 Europe in the Early Middle Ages
9 State and Church in
the High Middle Ages
600–1000 196
1000–1300 228
What were the origins of Islam and how did it spread? 198
The Arabs 198
The Prophet Muhammad 198
The Teachings and Expansion of Islam 200
Life in Muslim Spain 201
Muslim-Christian Relations 202
Science and Medicine 203
How did the Franks build and govern a
European empire? 204
The Merovingians 204
The Rise of the Carolingians 206
The Warrior-Ruler Charlemagne 207
Carolingian Government and Society 208
The Imperial Coronation of Charlemagne 210
What were the accomplishments of the
Carolingian Renaissance? 211
The Carolingian Renaissance 211
Scholarship and Religious Life in Northumbria 212
What were the consequences of the
ninth-century invasions? 215
Vikings in Western Europe 215
Slavs and Vikings in Eastern Europe 217
Magyars and Muslims 221
How did conflict shape European development during
this period? 222
Decentralization and the Origins of “Feudalism” 222
Manorialism, Serfdom, and the Slave Trade 223
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 225
Chapter Study Guide 226
Individuals in Society The Venerable Bede 213
Listening to the Past Eirik’s Saga 218
How did monarchs try to centralize political power? 230
England 231
France 233
Central Europe 234
Sicily 235
The Iberian Peninsula 236
How did the administration of law evolve in
this period? 238
Local Laws and Royal Courts 238
King Versus Archbishop 239
The Magna Carta 239
Law in Everyday Life 240
What led to conflict between the papacy and
secular leaders? 241
The Gregorian Reforms 241
Emperor Versus Pope 243
The Popes and Church Law 244
What were the causes and consequences of
the Crusades? 245
Background and Motives 245
The Course of the Crusades 246
Crusades Within Europe 251
Consequences of the Crusades 251
How did Christianity spread during the High
Middle Ages? 254
Northern Europe 255
Eastern Europe 255
Christendom 256
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 257
Chapter Study Guide 258
Listening to the Past An Arab View of the Crusades 248
Individuals in Society The Jews of Speyer 252
Contents xxi
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10 The Life of the People in
11 The Creativity and Challenges
the High Middle Ages
1000–1300 260
What was village life like in medieval Europe? 262
Slavery, Serfdom, and Upward Mobility 262
The Manor 263
Work 264
Home Life and Diet 266
Health Care 268
Childbirth and Child Abandonment 268
How did religion shape everyday life in
medieval Europe? 269
Christian Life in Medieval Villages 269
Saints and Sacraments 270
Muslims and Jews 271
Rituals of Marriage and Birth 274
Death and the Afterlife 275
What roles did nobles play in medieval society? 276
Origins and Status of the Nobility 276
Childhood 277
Youth and Marriage 277
Power and Responsibility 278
What roles did monks and nuns play in medieval life? 279
Monastic Revival 280
Life in Convents and Monasteries 282
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 285
Chapter Study Guide 286
Listening to the Past The Pilgrim’s Guide to Santiago
de Compostela 272
Individuals in Society Hildegard of Bingen 284
of Medieval Cities
1100–1300 288
What led to Europe’s economic growth
and reurbanization? 290
The Rise of Towns 290
Merchant and Craft Guilds 292
The Revival of Long-Distance Trade 294
Business Procedures 295
The Commercial Revolution 298
What was life like in a medieval city? 298
City Life 299
Servants and the Poor 300
Popular Entertainment 300
How did universities serve the needs of
medieval society? 301
Origins 301
Legal Curriculum 303
Medical Training 304
Theology and Philosophy 305
Abelard and Heloise 305
Thomas Aquinas 306
Life at a University 306
How did literature and architecture express
medieval values? 307
Vernacular Literature and Drama 307
Churches and Cathedrals 308
How did urban growth shape European religious life? 313
Heretical Groups 313
The Friars 313
The Friars and Papal Power 316
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 317
Chapter Study Guide 318
Individuals in Society Francesco Datini 296
Listening to the Past Courtly Love Poetry 310
xxii Contents
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12 The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
13 European Society in the
Age of the Renaissance
1300–1450 320
1350–1550 352
How did climate change shape the late Middle Ages? 322
Climate Change and Famine 322
Social Consequences 323
How did the Black Death reshape European society? 323
Pathology 324
Spread of the Disease 324
Care of the Sick 326
Economic, Religious, and Cultural Effects 327
What were the consequences of the Hundred Years’ War? 329
Causes 329
English Successes 330
Joan of Arc and France’s Victory 332
Aftermath 333
Why did the church come under increasing attack? 335
The Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism 335
Critiques, Divisions, and Councils 336
Lay Piety and Mysticism 338
What explains the social unrest of the late Middle Ages? 340
Peasant Revolts 340
Urban Conflicts 342
Sex in the City 344
Fur-Collar Crime 346
Ethnic Tensions and Restrictions 346
Literacy and Vernacular Literature 347
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 349
How did politics and economics shape
the Renaissance? 354
Trade and Prosperity 354
Communes and Republics of Northern Italy 355
City-States and the Balance of Power 356
What new ideas were associated with the Renaissance? 358
Humanism 358
Education 360
Political Thought 361
Christian Humanism 364
The Printed Word 365
How did changes in art reflect new Renaissance ideals? 367
Patronage and Power 367
Changing Artistic Styles 369
The Renaissance Artist 370
What were the key social hierarchies in
Renaissance Europe? 373
Race and Slavery 373
Wealth and the Nobility 374
Gender Roles 375
How did nation-states evolve in this period? 376
France 376
England 377
Spain 377
Chapter Study Guide 350
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 381
Individuals in Society Meister Eckhart 339
Chapter Study Guide 382
Listening to the Past Christine de Pizan, Advice to the Wives
of Artisans 342
Listening to the Past Perspectives on Humanist Learning
and Women 362
Individuals in Society Leonardo da Vinci 372
Contents xxiii
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14 Reformations and Religious Wars
15 European Exploration
and Conquest
1500–1600 384
1450–1650 416
What were the central beliefs of Protestant reformers? 386
The Christian Church in the Early Sixteenth Century 386
Martin Luther 387
Protestant Thought 389
The Appeal of Protestant Ideas 391
The Radical Reformation and the German Peasants’ War 391
Marriage and Sexuality 394
How did politics shape the course of the Reformation? 395
The Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty 396
Religious Wars in Switzerland and Germany 396
How did Protestantism spread beyond
German-speaking lands? 398
Scandinavia 398
Henry VIII and the Reformation in England 398
Upholding Protestantism in England 400
Calvinism 401
The Reformation in Eastern Europe 403
How did the Catholic Church respond to the new
religious situation? 404
Papal Reform and the Council of Trent 404
New Religious Orders 407
Why did religious violence escalate in this period? 407
French Religious Wars 409
The Netherlands Under Charles V 410
The Great European Witch-Hunt 411
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 413
Chapter Study Guide 414
Listening to the Past Martin Luther, On Christian
Liberty 392
Individuals in Society Teresa of Ávila 408
What were the limits of world contacts
before Columbus? 418
The Trade World of the Indian Ocean 418
The Trading States of Africa 420
The Ottoman and Persian Empires 420
Genoese and Venetian Middlemen 421
How and why did Europeans undertake voyages
of expansion? 422
Causes of European Expansion 422
Technology and the Rise of Exploration 423
The Portuguese Overseas Empire 424
The Problem of Christopher Columbus 425
Later Explorers 429
Spanish Conquest in the New World 431
Early French and English Settlement in the New World 434
What was the impact of conquest? 434
Colonial Administration 435
Impact of European Settlement on the Lives of
Indigenous Peoples 435
Life in the Colonies 436
The Columbian Exchange 437
How did Europe and the world change
after Columbus? 437
Sugar and Slavery 439
Spanish Silver and Its Economic Effects 441
The Birth of the Global Economy 442
How did expansion change European attitudes
and beliefs? 443
New Ideas About Race 444
Michel de Montaigne and Cultural Curiosity 444
William Shakespeare and His Influence 445
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 447
Chapter Study Guide 448
Listening to the Past Columbus Describes His
First Voyage 428
Individuals in Society Juan de Pareja 438
xxiv Contents
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16 Absolutism and Constitutionalism
in Europe
17 Toward a New Worldview
1540–1789 488
ca. 1589–1725 450
What made the seventeenth century an “age of crisis”? 452
Peasant Life in the Midst of Economic Crisis 452
The Return of Serfdom in the East 453
The Thirty Years’ War 454
Achievements in State-Building 456
Warfare and the Growth of Army Size 456
Popular Political Action 457
Why did France rise and Spain fall in this period? 457
The Foundations of Absolutism 458
Louis XIV and Absolutism 459
Life at Versailles 460
French Financial Management Under Colbert 461
Louis XIV’s Wars 462
The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the
Seventeenth Century 463
What explains the rise of absolutism in Austria
and Prussia? 465
The Austrian Habsburgs 465
Prussia in the Seventeenth Century 466
The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism 467
What was distinctive about Russia and the
Ottoman Empire? 468
The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow 468
The Tsar and His People 468
The Reforms of Peter the Great 471
The Growth of the Ottoman Empire 474
Where and why did constitutionalism triumph? 477
Absolutist Claims in England 477
Religious Divides and the English Civil War 478
Cromwell and Puritanical Absolutism in England 479
The Restoration of the English Monarchy 480
Constitutional Monarchy 481
The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century 483
How did European views of nature change in
this period? 490
Scientific Thought in 1500 490
Origins of the Scientific Revolution 491
The Copernican Hypothesis 491
Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo: Proving Copernicus Right 492
Newton’s Synthesis 494
Bacon, Descartes, and the Scientific Method 495
Science and Society 497
Medicine, the Body, and Chemistry 498
What were the core principles of the Enlightenment? 498
The Emergence of the Enlightenment 499
The Influence of the Philosophes 500
The Enlightenment Outside of France 503
Urban Culture and Life in the Public Sphere 503
Race and the Enlightenment 506
Late Enlightenment 508
What did enlightened absolutism mean? 510
Frederick the Great of Prussia 510
Catherine the Great of Russia 511
The Austrian Habsburgs 513
Jewish Life and the Limits of Enlightened Absolutism 515
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 517
Chapter Study Guide 518
Listening to the Past Denis Diderot’s “Supplement to
Bougainville’s Voyage” 508
Individuals in Society Moses Mendelssohn and the
Jewish Enlightenment 516
What developments do baroque art and music reflect? 483
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 485
Chapter Study Guide 486
Listening to the Past A German Account of
Russian Life 472
Individuals in Society Glückel of Hameln 482
Contents xxv
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18 The Expansion of Europe
19 The Changing Life of the People
1650–1800 520
How did European agriculture change between 1650
and 1800? 522
The Legacy of the Open-Field System 522
The Agricultural Revolution 523
The Leadership of the Low Countries and England 524
Why did population rise in the eighteenth century? 526
Long-standing Obstacles to Population Growth 526
The New Pattern of the Eighteenth Century 527
What led to the growth of rural industry? 528
The Putting-Out System 528
The Lives of Rural Textile Workers 529
The Industrious Revolution 531
What were guilds and why were they controversial? 534
Urban Guilds 535
Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism 536
What role did colonial markets play in
Europe’s development? 537
Mercantilism and Colonial Wars 537
Eighteenth-Century Colonial Trade 540
The Atlantic Slave Trade 541
Identities and Communities of the Atlantic World 543
Trade and Empire in Asia and the Pacific 545
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 549
Chapter Study Guide 550
Listening to the Past Contrasting Views on the Effects of
Rural Industry 532
Individuals in Society Olaudah Equiano 546
1700–1800 552
How did family life change in the eighteenth century? 554
Late Marriage and Nuclear Families 554
Work Away from Home 555
Premarital Sex and Community Controls 555
New Patterns of Marriage and Illegitimacy 557
Sex on the Margins of Society 557
How did attitudes toward child rearing change in
this period? 558
Child Care and Nursing 558
Foundlings and Infanticide 560
Attitudes Toward Children 560
The Spread of Elementary Schools 562
How and why did popular culture change during
this period? 562
Popular Literature 563
Leisure and Recreation 564
New Foods and Appetites 566
Toward a Consumer Society 567
What role did religion play in
eighteenth-century society? 573
Church Hierarchy 573
Protestant Revival 574
Catholic Piety 575
Marginal Beliefs and Practices 576
How did medicine evolve in the eighteenth century? 576
Faith Healing and General Practice 577
Surgery 577
Midwifery 578
The Conquest of Smallpox 578
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 579
Chapter Study Guide 580
Listening to the Past Louis-Sébastien Mercier, A Day in the
Life of Paris 568
Individuals in Society Rose Bertin, “Minister
of Fashion” 571
xxvi Contents
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20 The Revolution in Politics
21 The Revolution in
Energy and Industry
1775–1815 582
ca. 1780–1850 614
What were the origins of the French Revolution? 584
Legal Orders and Social Reality 584
The Crisis of Political Legitimacy 585
The American Revolution and Its Impact 586
Financial Crisis 588
What forces shaped the Revolution between 1789
and 1791? 588
The Formation of the National Assembly 588
The Storming of the Bastille 590
Peasant Revolt and the Rights of Man 592
Parisian Women March on Versailles 592
A Constitutional Monarchy and Its Challenges 593
Revolutionary Aspirations in Saint-Domingue 595
Why did the Revolution take a radical turn after 1791? 596
Foreign Reactions to the Revolution 596
The Outbreak of War 597
The Second Revolution 598
Total War and the Terror 600
Revolution in Saint-Domingue 601
The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory 604
What led to the rise and fall of Napoleon? 605
Napoleon’s Rule of France 605
Napoleon’s Expansion in Europe 606
The War of Haitian Independence 607
The Grand Empire and Its End 607
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 611
Chapter Study Guide 612
How did the Industrial Revolution develop in Britain? 616
Eighteenth-Century Origins 616
The First Factories 617
The Problem of Energy 618
The Steam Engine Breakthrough 619
The Coming of the Railroads 620
Industry and Population 621
How did continental Europe industrialize after 1815? 623
National Variations 624
The Challenge of Industrialization 625
Agents of Industrialization 625
Government Support and Corporate Banking 627
What were the social consequences
of industrialization? 629
The New Class of Factory Owners 629
The New Factory Workers 630
Work in Early Factories 632
Working Families and Children 633
The Sexual Division of Labor 634
The Early Labor Movement in Britain 635
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 639
Chapter Study Guide 640
Individuals in Society Josiah Wedgwood 622
Listening to the Past The Testimony of Young
Mine Workers 636
Listening to the Past Abbé de Sieyès, What Is the
Third Estate? 590
Individuals in Society Toussaint L’Ouverture 608
Contents xxvii
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22 Ideologies and Upheavals
23 Life in the Emerging Urban Society
1815–1850 642
How was peace restored and maintained after 1815? 644
The European Balance of Power 644
Repressing the Revolutionary Spirit 645
Metternich and Conservatism 647
What new ideologies emerged to
challenge conservatism? 648
Liberalism and the Middle Class 648
The Growing Appeal of Nationalism 649
French Utopian Socialism 652
The Birth of Marxian Socialism 653
What were the characteristics of the
romantic movement? 654
Romanticism’s Tenets 654
Literature 655
Art and Music 657
How and where was conservatism challenged
after 1815? 658
National Liberation in Greece 658
Liberal Reform in Great Britain 659
Ireland and the Great Famine 660
The Revolution of 1830 in France 662
Why did the revolutions of 1848 fail almost completely? 663
A Democratic Republic in France 663
The Austrian Empire in 1848 666
Prussia and the Frankfurt Assembly 668
1840–1900 672
How did urban life change in the nineteenth century? 674
Industry and the Growth of Cities 674
The Advent of the Public Health Movement 675
The Bacterial Revolution 677
Improvements in Urban Planning 678
Public Transportation 678
What were the characteristics of urban
industrial society? 680
The Distribution of Income 681
The People and Occupations of the Middle Classes 681
Middle-Class Culture and Values 682
The People and Occupations of the Working Classes 683
Working-Class Leisure and Religion 685
How did urbanization affect family life? 686
Premarital Sex and Marriage 686
Prostitution 687
Kinship Ties 687
Gender Roles and Early Feminism 689
The Importance of Homemaking 691
Child Rearing 693
How and why did intellectual life change in this period? 694
The Triumph of Science in Industry 694
Darwin and Natural Selection 696
Social Science 697
Realism in Literature 698
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 699
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 669
Chapter Study Guide 700
Chapter Study Guide 670
Listening to the Past Stephan Zweig on Middle-Class Youth
and Sexuality 688
Listening to the Past Herder and Mazzini on the
Development of Nationalism 650
Individuals in Society Franziska Tiburtius 692
Individuals in Society Germaine de Staël 656
xxviii Contents
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24 The Age of Nationalism
25 The West and the World
1850–1914 702
What kind of state did Napoleon III build in France? 704
France’s Second Republic 704
Napoleon III’s Second Empire 705
How were Italy and Germany able to unify? 706
Italy to 1850 706
Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy 707
The Growing Austro-Prussian Rivalry 709
Bismarck and the Austro-Prussian War 709
The Taming of the Parliament 711
The Franco-Prussian War 711
How did the American Civil War change the
United States? 712
Why did Russia and the Ottoman Empire try
to modernize? 714
The “Great Reforms” in Russia 714
The Russian Revolution of 1905 715
Decline and Reform in the Ottoman Empire 717
What general domestic political trends emerged
after 1871? 718
General Trends 719
The German Empire 720
Republican France 721
Great Britain and Ireland 722
The Austro-Hungarian Empire 723
Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism 725
What explains the rise of socialism? 726
The Socialist International 727
Unions and Revisionism 728
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 731
Chapter Study Guide 732
1815–1914 734
How did Western industrialization change the
world economy? 736
The Rise of Global Inequality 736
The World Market 737
The Opening of China 738
Japan and the United States 740
Western Penetration of Egypt 740
What explains global migration patterns in this period? 742
The Pressure of Population 742
European Migrants 743
Asian Migrants 745
What characterized Western imperialism after 1880? 745
The European Presence in Africa Before 1880 746
The Scramble for Africa After 1880 746
Imperialism in Asia 750
Causes of the New Imperialism 750
A “Civilizing Mission” 752
Critics of Imperialism 753
How did non-Westerners respond to
Western imperialism? 754
The Pattern of Response 754
Empire in India 755
The Example of Japan 757
Toward Revolution in China 760
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 763
Chapter Study Guide 764
Individuals in Society Cecil Rhodes 748
Listening to the Past Lin Zexu and Yamagata Aritomo,
Confronting Western Imperialism 758
Individuals in Society Theodor Herzl 724
Listening to the Past Adelheid Popp, the Making of
a Socialist 728
Contents xxix
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26 War and Revolution
27 The Age of Anxiety
1914–1919 766
What caused the outbreak of the First World War? 768
Growing International Conflict 768
The Mood of 1914 769
The Outbreak of War 771
How did the First World War differ from previous wars? 773
Stalemate and Slaughter on the Western Front 773
The Widening War 775
In what ways did the war transform life on the
home front? 778
Mobilizing for Total War 778
The Social Impact 779
Growing Political Tensions 781
Why did world war lead to revolution in Russia? 783
The Fall of Imperial Russia 783
The Provisional Government 784
Lenin and the Bolshevik Revolution 786
Trotsky and the Seizure of Power 786
Dictatorship and Civil War 787
In what ways was the Allied peace settlement flawed? 789
The End of the War 789
Revolution in Austria-Hungary and Germany 790
The Treaty of Versailles 790
The Peace Settlement in the Middle East 793
The Human Costs 796
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 799
Chapter Study Guide 800
Individuals in Society Vera Brittain 780
Listening to the Past Resolution of the General Syrian
Congress at Damascus 796
ca. 1900–1940 802
How did intellectual developments reflect
postwar anxieties? 804
Modern Philosophy 804
The Revival of Christianity 806
The New Physics 807
Freudian Psychology 808
Twentieth-Century Literature 809
How did modernism revolutionize European culture? 810
Architecture and Design 810
New Artistic Movements 810
Modern Music 812
How did consumer culture change the lives
of Europeans? 813
Mass Culture 813
The Appeal of Cinema 815
The Arrival of Radio 816
What obstacles to lasting peace did European
leaders face? 817
Germany and the Western Powers 817
Hope in Foreign Affairs 819
Hope in Democratic Government 819
What were the causes and consequences of the
Great Depression? 822
The Economic Crisis 822
Mass Unemployment 824
The New Deal in the United States 824
The Scandinavian Response to the Depression 825
Recovery and Reform in Britain and France 827
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 829
Chapter Study Guide 830
Individuals in Society Gustav Stresemann 820
Listening to the Past George Orwell on Life on
the Dole 826
xxx Contents
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28 Dictatorships and the
Second World War
29 Cold War Conflict and Consensus
1945–1965 868
1919–1945 832
What characteristics did totalitarian
dictatorships share? 834
Conservative Authoritarianism and Radical
Totalitarian Dictatorships 834
Communism and Fascism 835
How did Stalin and his followers build a
totalitarian state? 837
From Lenin to Stalin 837
The Five-Year Plans 838
Life and Culture in Soviet Society 840
Stalinist Terror and the Great Purges 842
What kind of government did Mussolini establish
in Italy? 843
The Seizure of Power 844
The Regime in Action 844
How and why did Nazi policies lead to World War II? 846
The Roots of National Socialism 846
Hitler’s Road to Power 847
State and Society in Nazi Germany 849
Popular Support for National Socialism 850
Aggression and Appeasement 852
What explains the Allied victory in World War II? 853
German Victories in Europe 854
Europe Under Nazi Occupation 855
The Holocaust 857
Japanese Empire and the War in the Pacific 859
The “Hinge of Fate” 861
Allied Victory 863
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 865
Chapter Study Guide 866
Listening to the Past Stalin Justifies the Five-Year Plan 840
Individuals in Society Primo Levi 860
Why was World War II followed so quickly by the
Cold War? 870
The Legacies of the Second World War 870
The Peace Accords and Cold War Origins 873
West Versus East 874
Big Science and New Technologies 876
What explains postwar economic growth in
western Europe? 878
The Search for Political and Social Consensus 878
Toward European Unity 879
The Consumer Revolution 880
How did the Soviet Union dominate eastern Europe? 881
Postwar Life Under Stalin 882
Reform and De-Stalinization 883
Foreign Policy and Domestic Rebellion 886
The Limits of Reform 886
What led to decolonization in the years after World
War II? 887
Decolonization and the Cold War 887
The Struggle for Power in Asia 889
Independence and Conflict in the Middle East 890
The African Awakening 891
What kinds of societies emerged in Europe after 1945? 893
Changing Class Structures 893
Patterns of Postwar Migration 895
New Roles for Women 896
Youth Culture and the Generation Gap 897
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 899
Chapter Study Guide 900
Listening to the Past The Nixon-Khrushchev
“Kitchen Debate” 884
Individuals in Society Armando Rodrigues, West Germany’s
“One-Millionth Guest Worker” 894
Contents xxxi
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30 Challenging the Postwar Order
31 Europe in an Age of Globalization
1960–1991 902
Why did the postwar consensus of the 1950s
break down? 904
Cold War Tensions Thaw 904
The Affluent Society 905
The Growing Counterculture Movement 906
The United States and Vietnam 907
Student Revolts and 1968 908
The 1960s in the East Bloc 910
What were the consequences of economic decline in
the 1970s? 912
Economic Crisis and Hardship 912
The Conservative Backlash 913
Challenges and Victories for Women 916
The Rise of the Environmental Movement 917
Separatism and Right-Wing Extremism 920
What led to the decline of Soviet power in
eastern Europe? 921
State and Society in the East Bloc 921
Reform Movements in Czechoslovakia and Poland 922
From Détente Back to Cold War 925
Gorbachev’s Reforms in the Soviet Union 925
Why did revolution sweep through eastern Europe
in 1989? 926
The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe 927
German Unification and the End of the Cold War 930
The Disintegration of the Soviet Union 931
1990 to the Present 936
How did life change in Russia and eastern Europe
after 1989? 938
Economic Shock Therapy in Russia 938
Russian Revival Under Vladimir Putin 939
Coping with Change in Eastern Europe 940
Tragedy in Yugoslavia 942
How did globalization affect European life? 944
The Digital Age and the Changing Economy 945
The Human Side of Globalization 945
The New European Union 947
Supranational Organizations 949
What explains Europe’s increasing ethnic diversity? 950
The Prospect of Population Decline 950
Changing Immigration Flows 951
Ethnic Diversity in Contemporary Europe 952
Europe and Its Muslim Citizens 953
What challenges will Europe face in the
coming decades? 958
Growing Strains in U.S.-European Relations 958
The War on Terror and European Security 959
The Dependence on Fossil Fuels 961
Environmental Problems and Progress 962
Promoting Human Rights 963
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 964
Chapter Study Guide 966
Looking Back, Looking Ahead 933
Individuals in Society Tariq Ramadan 955
Chapter Study Guide 934
Listening to the Past William Pfaff, “Will the French Riots
Change Anything?” 956
Individuals in Society Margaret Thatcher 915
Listening to the Past Simone de Beauvoir, a Feminist
Critique of Marriage 918
Chapter Endnotes EN-1
Index I-1
xxxii Contents
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Maps, Figures, and Tables
Maps
Chapter 1
Map 1.1 Spread of Cultures in the Ancient Near East,
ca. 3000–1640 b.c.e. 9
Map 1.2 Ancient Egypt, 2575–1070 b.c.e. 18
Map 1.3 Balance of Power in the Near East,
ca. 1300 b.c.e. 27
Spot Map The British Isles, ca. 2500 b.c.e. 8
Spot Map The Hyksos Settlement of Egypt,
ca. 1640–1570 b.c.e. 23
Chapter 2
Map 2.1 Small Kingdoms of the Near East,
ca. 800 b.c.e. 38
Map 2.2 Expansion of the Assyrian Empire,
ca. 900–660 b.c.e. 44
Map 2.3 Expansion of the Persian Empire,
ca. 1000–500 b.c.e. 48
Spot Map Possible Route of the Hebrew Exodus,
ca. 1250 b.c.e. 37
Spot Map The Neo-Babylonian Empire, ca. 560 b.c.e. 46
Chapter 3
Map 3.1 Classical Greece, 500–338 b.c.e. 58
Map 3.2 Colonization of the Mediterranean,
ca. 750–550 b.c.e. 62
Map 3.3 The Persian Wars, 499–479 b.c.e. 66
Map 3.4 The Peloponnesian War, 431–404 b.c.e. 69
Map 3.5 Ancient Athens, ca. 450 b.c.e. 72
Spot Map Spartan Expansion, ca. 735–500 b.c.e. 64
Spot Map The Delian League, ca. 478–431 b.c.e. 67
Spot Map Roman Britain, ca. 130 c.e. 150
Spot Map Judaea in the Time of Jesus, ca. 30 c.e. 156
Chapter 7
Map 7.1 The Division of the Roman World, 293 169
Map 7.2 The Spread of Christianity to 600 170
Map 7.3 The Barbarian Migrations, ca. 340–500 180
Map 7.4 The Byzantine Empire, ca. 600 189
Spot Map The Reign of Clovis, ca. 481–511 183
Chapter 8
Map 8.1 The Spread of Islam, 622–900 200
Map 8.2 Charlemagne’s Conquests, ca. 768–814 207
Map 8.3 Invasions and Migrations of the
Ninth Century 216
Spot Map The Treaty of Verdun, 843 215
Spot Map Kievan Rus, ca. 1050 220
Chapter 9
Map 9.1 The Growth of the Kingdom of France,
1180–1314 233
Map 9.2 The Holy Roman Empire, ca. 1200 235
Map 9.3 The Reconquista, ca. 750–1492 238
Map 9.4 The Crusades 246
Map 9.5 The Baltic Region, ca. 1300 254
Spot Map The Norman Conquest, 1066 231
Spot Map Kingdom of Sicily, 1137 236
Chapter 10
Map 10.1 Medieval Pilgrims’ Routes 272
Map 10.2 Twelfth-Century Cistercian Expansion 281
Chapter 4
Chapter 11
ca. 270–200 b.c.e. 91
Spot Map The Ptolemaic Kingdom, ca. 200 b.c.e. 98
Map 11.3 Intellectual Centers of Medieval Europe 302
Spot Map The Hanseatic League, ca. 1300–1400 297
Chapter 5
Chapter 12
ca. 282–44 b.c.e. 123
Spot Map The Etruscans, ca. 500 b.c.e. 116
Spot Map The Gauls Sack Rome, ca. 390 b.c.e. 117
Map 12.2 The Hundred Years’ War, 1337–1453 331
Map 12.3 Fourteenth-Century Peasant Revolts 341
Spot Map The Great Schism, 1378–1417 335
Spot Map The Hussite Revolution, 1415–1436 337
Map 4.1 Alexander’s Conquests, 336–324 b.c.e. 88
Map 4.2 The Hellenistic World, ca. 263 b.c.e. 91
Spot Map The Aetolian and Achaean Leagues,
Map 5.1 Italy and the City of Rome, ca. 218 b.c.e. 114
Map 5.2 Roman Expansion During the Republic,
Chapter 6
Map 6.1 Roman Expansion Under the Empire,
31 b.c.e.–138 c.e. 144
Map 6.2 The Economic Aspect of the Pax Romana,
ca. 27–180 c.e. 155
Map 11.1 European Population Density, ca. 1300 292
Map 11.2 Trade and Manufacturing in
Thirteenth-Century Europe 294
Map 12.1 The Course of the Black Death in
Fourteenth-Century Europe 325
Chapter 13
Map 13.1 The Italian City-States, ca. 1494 357
Map 13.2 The Growth of Printing in Europe,
1448–1551 366
xxxiii
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Map 13.3 The Unification of Spain and the Expulsion of the
Jews, Fifteenth Century 378
Spot Map The Expansion of France, 1475–1500 376
Chapter 14
Map 14.1 The Global Empire of Charles V, ca. 1556 397
Map 14.2 Religious Divisions in Europe, ca. 1555 405
Spot Map The Route of the Spanish Armada, 1588 401
Spot Map The Netherlands, 1609 410
Chapter 15
Map 15.1 The Fifteenth-Century Afro-Eurasian
Trading World 418
Map 15.2 Overseas Exploration and Conquest in the
Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 426
Map 15.3 Seaborne Trading Empires in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries 439
Spot Map Columbus’s Voyage to the New World,
1492–1493 427
Spot Map Invasion of Tenochtitlán, 1519–1521 433
Chapter 16
Map 16.1 Europe After the Thirty Years’ War 455
Map 16.2 Europe After the Peace of Utrecht, 1715 463
Map 16.3 The Growth of Austria and Brandenburg-Prussia
Spot Map Cottage Industry and Transportation in
Eighteenth-Century England 616
Chapter 22
Map 22.1 Europe in 1815 646
Map 22.2 Peoples of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1815 648
Spot Map 1820 Revolts in Spain and Italy 647
Spot Map Greek Independence, 1830 659
Chapter 23
Map 23.1 European Cities of 100,000 or More,
1800–1900 676
Map 23.2 The Modernization of Paris,
ca. 1850–1870 680
Chapter 24
Map 24.1 The Unification of Italy, 1859–1870 707
Map 24.2 The Unification of Germany, 1866–1871 710
Map 24.3 Slavery in the United States, 1860 713
Spot Map U.S. Secession, 1860–1861 713
Spot Map The Crimean War, 1853–1856 714
Spot Map The Russian Revolution of 1905 716
Chapter 25
to 1748 466
Map 16.4 The Ottoman Empire at Its Height, 1566 475
Spot Map The Acquisitions of Louis XIV, 1668–1713 462
Spot Map The Expansion of Russia to 1725 468
Spot Map The English Civil War, 1642–1649 479
Map 25.1 European Investment to 1914 738
Map 25.2 The Partition of Africa 747
Map 25.3 Asia in 1914 751
Spot Map The Suez Canal, 1869 741
Spot Map The Struggle for South Africa, 1878 746
Spot Map The Great Rebellion, 1857–1858 755
Chapter 17
Chapter 26
Map 17.1 The Partition of Poland, 1772–1795 513
Spot Map The War of Austrian Succession,
1740–1748 511
Spot Map The Pale of Settlement, 1791 515
Chapter 18
Map 18.1 Industry and Population in
Eighteenth-Century Europe 530
Map 18.2 The Atlantic Economy in 1701 539
Map 18.3 European Claims in North America
Before and After the Seven Years’ War, 1755–1763 540
Spot Map Plantation Zones, ca. 1700 541
Spot Map India, 1805 546
Chapter 19
Map 19.1 Literacy in France, ca. 1789 563
Map 26.1 European Alliances at the Outbreak of
World War I, 1914 770
Map 26.2 The Balkans, 1878–1914 772
Map 26.3 World War I in Europe and the Middle East,
1914–1918 774
Map 26.4 Territorial Changes After World War I 791
Map 26.5 The Partition of the Ottoman Empire,
1914–1923 795
Spot Map The Schlieffen Plan 773
Spot Map The Battle of the Somme, 1916 775
Spot Map The Armenian Genocide, 1915–1918 776
Spot Map The Russian Civil War, 1917–1922 788
Chapter 27
Map 27.1 The Great Depression in the United States and
Europe, 1929–1939 823
Chapter 20
Spot Map French Occupation of the Ruhr,
1791–1804 603
Map 20.2 Napoleonic Europe in 1812 609
Spot Map The Great Fear, 1789 592
Spot Map Areas of Insurrection, 1793 598
Spot Map German Confederation of the
Rhine, 1806 606
Spot Map British Unemployment, 1932 824
Map 20.1 The War of Haitian Independence,
Chapter 21
Map 21.1 The Industrial Revolution in England,
ca. 1850 620
Map 21.2 Continental Industrialization, ca. 1850 626
1923–1925 818
Chapter 28
Map 28.1 The Growth of Nazi Germany, 1933–1939 853
Map 28.2 World War II in Europe and Africa, 1939–1945 856
Map 28.3 The Holocaust, 1941–1945 858
Map 28.4 World War II in the Pacific 862
Spot Map Italy’s Ethiopian Campaign, 1935–1936 846
Spot Map Vichy France, 1940 855
Spot Map Nazi Occupation of Poland and East-Central
Europe, 1939–1942 857
xxxiv Maps, Figures, and Tables
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Chapter 29
Spot Map The Soviet War in Afghanistan,
ca. 1945–1950 872
Map 29.2 Cold War Europe in the 1950s 875
Map 29.3 Decolonization in Africa and Asia,
1947 to the Present 888
Spot Map Israel, 1948 890
Spot Map The Suez Crisis, 1956 891
Spot Map The Reunification of Germany, 1990 930
Map 29.1 The Aftermath of World War II in Europe,
Chapter 30
Map 30.1 European Pollution, ca. 1990 917
Map 30.2 Democratic Movements in Eastern
1979–1989 925
Chapter 31
Map 31.1 Russia and the Successor States,
1991–2010 941
Map 31.2 The Breakup of Yugoslavia, 1991–2006 943
Map 31.3 The European Union, 2010 948
Spot Map Iraq, ca. 2010 961
Spot Map Primary Oil and Gas Pipelines to Europe,
ca. 2005 962
Europe, 1989 927
Figures and Tables
Figure 1.1 Sumerian Writing 11
Figure 2.1 Origins of the Alphabet 36
Thematic Chronology Art and Philosophy in the
Hellenic Period 73
Thematic Chronology The Julio-Claudians and
the Flavians 148
Thematic Chronology Five Good Emperors
(the Antonines) 150
Figure 10.1 A Medieval Manor 263
Thematic Chronology The Hundred Years’ War 330
Thematic Chronology Major Contributors to the
Scientific Revolution 496
Thematic Chronology Major Figures of
the Enlightenment 503
Figure 18.1 The Increase of Population in Europe in the
Eighteenth Century 527
Figure 18.2 Exports of English Manufactured Goods,
1700–1774 541
Thematic Chronology The French Revolution 602
Table 21.1 Per Capita Levels of Industrialization,
1750–1913 624
Thematic Chronology Key Events Leading to the
Revolutions of 1848 665
Figure 23.1 The Decline of Death Rates in England and
Wales, Germany, France, and Sweden, 1840–1913 677
Figure 23.2 The Urban Social Hierarchy 684
Figure 23.3 The Decline of Birthrates in England and
Wales, France, Germany, and Sweden, 1840–1913 693
Figure 25.1 The Growth of Average Income per Person
in the Third World, Developed Countries, and
Great Britain, 1750–1970 737
Figure 25.2 The Increase of European and World
Populations, 1750–1980 742
Figure 25.3 Emigration from Europe by Decades,
1851–1940 743
Figure 25.4 Origins and Destinations of European
Emigrants, 1851–1960 743
Thematic Chronology Key Events of the Russian
Revolution 784
Figure 26.1 Casualties of World War I 798
Thematic Chronology Events Leading to
World War II 848
Thematic Chronology The Collapse of
Communism 928
Maps, Figures, and Tables xxxv
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