Download Ants - Mr. Willard`s Life Science Class

Shark & Remora
A remora sometimes called a suckerfish or sharksucker, is an elongated, brown fish in the order§ Perciformes
and family Echeneidae.[1][2][3] They grow to 30–90 centimetres long (1–3 ft), and their distinctive first dorsal fin
takes the form of a modified oval sucker-like organ with slat-like structures that open and close to create
suction and take a firm hold against the skin of larger marine animals. By sliding backward, the remora can
increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attach to small boats.
They swim well on their own, with a sinuous, or curved, motion.
Remoras are primarily tropical open-ocean dwellers, occasionally found in temperate or coastal waters if they
have attached to large fish that have wandered into these areas. In the mid-Atlantic, spawning usually takes
place in June and July; in the Mediterranean, in August and September. The sucking disc begins to show when
the young fish are about 1 centimetre long. When the remora reaches about 3 centimetres, the disc is fully
formed and the remora is then able to hitch a ride. The remora's lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and
there is no swim bladder.
Some remoras associate primarily with specific host species. Remoras are commonly found attached to sharks,
manta rays, whales, turtles, and dugong (hence the common names sharksucker and whalesucker). Smaller
remoras also fasten onto fish like tuna and swordfish, and some small remoras travel in the mouths or gills of
large manta rays, ocean sunfish, swordfish, and sailfish.
The relationship between remoras and their perfect hosts is most often taken to be one of commensalism,
specifically phoresy. The host they attach to for transport gains nothing from the relationship, but also loses
little. The remora benefits by using the host as transport and protection and also feeds on materials dropped
by the host. There is controversy whether a remora's diet is primarily leftover fragments, or the feces of the
host. In some species (Echeneis naucrates and E. neucratoides) consumption of host feces is strongly indicated
in gut dissections.[4] For other species, such as those found in a host's mouth, scavenging of leftovers is more
likely. For some remora and host pairings the relationship is closer to mutualism, with the remora cleaning
bacteria and other parasites from the host.
Mistletoe & Hardwood Tree
Mistletoe is the common name for a group of hemi-parasitic plants in the order Santalales that grow attached to and
within the branches of a tree or shrub. The name was originally applied to Viscum album (European Mistletoe,
Santalaceae), the only species native in Great Britain and much of Europe. Later the name was further extended to other
related species, including Phoradendron serotinum (the Eastern Mistletoe of eastern North America, also Santalaceae).
European mistletoe, Viscum album is readily recognized by its smooth-edged oval evergreen leaves borne in pairs along
the woody stem, and waxy white berries in dense clusters of 2 to 6. In America, the Eastern Mistletoe is similar, but has
shorter, broader leaves and longer clusters of 10 or more berries.
Viscum album is a poisonous plant that causes acute gastrointestinal problems including stomach pain, and diarrhea along with low
pulse.[1] However, both European Mistletoe and the North American species, Phoradendron flavescens, are commercially harvested
for Christmas decorations.[2]
The largest family of Mistletoes, Loranthaceae, has 73 genera and over 900 species. [3] Subtropical and tropical climates have
markedly more Mistletoe species; Australia has 85, of which 71 are in Loranthaceae, and 14 in Santalaceae. [4] Parasitism has evolved
only nine times in the plant kingdom;[5] of those, the parasitic mistletoe habit has evolved independently five times:
Misodendraceae, Loranthaceae, and Santalaceae, including the former separate families Eremolepidaceae and Viscaceae. Although
Viscaceae and Eremolepidaceae were placed in a broadly-defined Santalaceae by Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II, DNA data
indicates that they evolved independently.[citation needed]
The word 'mistletoe' (Old English mistiltan) is of uncertain etymology; it may be related to German Mist, for dung and Tang for
branch, since mistletoe can be spread in the feces of birds moving from tree to tree. However, Old English mistel was also used for
basil. Mistletoe plants grow on a wide range of host trees, and commonly reduce their growth but can kill them with heavy
infestation. Viscum album can parasitise more than 200 tree and shrub species. Almost all mistletoes are hemi-parasites, bearing
evergreen leaves that do some photosynthesis, and using the host mainly for water and mineral nutrients. However, the mistletoe
first sprouts from bird feces[citation needed] on the trunk of the tree and indeed in its early stages of life takes it nutrients from this
source.[citation needed] An exception is the leafless quintral, Tristerix aphyllus, which lives deep inside the sugar-transporting tissue of a
spiny cactus, appearing only to show its tubular red flowers. [6] The genus Arceuthobium (dwarf mistletoe; Santalaceae) has reduced
photosynthesis; as an adult, it manufactures only a small proportion of the sugars it needs from its own photosythesis but as a
seedling it actively photosynthesizes until a connection to the host is established. Some species of the largest family, Loranthaceae,
have small, insect-pollinated flowers (as with Santalaceae), but others have spectacularly showy, large, bird-pollinated flowers.
Most mistletoe seeds are spread by birds, such as the Mistle Thrush in Europe, the Phainopepla in southwestern North America, and
Dicaeum of Asia and Australia. However, distinguishing between this species and ones of other ecological biomes is not difficult.
They derive sustenance and agility through eating the fruits and nuts (drupes). The seeds are excreted in their droppings and stick to
twigs, or more commonly the bird grips the fruit in its bill, squeezes the sticky coated seed out to the side, and then wipes its bill
clean on a suitable branch.[citation needed] The seeds are coated with a sticky material called viscin (containing both cellulosic strands
and mucopolysaccharides), which hardens and attaches the seed firmly to its future host.
Mistletoe was often considered a pest that kills trees and devalues natural habitats, but was recently recognized as an ecological
keystone species, an organism that has a disproportionately pervasive influence over its community. [7] A broad array of animals
depend on mistletoe for food, consuming the leaves and young shoots, transferring pollen between plants, and dispersing the sticky
seeds. The dense evergreen witches' brooms formed by the dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium species) of western North America also
make excellent locations for roosting and nesting of the Northern Spotted Owls and the Marbled Murrelets. In Australia the
Diamond Firetails and Painted Honeyeaters are recorded as nesting in different mistletoes. This behavior is probably far more
widespread than currently recognized; more than 240 species of birds that nest in foliage in Australia have been recorded nesting in
mistletoe, representing more than 75% of the resident avifauna.[citation needed]
A study of mistletoe in junipers concluded that more juniper berries sprout in stands where mistletoe is present, as the mistletoe
attracts berry-eating birds which also eat juniper berries.[8] Such interactions lead to dramatic influences on diversity, as areas with
greater mistletoe densities support higher diversities of animals. Thus, rather than being a pest, mistletoe can have a positive effect
on biodiversity, providing high quality food and habitat for a broad range of animals in forests and woodlands worldwide .
Bacteria & Termite Gut
Worker termites undertake the labors of foraging, food storage, brood and nest maintenance, and some
defense duties in certain species. Workers are the main caste in the colony for the digestion of cellulose in
food and are the most likely to be found in infested wood. This is achieved in one of two ways. In all termite
families except the Termitidae, there are flagellate protists in the gut that assist in cellulose digestion.
However, in the Termitidae, which account for approximately 60% of all termite species, the flagellates have
been lost and this digestive role is taken up, in part, by a consortium of prokaryotic organisms. This simple
story, which has been in entomology textbooks for decades, is complicated by the finding that all studied
termites can produce their own cellulase enzymes, and therefore can digest wood in the absence of their
symbiotic microbes. Our knowledge of the relationships between the microbial and termite parts of their
digestion is still rudimentary. What is true in all termite species, however, is that the workers feed the other
members of the colony with substances derived from the digestion of plant material, either from the mouth or
anus. This process of feeding of one colony member by another is known as trophallaxis and is one of the keys
to the success of the group. It frees the parents from feeding all but the first generation of offspring, allowing
for the group to grow much larger and ensuring that the necessary gut bacteria are transferred from one
generation to another. Some termite species do not have a true worker caste, instead relying on nymphs that
perform the same work without moulting into a separate caste.
Termites are generally grouped according to their feeding behaviour. Thus, the commonly used general
groupings are subterranean, soil-feeding, drywood, dampwood, and grass-eating. Of these, subterraneans and
drywoods are primarily responsible for damage to human-made structures.
All termites eat cellulose in its various forms as plant fibre. Cellulose is a rich energy source (as demonstrated
by the amount of energy released when wood is burned), but remains difficult to digest. Termites rely
primarily upon symbiotic protozoa (metamonads) such as Trichonympha, and other microbes in their gut to
digest the cellulose for them and absorb the end products for their own use. Gut protozoa, such as
Trichonympha, in turn rely on symbiotic bacteria embedded on their surfaces to produce some of the
necessary digestive enzymes. This relationship is one of the finest examples of mutualism among animals.
Most so called "higher termites", especially in the Family Termitidae, can produce their own cellulase
enzymes. However, they still retain a variety of gut bacteria and primarily rely upon the bacteria. Due to
closely related bacterial species, it is strongly presumed that the termites' gut flora are descended from the
gut flora of the ancestral wood-eating cockroaches, like those of the genus Cryptocercus.
Ants & Acacia Tree
Acacia cornigera, commonly known as Bullhorn Acacia (family Fabaceae), is a swollen-thorn acacia native to
Mexico and Central America. The common name of "bullhorn" refers to the enlarged, hollowed-out, swollen
thorns (technically called stipular spines) that occur in pairs at the base of leaves, and resemble the horns of a
steer. In Yucatán (one region where the bullhorn acacia thrives) it is called "subín", in Panamá the locals call
them "cachito" (little horn). The tree grows to a height of 10 metres (33 ft).
Bullhorn Acacia is best known for its symbiotic relationship with a species of Pseudomyrmex ant
(Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) that lives in its hollowed-out thorns. Unlike other acacias, Bullhorn acacias are
deficient in the bitter alkaloids usually located in the leaves that defend against ravaging insects and animals.
Bullhorn acacia ants fulfill that role.
The ants act as a defense mechanism for the tree, protecting it against harmful insects, animals or humans
that may come into contact with it. The ants live in the hollowed-out thorns for which the tree is named. In
return, the tree supplies the ants with protein-lipid nodules called Beltian bodies from its leaflet tips and
carbohydrate-rich nectar from glands on its leaf stalk. These Beltian bodies have no known function other than
to provide food for the symbiotic ants. The aggressive ants release an alarm pheromone and rush out of their
thorn "barracks" in great numbers.
According to Daniel Janzen (Costa Rican Natural History, 1983), livestock can apparently smell the pheromone
and avoid these acacias day and night. Getting stung in the mouth and tongue is an effective deterrent to
browsing on the tender foliage. In addition to protecting A. conigera from leaf-cutting ants and other
unwanted herbivores, the ants also clear away invasive seedlings around the base of the tree that might
overgrow it and block out vital sunlight.
Honeyguide bird & Badger
Honeyguides, (family Indicatoridae), are near passerine bird species of the order Piciformes. They are also
known as indicator birds, or honey birds, although the latter term is also used more narrowly to refer to
species of the genus Prodotiscus. They have an Old World tropical distribution, with the greatest number of
species in Africa and two in Asia.
Honeyguides are noted and named for one or two species that will deliberately lead humans directly to bee
colonies, so that they can feast on the grubs that are left behind.
Most honeyguides are dull-colored, though a few have bright yellow in the plumage. All have light outer tail
feathers, which are white in all the African species.
They are among the few birds that feed regularly on wax—beeswax in most species, and presumably the waxy
secretions of scale insects in the genus Prodotiscus and to a lesser extent in Melignomon and the smaller
species of Indicator. They also feed on the larvae and on waxworms (caterpillars of Galleria mellonella) in bee
colonies, and on flying and crawling insects, spiders, and occasional fruits. Many species join mixed-species
feeding flocks.
Honeyguides are named for a remarkable habit seen in one or two species: they guide humans, and possibly
other large mammals (such as the Honey Badger) to bee colonies. Once the mammal opens the hive and takes
the honey, the bird feeds on the remaining wax and larvae. This behavior is well studied in the Greater
Honeyguide; some authorities (following Friedmann, 1955) state that it also occurs in the Scaly-throated
Honeyguide, while others disagree (Short and Horne, 2002). One researcher found use of honeyguides by the
Boran people of East Africa reduces the search time of people for honey by approximately two-thirds.[1]
Because of this benefit, the Boran use a specific loud whistle, known as the "Fuulido", when a search for honey
is about to begin. The "Fuulido" doubles the encounter rate with honeyguides. [2]
Although most members of the family are not known to recruit "followers" in their quest for wax, they are also
referred to as "honeyguides" by linguistic extrapolation.
The breeding behavior of eight species in Indicator and Prodotiscus is known. They are all brood parasites that
lay one egg in a nest of another species, laying eggs in series of about five during five to seven days. Most
favor hole-nesting species, often the related barbets and woodpeckers, but Prodotiscus parasitizes cup-nesters
such as white-eyes and warblers. Honeyguide nestlings have been known to physically eject their host's chicks
from the nest and they have hooks on their beaks with which they puncture the hosts' eggs or kill the
nestlings.[3]
Shrimp & Goby Fish
The gobies form the family Gobiidae, which is one of the largest families of fish, with more than 2,000 species
in more than 200 genera.[1] Most are relatively small, typically less than 10 cm (4 in) in length. Gobies include
some of the smallest vertebrates in the world, like species of the genera Trimmaton and Pandaka, which are
under 1 cm (3/8 in) long when fully grown. There are some large gobies, such as some species of the genera
Gobioides or Periophthalmodon, that can reach over 30 cm (1 ft) in length, but that is exceptional. Although
few are important as food for humans, they are of great significance as prey species for commercially
important fish like cod, haddock, sea bass, and flatfish. Several gobies are also of interest as aquarium fish,
such as the bumblebee gobies of the genus Brachygobius.
The most distinctive aspects of goby morphology are the fused pelvic fins that form a disc-shaped sucker. This
sucker is functionally analogous to the dorsal fin sucker possessed by the remoras or the pelvic fin sucker of
the lumpsuckers, but is anatomically distinct: these similarities are the product of convergent evolution.
Gobies can often be seen using the sucker to adhere to rocks and corals, and in aquariums they will happily
stick to glass walls of the tank, as well.
Gobies are primarily fish of shallow marine habitats including tide pools, coral reefs, and seagrass meadows;
they are also very numerous in brackish water and estuarine habitats, including the lower reaches of rivers,
mangrove swamps, and salt marshes. A small number of gobies (unknown exactly, but in the low hundreds)
are also fully adapted to freshwater environments. These include the Asian river gobies (Rhinogobius spp.), the
Australian desert goby (Chlamydogobius eremius), and the European freshwater goby Padogobius bonelli.
Most gobies feed on small invertebrates, although some of the larger species eat other fish, and a few eat
planktic algae.
Gobies in warmer waters reach adulthood in a matter of months, while those in cooler environments may take
up to two years. The total lifespan of gobies varies from a single year to up to ten years, again with the
temperate species generally living longer.[2]
A few species of goby are known to be able to change sex from female to male, although most do not do this.
In such species, most individuals are born female, and the male must expend considerable effort in guarding
the eggs of the multiple females with which he breeds.[2]
Some marine gobies live in symbiosis with a shrimp. Gobies sometimes form symbiotic relationships with
other species.[3] Some goby species live in symbiosis with burrowing shrimps. The shrimp maintains a burrow
in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby live. The shrimp has poor eyesight compared to the goby,
but if it sees or feels the goby suddenly swim into the burrow, it will follow. The goby and shrimp keep in
contact with each other, the shrimp using its antennae, and the goby flicking the shrimp with its tail when
alarmed. These gobies are thus sometimes known as watchmen or prawn gobies. Each party gains from this
relationship: the shrimp gets a warning of approaching danger, and the goby gets a safe home and a place to
lay its eggs. Only the alpha male and female reproduce, other fish in colony eat sparingly to resist being eaten
by the alpha male or female. This way only the largest and fittest are able to reproduce.
Another example of symbiosis is demonstrated by the neon gobies (Elacatinus spp.). These gobies are known
as "cleaner gobies", and remove parasites from the skin, fins, mouth, and gills of a wide variety of large fish.
The most remarkable aspect of this symbiosis is that many of the fish that visit the gobies' cleaning stations
would otherwise treat such small fish as food (for example, groupers and snapper[disambiguation needed]s). Again,
this is a relationship where both parties gain: the gobies get a continual supply of food as bigger fish visit their
cleaning stations, and the bigger fish leave the cleaning stations healthier than they were when they arrived.
Leafhopper & Meat Ant
Meat ants (Iridomyrmex purpureus), also known as meat-eater ants or gravel ants, are a species of ant
belonging to the Iridomyrmex genus. They can be found throughout Australia.
Meat ants live in underground nests of up to 64,000 ants.[1] Many nests may be connected together into a
supercolony that stretches up to 650 metres (0.4 miles). Nest holes are regularly arranged, and each leads to a
separate series of branched tunnels, which typically do not connect with the tunnels from other holes.
Satellite colonies are commonly formed by reproductively active daughter queens near the main nest, usually
around five to ten metres away, sometimes as much as 50 metres.
The use of different parts of the nests is largely dependant on environmental factors, for example excessive
shading of the main mound will stimulate the occupation of different parts of the nest or the expansion of
satellite colonies. Meat ants cover their nest mounds with gravel, sand, leaf petioles, twigs, seed capsules,
mollusk shells and other small items, which heat the nest quicker in the morning.[2]
Leafhoppers excrete sugary sap that is collected by meat ants, which protect this valuable food resource
Meat ants are omnivorous scavengers that get their name from their use, by farmers, to clean carcasses.[3]
Meat ants are diurnal, their foraging is dependent on ambient temperature. On hot days foraging is bimodal,
with all activity ceasing during the heat of the day.
Like other Iridomyrmex species, they engage in a mutualistic relationship with certain caterpillars and
butterflies of specific species which produce secretions that meat ants will feed on. In return, they protect the
caterpillars from predation. Honeydew collected from hemipterous insects is the main component of the diet
of most meat ant colonies. This is supplemented by scavenging for dead invertebrates.
Bobtail Squid & Bioluminescent Bacteria
Bobtail squid (order Sepiolida) are a group of cephalopods closely related to cuttlefish. Bobtail squid tend to
have a rounder mantle than cuttlefish and have no cuttlebone. They have eight suckered arms and two
tentacles and are generally quite small (typical male mantle length being between 1 and 8 cm).[1] Sepiolids live
in shallow coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean and some parts of the Indian Ocean as well as in shallow waters
on the west coast of the Cape Peninsula off South Africa. Like cuttlefish, they can swim by either using the fins
on their mantle or by jet propulsion. They are also known as dumpling squid (owing to their rounded mantle)
or stubby squid.
Bobtail squid have a symbiotic relationship with bioluminescent bacteria (Vibrio fischeri), which inhabit a
special light organ in the squid's mantle. The bacteria are fed a sugar and amino acid solution by the squid and
in return hide the squid's silhouette when viewed from below by matching the amount of light hitting the top
of the mantle. The organ contains filters which may alter the wavelength of luminescence closer to that of
downwelling moonlight and starlight; a lens with biochemical similarities to the squid's eye to diffuse the
bacterial luminescence; and a reflector which directs the light ventrally.[1]
Sepiolida are iteroparous and a female might lay several clutches, each of 1-400 eggs (dependent on species),
over her estimated one year long lifetime.[1] The eggs are covered with sand and left without parental care.[1]
Symbiosis with V. fischeri from the surrounding seawater is initiated immediately upon hatching, and the
bacteria's colonisation of the juvenile light-organ induces morphological changes in the squid that lead to
maturity.[1]
Corals & Zooxanthella
Zooxanthellae (plural, pronounced /ˌzoʊ.əzænˈθɛliː/) are flagellate protozoa that are golden-brown
intracellular endosymbionts of various marine animals and protozoa, especially anthozoans such as the
scleractinian corals and the tropical sea anemone, Aiptasia.
Zooxanthellae live in other protozoa (foraminiferans and radiolarians) and in some invertebrates. Most are
autotrophs and provide the host with energy in the form of translocated reduced carbon compounds, such as
glucose, glycerol, and amino acids, which are the products of photosynthesis .[2] Zooxanthellae can provide up
to 90% of a coral’s energy requirements.[3] In return, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with protection,
shelter, nutrients (mostly waste material containing nitrogen and phosphorus) and a constant supply of
carbon dioxide required for photosynthesis. Available nutrients, incident light, and expulsion of excess cells
limits their population.
Hermatypic (reef-building) corals largely depend on zooxanthellae, which limits that coral's growth to the
photic zone. The symbiotic relationship enables corals' success as reef-building organisms in tropical waters.
However, under high environmental stress, corals die after losing their zooxanthellae either by expulsion or
digestion resulting in coral bleaching.
The coral-zooxanthella relationship has traditionally been considered mutualistic -- that is, both partners
benefit from the arrangement. However, whilst the benefit for the coral is clear in terms of its enhanced
growth and calcification rate, the benefit for the algae has been called into question. [1]
Benefits cited for the algae include protection from predation and enhanced provision with chemicals such as
carbon dioxide and ammonium.[1] However, a number of conditions are thought to be necessary in order to
maintain a symbiotic relationship; on a very simple level, the symbiont's optimal reproductive strategy must
be to remain in the host. It is not clear that these conditions are met in the coral-zooxanthella instance;
reproduction of the zooxanthella is retarded by almost two orders of magnitude when it dwells inside a
coral.[1]
The relationship may be better thought of as a parasitic relationship, with the coral parasitic upon its enslaved
algae. The coral ensnares the algae by secreting a chemical attractant, before ingesting the algae and
incorporating it into its cells. They are then surrounded by a 'symbiosome' membrane and confined within the
host cell, separated from its cytoplasm. The host cell then emits chemical signals that prevent the zooxanthella
from reproducing.[1]
The presence of the alga results in the production of excess oxygen, which must be removed from the cell
quickly in order to avoid destructive oxidation. The corals have mechanisms whereby they can kill overoxygenated cells if necessary.[1
Sloth & Algae
One effect of the sloth’s languid pace of life is that it can’t be bothered to groom itself. This turns out to be
beneficial to several varieties of algae and mold that grow inside the sloth’s hollow hairs. The algae effectively
turn the sloth green, giving it excellent camouflage among the leaves. The camouflage is crucial to the sloth’s
survival, because its inability to move quickly makes it an easy target for the harpy eagle.
But the symbiosis doesn’t end there. The algae in the sloth’s fur provides food for a great many insects. (I
should point out, incidentally, that sloths have extremely long fur, making them appear much larger than they
really are.) Beetles have been found by the hundreds living on a single sloth. Another insect that calls the sloth
home is a type of moth—Bradipodicola hahneli (or “sloth moth” to most people). The sloth’s fur provides both
food and protection for the moth. Not only does it feed on the algae, but it also deposits its eggs in the sloth’s
droppings, where they pupate and hatch, and then fly off to look for another sloth to live on.
Sea Anemone & Clownfish
Clownfish live at the bottom of the sea in sheltered reefs or in shallow lagoons, usually in pairs They are found in
northwest Australia, southeast Asia, Japan and the Indo-Malaysian region. There are no clownfish in the Caribbean.
Scientific name: Amphiprion species Country: Worldwide tropical
The clownfish feeds on small invertebrates which otherwise potentially could harm the sea anemone, and the fecal
matter from the clownfish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. Clownfish are omnivorous: in the wild they eat live
food such as algae, plankton, mollusks, and crustacea; in captivity they can survive on live food, fish flakes, and fish
pellets. Algae accounts for around 20 to 25 percent of its diet in the wild (and should also account for its amount of
algae diet in captivity as well). The diet of the clownfish also consists of copepods, mysids, isopods, zooplankton and
undigested food from their host anemones.[citation needed]
Clownfish and certain damselfish are the only species of fishes that can avoid the potent poison of a sea anemone. There
are several theories about how this is accomplished:
The mucus coating of the fish may be based on sugars rather than proteins. This would mean that anemones fail to
recognize the fish as a potential food source and do not fire their nematocysts, or sting organelles.The coevolution of
certain species of clownfish with specific anemone host species and may have acquired an immunity to the nematocysts
and toxins of their host anemone. Experimentation has shown that Amphiprion percula may develop resistance to the
toxin from Heteractis magnifica, but it is not totally protected, since it was shown experimentally to die when its skin,
devoid of mucus, was exposed to the nematocysts of its host.[1]
Clownfish live in pairs inhabiting a single anemone. When the female dies, the dominant male changes sex and becomes
the female.[2] This life history strategy is known as sequential hermaphroditism. Because clownfish are all born as males,
they are protandrous hermaphrodites (pro=first; androus=male).[3] On the top of the hierarchy is the reproducing female
followed by the mating male. Below them are a bunch of non-mating males. But, if the female dies, the whole hierarchy
gets disrupted. The predominant male then morphs into a female and chooses a partner from the various non-mating
males. The largest fish in the group is a female and the second biggest is a male. All the other clownfish are neuter,
which means they have not fully developed functioning sex organs for either gender. If the female should die, the male
will change sex, while the biggest neuter clownfish will develop functioning male sex organs to replace the male.
In a group of clownfish, there is a strict hierarchy of dominance. The largest and most aggressive female is found at the
top. Only two clownfish, a male and a female, in a group reproduce through external fertilization. The clownfish are
hermaphrodites, meaning that they develop into males first, and when they mature, they become females. Also, as
mentioned earlier, more than one clownfish is able to live in a sea anemone. If the female clownfish is removed from the
group, such as by death, one of the largest and most dominant males would become a female. The rest of the remaining
males will move up a rank on the hierarchy.
Symbiosis describes the special relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. It has been suggested that the
activity of the clownfish results in greater water circulation around the sea anemone. In addition to providing food for
the clownfish, the sea anemone also provides safety due to its poison. The Clown Fish is dependent on the Sea Anemone
for its daily bread. After the Anemone paralyzes and eats a fish, the Clown fish will polish off the remaining uneaten bits
and pieces. In return, the Clown Fish helps to keep the Anemone free of dead tentacles by eating these. The Clown Fish
also helps the Anemone get food by using its bright coloration to lure unsuspecting fish into the vicinity of the Anemone.
This symbiotic relationship with the Anemone makes the Clown Fish one of the most curious creatures living in water.
Pompeii Worm & Thermophilic bacteria
In 1980 the French researchers Daniel Desbruyères and Lucien Laubier, just few years after the discovery of
the first hydrothermal vent system, identified one of the most heat-tolerant animals on Earth — Alvinella
pompejana, the Pompeii worm.[1] It was described as a deep-sea polychaete that resides in tubes near
hydrothermal vents, along the seafloor. In 1997 marine biologist Craig Cary and colleagues found the same
worms in a new section of Pacific Ocean, near Costa Rica, also attached to hydrothermal vents. The new
discovery and subsequent researches led to important progress in the scientific knowledge of these very
special worms.[2]
They can reach up to 5 inches in length and are pale gray with red tentacle-like gills on their heads. Perhaps
most fascinating, is that their tail end is often resting in temperatures as high as 176 °F (80 °C), while their
feather-like head sticks out of the tubes into water that is a much cooler 72 °F (22 °C). Scientists are
attempting to understand how Pompeii worms can withstand such extreme temperatures by studying the
bacteria that form a "fleece-like" covering on their backs. Living in a symbiotic relationship, the worms secrete
mucus from tiny glands on their backs to feed the bacteria, and in return they are protected by some degree
of insulation. The bacteria have also been discovered to be chemolithotrophic, contributing to the ecology of
the vent community. Recent researches suggest that the bacteria might play an important role in the feeding
of the worms.[3]
Attaching themselves to black smokers, the worms have been found to thrive at temperatures of up to 80 °C
(176 °F), making the Pompeii worm the most heat-tolerant complex animal known to science after the
tardigrades (or water bears), which are able to survive temperatures over 150 °C.
Reaching a length of up to 13 centimeters (5 inches), Pompeii worms are a pale grey with "hairy" backs; these
"hairs" are actually colonies of bacteria which are thought to afford the worm some degree of insulation.
Glands on the worm's back secrete a mucus which the bacteria feed on (see symbiosis). The Pompeii worms
form large aggregate colonies enclosed in delicate, paper-thin tubes. Pompeii worms have a feather-shaped
head. The plume of tentacle-like structures on it are gills, coloured red by haemoglobin.
While it is not yet known precisely how the Pompeii worm survives these severe vent conditions, scientists
suspect the answer lies in the fleece-like bacteria on the worm's back; this layer may be up to a centimetre
thick. The bacteria may possess special proteins, "eurythermal enzymes", providing the bacteria—and by
extension the worms—protection from a wide range of temperatures. It is plausible that the bacteria also
provide thermal insulation. Studies are hampered by the difficulties of sampling; to date, Pompeii worms have
not survived decompression.
Study of the Pompeii worm's seemingly life-sustaining bacteria could lead to significant advances in the
biochemical, pharmaceutical, textile, paper and detergent industries.
Pompeii worms simultaneously keep their heads (including the gills) in much cooler water while their tails are
exposed to hot water (see below). Since their internal temperature has yet to be measured, it is plausible that
a Pompeii worm survives exposure to hot water by dissipating heat through its head to keep its internal
temperature within the realm previously known to be compatible with animal survival.
Thought to subsist on vent microbes, the Pompeii worm pokes its head out of its tube home to feed and
breathe. It is the posterior end that is exposed to extreme temperatures; the anterior end stays at a much
more comfortable 22 °C (72 °F)
Egyptian Plover & Crocodile
The Egyptian Plover, Pluvianus aegyptius, is a wader, the only member of the genus Pluvianus. Formerly
placed in the pratincole and courser family, Glareolidae, it is now regarded as the sole member of its own
monotypic family Pluvianidae.
It is also sometimes referred to as the Crocodile Bird because it is famous for its symbiotic relationship with
crocodiles (National Geographic 1986). According to a story dating to Herodotus, the crocodiles lie on the
shore with their mouths open, and the plovers fly into the crocodiles' mouths so as to feed on bits of decaying
meat that are lodged between the crocodiles' teeth. The crocodiles do not eat the plovers, as the plovers are
providing the crocodiles with greatly-needed dentistry. Two prominent ornithologists have supported this
story anecdotally,[who?] but the behaviour has never been authenticated (Richford and Mead 2003).
The Egyptian Plover is a localised resident in tropical sub-Saharan Africa. It breeds on sandbars in large rivers.
Its two or three eggs are not incubated, but are buried in warm sand, temperature control being achieved by
the adult sitting on the eggs with a water-soaked belly to cool them. If the adult leaves the nest, it smooths
sand over the eggs, though if it is frightened the job may be hasty.
The chicks are precocial, and can run as soon as they are hatched and feed themselves shortly afterwards. The
adults cool the chicks in the same way as with the eggs. The chicks may drink water from the adult's belly
feathers. The adults bury the chicks in the sand temporarily if danger threatens.
Egyptian Plover is a striking and unmistakable species. The 19-21 cm long adult has a black crown, back, eyemask and breast band. The rest of the head is white. The remaining upperpart plumage is blue-grey, and the
underparts are orange. The longish legs are blue-grey.
In flight, it is even more spectacular, with the black crown and back contrasting with the grey of the
upperparts and wings. The flight feathers are brilliant white crossed by a black bar. From below, the flying bird
is entirely white, apart from the orange belly and black wing bar. After landing, members of a pair greet each
other by raising their wings in an elaborate ceremony that shows off the black and white markings. The sexes
are similar, but juveniles are duller and the black marking are intermixed with brown.
This usually very tame bird is found in pairs or small groups near water. It feeds by pecking for insects. The call
is a high-pitched krrr-krrr-krrr.
Pygmy Seahorse & Seafan
A gorgonian, also known as sea whip or sea fan, is an order of sessile colonial cnidarian found throughout the
oceans of the world, especially in the tropics and subtropics. Gorgonians are similar to the sea pen, another
soft coral. Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect, flattened, branching, and reminiscent
of a fan. Others may be whiplike, bushy, or even encrusting.[1] A colony can be several feet high and across but
only a few inches thick. They may be brightly coloured, often purple, red, or yellow. Photosynthetic gorgonians
can be successfully kept in captive reef aquariums.[2]
The structure of a gorgonian colony varies. The suborder Holaxonia skeletons are formed from a flexible,
horny substance called gorgonin. The suborder Scleraxonia variety of gorgonians are supported by a skeleton
of tightly grouped calcareous spicules. There are also species which encrust like coral.[3] Most of holaxonia and
sclerazonia, however, do not attach themselves to a hard substrate. Instead, they anchor themselves in mud
or sand.
Research has shown that measurements of the gorgonin and calcite within several long-lived species of
gorgonians can be useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography, as the skeletal growth rate and
composition of these species is highly correlated with seasonal and climatic variation.[4][5][6]
Each gorgonian polyp has eight tentacles which catch plankton and particulate matter that is consumed. This
process, called filter feeding, is facilitated when the "fan" is oriented across the prevailing current to maximise
water flow to the gorgonian and hence food supply.
Some gorgonians contain algae, or zooxanthellae. This symbiotic relationship assists in giving the gorgonian
nutrition via photosynthesis. Gorgonians possessing zooxanthellae are usually characterized by brownish
polyps. Those without zooxanthellae usually have more brightly colored polyps. Lacking this additional
nutrition, they are more dependent on the nutrition they derive from filter feeding.[citation needed]
Gorgonians are found primarily in shallow waters, though some have been found at depths of several
thousand feet.[1][3] The size, shape, and appearance of the gorgonians are highly correlated with their location.
The more fan-shaped and flexible gorgonians tend to populate shallower areas with strong currents, while the
taller, thinner, and stiffer gorgonians can be found in deeper, calmer waters. [1]
Other fauna, such as hydrozoa, bryozoa, and brittle stars, are known to dwell within the branches of gorgonian
colonies.[7] The Pygmy seahorse not only makes certain species of gorgonians its home, but closely resembles
its host and is thus well camoflauged.[8]
Gorgonians are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, alongside the orders Alcyonacea (soft corals)
and Pennatulacea (sea pens). There are about 500 different species of gorgonians found in the oceans of the
world, primarily in the shallow waters of the Atlantic near Florida, Bermuda, and the West Indies.[9]
Brownheaded Cowbird and songbirds
The Brown-Headed Cowbirds (above) are nest parasites. They originally followed the bison on the Great
Plains, feeding on insects kicked up by the large herds. Since the bison themselves migrated, following the
melting snows and eating the fresh spring grass, the cowbirds had to move as well. This presented a problem,
as it's hard to incubate eggs on the move. The solution? Lay the eggs in other birds' nests, and trick the other
birds into raising your young. The cowbirds hatch out first, push the other eggs out of the nest, and the nestbuilders (often much smaller than the rapidly growing cowbird) end up feeding it instead of their own young.
Even though the other birds may pattern their eggs the cowbirds are up to the challenge. Cowbirds hesitate
entering forests, but roads, farms, powerlines and other human intrusions give them a pathway deep into the
woods where they are free to parasitize the nests of birds which until the arrival of humans didn't have to
worry about the cowbirds. Some of these bird species are on the verge of extinction as a result.
Figs and Fig wasps
Figs and their pollen carriers, fig-wasps have become very popular at least among biologists. Their
relationship, in which we can see another extremely complicated relationship in nature, contains one of the
hidden keys needed for solving the mysteries of co-evolution and the ecosystem.
This mutual relationship is believed to have begun about 90 million years ago, and approximately 750
varieties of figs (Ficus) now thrive. Amazingly, as a new kind of fig evolves, a fig-wasp corresponding to that
new kind of fig appears. But a complicated co-evolution like this can be explained by Darwin's theory of
evolution, just as other happenings in nature can. His theory suggests that every creature evolves to leave the
largest number of descendants in the next generation.
Plants, which have animals carry their pollen, offer the carriers a reward such as honey or provide a
carrier's larva with a place to grow. Cabbage leaves rich in nutrition didn't evolve to be a salad, but to be host
food for larva of butterflies that carry cabbage pollen. Unfortunately, such larva becomes a horticulturist's
enemies.
The relationship of fig and fig-wasps in which an insect carries pollen and its larva eats the fruit is also seen
in the cycad group and the yucca plant, a plant growing in arid areas in America. In this relationship, a
contradictory relationship exists; that is, more pollen carriers are active and more eggs are laid, and therefore
more seeds are eaten even though the carriers help the plant bear fruit.
Fig flowers, which have an egg of a fig-wasp become a gall (an insect's knot), food for larva, and fig flowers
which don't have an egg become seeds if they are pollinated. The number of female fig-wasps that develops
into adults and fly out of the fig plant carrying pollen represent the number of carried pollen; that is, the
adaptation rate of the male fig (the rate used to measure the size of the population of a certain genetic model
in the next generation). The number of seeds indicates the adaptation rate of a female fig. On the other hand,
to become a host plant for male fig-wasps is fruitless for figs because male fig-wasps don't have wings and
can't carry pollen. Therefore, figs don't want to have too many male fig-wasps. Ideally, figs want to produce
about the same number of female fig-wasps and seeds to create a balance between the number of female figwasps and fruit for themselves. On the other hand, fig-wasps want to lay as many eggs as possible to obtain
the greatest possible benefit. Both the figs and fig-wasps co-exist by maintaining this subtly balanced
relationship.
If the figs have a pollen carrier in all their flowers, no seeds will be left for the next generation. On the
contrary, if figs reject pollen carriers too often, there won't be enough pollen carried out for pollination. It is
very important for them both to maintain this relationship. Some figs are heterosexual so that male figs raise
fig-wasps to carry pollen and female figs fruit seeds. Fig-wasps can't mate in the female fig syconium, but the
wasps can't distinguish a male syconium from a female syconium. And the wasps that unfortunately come into
a female syconium only help the fig pollinate.
Throughout the world figs grow most abundantly in the forest of Ranbil on Borneo Island in Malaysia, and
about 80 varieties of the figs can be observed there. While we were studying there in 1998, there was a
drought, and no fig flowers bloomed during that time. On that occasion, we made an interesting observation
that fig-wasps came back right away as flowers of the homosexual figs revived, but the wasps took two to
three years to come back to the flowers of the heterosexual figs. Who knows when a change of weather in the
tropical rain forest will create a new condition and give us clues to solve this mystery? I can't take my eyes off
the Ranbil forest.
Spanish Moss & Trees
By John Brennan, eHow Contributor
updated: September 12, 2010
Spanish moss is an epiphyte, like the plants on this rainforest tree.rainforest tree laden with epiphytes, vines
and lianas image by Lars Lachmann from The relationship between Spanish moss and the trees it colonizes is
an example of symbiosis.
Types
1. Spanish moss is a type of epiphyte, a plant that lives on another. Epiphytes are distinct from parasitic
plants in that they make their own food, so they do not harm the host tree; the host tree neither gains
nor loses by their presence. Ecologists call this kind of relationship commensalism.
Features
2. The Spanish moss plant does not have any roots; it wraps itself around the branches of the tree and
collects water through special scale-like structures on its leaves. Its favorite hosts are oak and cypress,
although it sometimes grows on other trees as well.
Considerations
3. Like other green plants, Spanish moss is a photosynthesizer. Although it is not a parasite, it can on
occasion harm the host tree, especially if the plant grows to the point where it blocks light from
reaching some of the tree's leaves or becomes so heavy the branch breaks beneath its weight.
Occasional trimming should be sufficient to avoid both of these problems.
Spanish moss grows from long, horizontal tree branches. Live oak trees, named for their often centennial
lifespans, are the most iconic trees wearing the shimmering growth because of their height and outward
spread.
Relationship
Spanish moss is not a parasite. Moss clings to the tree for support, but it is not directly attached to the tree in
a give-and-take relationship: The moss receives no nourishment from the tree.
Misconceptions
Rather than a moss growth, Spanish moss is a actually an epiphyte. Spanish moss absorbs water and food from
the air directly though its stems and leaves. Some orchids and ferns share characteristics with Spanish moss:
The growth spreads on the tree limbs as a place to live, not as a place to feed.
Geography
The silvery bearded moss grows on trees in the southeastern U.S. Wherever a climate is warm with high
average humidity, the moss will grow and drape the largest oaks in parks.
Fun Fact
home for Spanish moss to hang. Tourists travel to see Georgia's oak trees wearing the iconic moss.
Yucca Moth & Yucca Plants
By Erin Maurer, eHow Contributor
updated: December 5, 2010
The yucca flower (Yucca glauca) is a member of the lily family and the state flower of New Mexico. The Yucca
genus includes around 40 species, mainly from southwestern United States and Mexico. The yucca plant has a
unique pollination system using the yucca moth. Yucca flowers provide shelter for the yucca moth. The yucca
moth and the yucca plant depend on each other for survival. They are native to semi-arid climates and are
both commonly found in the Southwestern United States.
Yucca Plant Features
The yucca plant produces creamy flowers. The yucca plant has long, fibrous stalks at the tips of which its pale
cream-colored flowers bloom during late spring and early summer. In the Mexican species (Y. filifera), the
flower clusters are up to 6 feet long and are pendant rather than stiff. The plant has wide leaves with sharp
edges at its base. Yucca plants vary in height; some can reach the height of a small tree.
Yucca Moth Function
The yucca flower is pollinated by the yucca moth inside the flower stigma. The yucca moth is genetically
programmed to insert a small ball of pollen into the cup-shaped stigma of each flower. Pollination will not take
place unless a huge amount of pollen is stuffed into the stigmatic space. The pollination process is crucial to
the survival of both the plant and the moth.
Preparation
The yucca moth pollinates the yucca flower. Each spring, male and female yucca moths emerge from their
underground homes, crawl to the surface and fly to the closest yucca plants. The pregnant female yucca moth
collects pollen grains within the yucca flowers and assembles them into a pollen mass. She then crawls into a
flower and lays a single egg into the ovule chamber.
Pollination Method
The pregnant yucca moth inserts her egg into the ovary of the yucca flower. After inserting her egg into the
yucca flower ovary, the female moth (who is still carrying the pollen mass) climbs to the top of the ovary and
puts the pollen into the flower stigma by moving her palpi (sensory organs) back and forth above it. This
pollinates the flower in which she has inserted her egg. The germination of the pollen sends many spermbearing tubes inside the ovary which fertilizes hundreds of immature seeds.
Benefits
The relationship between the yucca flower and yucca moth is equally crucial to both.
Apart from ensuring the perpetuity of the yucca flower, the relationship is equally vital to the yucca moth. The
moth larva hatches within the developing ovary of the flower and starts feeding on the maturing seeds. This is
an important stage in the life cycle of the moth as it later develops from the larva; in the fall the larva comes
out of the capsule and lowers itself to the ground where it burrows into the soil and assembles a cocoon. It
hibernates here over winter and emerges in the spring as an adult moth, in sync with the blooming of the
yucca flower.
Parasites & Lice in Humans
By Stephany Seipel, eHow Contributor
updated: August 11, 2010
Humans are susceptible to a wide number of parasitic infections. Some affect the skin, while others enter the
body. Many parasites are relatively harmless, but others can cause serious illness or death.
Lice
Lice are small parasites that reproduce and live on hairy areas of the body, frequently the scalp or pubic
region, and feed off the host's blood. Lice infestation is uncomfortable and can lead to itching and skin
irritation. Some species can cause typhoid fever. Lice spread easily when people are in close physical contact
with each other.
Head lice are small parasites that live on human heads. They feed off tiny amounts of blood from the scalp.
Lice attach their eggs to individual hair shafts, where they can ride safely until it is time to hatch. Then they
begin the growth cycle all over again. Removal is tedious and time consuming. Prevention is a much simpler
process.
1. Teach avoidance. Lice crawl and very slowly at that! They do not jump from one person to the next. Headto-head contact is the quickest way to get head lice from an infected person. Kids hug. They lean in close to
tell secrets. They put their heads together to have conversations in loud hallways and on noisy buses. The first
step in prevention is teaching children to keep their heads away from other people. Lice cannot crawl from
one head to the next if the heads never touch.
2. Keep clothing separated. Head lice can survive away from a human host for a couple of days. Hats, scarves,
jackets and earmuffs piled together on a bus seat can transmit lice from one child to the next. Jackets hanging
together in a common public area or tossed into a pile on the playground give lice the opportunity to relocate.
Tell your child to keep all outerwear away from 'community' piles.
3. Understand some things are not for sharing. Hats, scarves, brushes and combs should never be shared.
Children sometimes think it is safe if they only share these items with a 'best' friend. They must be taught lice
are not particular about relationships.
4. Take precautions at sleepovers. Children must each use their own sleeping bag and pillow. Lice can often
be found in an infected child's bed. Two heads sharing a pillow can be a prime opportunity for lice to travel.
When your child returns from a sleepover, place the sleeping bag and pillow into the dryer for at least 30
minutes. If a stray louse has climbed aboard, the heat will kill it.
5. Create your own lice-busting spray! Buy tea tree oil, an essential oil commonly found in pharmacies. Add
ten drops for every two ounces of water in a spray bottle. Spray liberally on your child's head daily. Hats and
other outerwear can also be sprayed as well as bedding, furniture and car upholstery. Head lice are highly
offended by tea tree oil, and it makes an excellent preventative. If the medicinal smell bothers your child, put
in a few drops of lavender or cinnamon oil. In addition, add ten drops of tea tree oil to every bottle of
shampoo, conditioner and hair spray in the bathroom. Shake well before using
Tapeworms & Mammals
Tapeworms are a parasitic flatworm that infects almost all species of mammals. Tapeworms are generally transmitted
when a host animal ingests an egg packet either via the environment or through an intermediate host. Cestoda
(Cestoidea) is the name given to a class of parasitic flatworms, commonly called tapeworms, of the phylum
Platyhelminthes. Its members live in the digestive tract of vertebrates as adults, and often in the bodies of various
animals as juveniles. Over a thousand species have been described, and all vertebrate species can be parasitised by at
least one species of tapeworm. Several species parasitize humans after being consumed in underprepared meat such as
pork, beef, fish, in food prepared in conditions of poor hygiene.
Companion Animals
1. Dogs and cats get tapeworms by eating infected fleas. Fleas are the intermediate host of the tapeworm species
that infects them.
Humans
2. Humans get tapeworms by accidental ingestion. This usually occurs in children who tend to explore their
environments and often subsequently place their fingers in their mouths.
Other Species
3. Other species of animals will ingest the eggs either by grazing and accidental ingestion, or by consuming an
intermediate host species.
Symptoms
4. Symptoms of tapeworm infection are not common but can include lethargy, weight loss and visible egg packets
around the rectum or in feces.
Treatment
5. Treatment for tapeworm infection includes the oral administration of deworming medication.
A tapeworm infection can be deadly. Incidents of tapeworms in humans are rare. Nevertheless, preventive practices are
worth implementing in communities in order to reduce rates of infection from tapeworms.
Infected Meat
1. Consumption of insufficiently cooked meat, pork or fish is a cause tapeworms in humans. David J. Zimmerman,
author of Killer germs: Microbes and Diseases that Threaten Humanity, remarks that "there is even danger in
preparing gefilte fish, for cooks have a tendency to taste-test the partially cooked fish as it simmers (See
Reference 1)."
Contaminated Soil
2. Tapeworm larvae can survive in an animal's feces, which may contaminate soil where fruits and vegetables are
grown and harvested for human consumption.
Person-to-Person
3. Tapeworm in people transmits from person-to-person, such as when a Dwarf Tapeworm Infection spreads
tapeworm eggs through feces.
Flea Transmission
4. Dr. Dan Wasmund of Woodside Veterinary Hospital of Devola, Ohio counsels readers that if children accidentally
swallow fleas carried by a household pet, infections with the Dipylidium species of tapeworm can occur (See
Reference 2).
Voluntary Injestion
5. A "tapeworm diet" helps people shed unwanted pounds by ingesting a tapeworm parasite. Once inside a willing
host, the tapeworm grows and absorbs calories from her body (See Reference 3).
Ants & Aphids on Apple Trees
By Teo Spengler, eHow Contributor
updated: June 4, 2010
When you see ants climbing your apple tree, it is time to check for aphids. The ants go marching one by one-right up the apple tree. They are not headed up to polish off your apples; their mission is to take care of the
apple aphids. Just as you guard the apple tree to protect your crop, the ants manage the aphids to ensure a
supply of honeydew. But as the aphid population increases, so do problems for the apple tree.
Ants
Ants are most attracted to sugary food.
With more than 12,000 ant species in the world, they are a common pest inside and out. Ants nest in the
ground but often enter homes to look for sugary food. Outdoors, ants climb trees to devour the sweet
honeydew liquid produced by mealybugs, aphids and soft scales. This excrement contains nutrients such as
sugar.
Apple Aphids
It is rare to see an aphid alone.
Aphids are small, pear-shaped insects with long, slender mouth parts that extract the juices from plants. Three
kinds of aphids infest apple trees in western North America: green, rosy and woolly apple aphids. All three
attack leaves and new shoots, while the woolly apple aphid also attacks the roots.
Damage to Apple Trees
Although ants occasionally eat rotting apples, they do not attack healthy fruit.
When apple aphids feed, the apple tree leaves curl and turn yellow, the tree roots develop galls, and
honeydew falls on the fruit and discolors it. Still, a few aphids will not damage a mature apple tree, and aphids
have many natural predators, including the ladybug, that keep the apple aphid population under control.
Ants and Aphids
Ants not only climb the apple tree to eat the honeydew excreted by the apple aphids, they also farm the
aphids to ensure and increase the supply of honeydew. They stroke the aphids with their antennae to
stimulate honeydew production, herd them to better locations on the tree, and protect them from natural
predators.
Effects
Absent predators, an aphid population increases rapidly. In a week, an adult aphid can produce up to 80
nymphs, which will develop into reproducing adults in a fortnight. When ants protect apple aphids from
predators, the aphid population spikes and the danger to the apple tree becomes appreciable. Mature trees
can lose fruit, and young trees can be stunted and even die.
Pinworms and Humans
By Leigh Walker, eHow Contributor
A pinworm, also known as a threadworm, is a white, small, thin roundworm that can live in the human colon and
rectum. A pinworm is about as long as a piece of rice or a staple. Female pinworms travel through the intestine through
the anus while the infected person sleeps. Once there, they deposit their eggs. Pinworms can affect people of all
socioeconomic levels and ages and is one of the most common types of worm infection. Pinworms are tiny parasitic
worms that live in your large intestine. While they do not pose a significant health problem, they are a nuisance.
Symptoms include anal itching, sleeplessness, irritability, and anal irritation due to scratching.
Symptoms
1. The symptoms of pinworms are generally mild and some individuals may have no symptoms. However, most
people that are infected with pinworms will feel restless and have difficulty sleeping due to itching around the
anus. This itching occurs when female pinworms are out and actively laying their eggs.
Risk Factors
2. Routine hand washing can help prevent becoming infected with pinworms. The people who are most often
susceptible to pinworms are preschool and school-aged children. People who are in institutions are also at a
higher risk, as are household members of people who have pinworms. Individuals who care for people who have
pinworms are also at risk.
Acquired/Spread
3. Pinworm eggs have to be orally ingested for a person to become infected. Pinworms are spread unknowingly by
the transfer of eggs from the anus to the mouth by the hand. Infections can also occur if an individual has
contact with contaminated bedding, food, clothing or other articles. Since pinworm eggs are so small, they can
also become airborne and be ingested through breathing.
Diagnosis
4. Diagnosis is made by identifying the eggs or the worms. Worms can most commonly be seen around the anus
and on the pajamas and underclothes roughly two to three hours after the person goes to sleep. Worms can be
collected by pressing a piece of clear tape to the anal area. The tape test can also be effectively done in the
morning prior to urination, bowel movements or showering. The tape can be examined under a microscope for
eggs, however, pinworms can generally be seen with the naked eye. Pinworms are rarely found in stool samples.
Treatment
5. Pinworms can be treated with medications---both prescription and over the counter. Treatment usually involves
two doses of medication. The first dose is taken as soon as possible. The second dose is taken two weeks after
the first dose. It's advised that everyone in the household, or people who are caretakers of an individual who
has a pinworm infection, also receive treatment at the same time. Good hygiene, routine hand washing, and
cleaning beneath the nails can prevent re-infection.
Varroa destructor & honeybee
Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera. The disease
caused by the mites is called varroatosis.
Varroa destructor can only replicate in a honey bee colony. It attaches at the body of the bee and weakens the bee by
sucking hemolymph. In this process RNA viruses such as the deformed wing virus (DWV) spreads to bees. A significant
mite infestation will lead to the death of a honey bee colony, usually in the late autumn through early spring. The Varroa
mite is the parasite with the most pronounced economic impact on the beekeeping industry. It may be a contributing
factor to colony collapse disorder (CCD), as research shows it is the main factor for collapsed colonies in Ontario,
Canada.
The adult mite is reddish-brown in color; has a flat, button shape; is 1–1.8 mm long and 1.5–2 mm wide; and has eight
legs.
Mites reproduce on a 10-day cycle. The female mite enters a honey bee brood cell. As soon as the cell is capped, the
Varroa mite lays eggs on the larva which hatch into several females and typically one male. The young mites hatch in
about the same time as the young bee develops and leave the cell with the host. When the young bee emerges from the
cell after pupation the Varroa mites also leave and spread to other bees and larvae. The mite preferentially infests drone
cells.
The adults suck the "blood" of adult honey bees for sustenance, leaving open wounds. The compromised adult bees are
more prone to infections. With the exception of some resistance in the Russian strains and Varroa sensitive hygiene
(VSH) developed by the USDA, the European Apis mellifera bees are almost completely defenseless against these
parasites (Russian honey bees are one third to one half less susceptible to mite reproduction).[2]
The model for the population dynamics is exponential growth when bee brood are available and exponential decline
when no brood is available. In 12 weeks the number of mites in a Western honey bee hive can multiply by (roughly) 12.
High mite populations in the autumn can cause a crisis when drone rearing ceases and the mites switch to worker
larvae, causing a quick population crash and often hive death.
Varroa mites have been found on flower feeding insects such as the bumblebee Bombus pennsylvanicus, the scarab
beetle Phanaeus vindex and the flower-fly Palpada vinetorum.[3] Although the Varroa mite cannot reproduce on these
insects, its presence on them may be a means by which it spreads short distances (phoresy).
As of the second half of 2010, Australia was thought to be free of the mite.[7] In early 2010, an isolated sub-species of
bee was discovered in Kufra (south-eastern Libya) that appears to be free of the mite.[8]
Varroa destructor was, until recently, thought to be a closely related mite species called Varroa jacobsoni. Both species
parasitize the Asian honey bee, Apis cerana. However, the species originally described as V. jacobsoni by Anthonie
Cornelis Oudemans in 1904 is not the same species that also attacks Apis mellifera. The jump to mellifera probably first
took place in the Philippines in the early 1960s where imported Apis mellifera came into close contact with infected Apis
cerana. Up until 2000, scientists had not identified Varroa destructor as a separate species. This late identification in
2000 by Anderson and Trueman corrected some previous confusion and mislabeling in the scientific literature.[9]
Varroa mites can be treated with commercially available miticides. Miticides must be applied carefully to minimize the
contamination of honey that might be consumed by humans. Proper use of miticides also slows the development of
resistance of the mites.
Oxpecker & Mammal
The oxpeckers are two species of bird which make up the family Buphagidae. Some ornithologists regard them
as a subfamily Buphaginae within the starling family Sturnidae but they appear to be quite distinct.[1]
Oxpeckers are endemic to the savanna of Sub-Saharan Africa. Both the English and scientific names arise from
their habit of perching on large mammals (both wild and domesticated) such as cattle or rhinoceroses, and
eating ticks, botfly larvae, and other parasites.
According to the more recent studies of Muscicapoidea phylogeny,[1][2] the oxpeckers are an ancient line
related to Mimidae (mockingbirds and thrashers) and starlings but not particularly close to either. Considering
the known biogeography of these groups, the most plausible explanation seems that the oxpecker lineage
originated in Eastern or Southeastern Asia like the other two.[1] This would make the two species of Buphagus
something like living fossils, and elegantly demonstrates that such remnants of past evolution can possess
striking and unique autapomorphic adaptations.
The oxpeckers are endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, where they occur in most open habitats. They are absent
from the driest deserts and the rainforests. Their distribution is restricted by the presence of their preferred
prey, specific species of ticks, and the animal hosts of those ticks. Over much of East Africa the two species are
sympatric (have overlapping distribution) and may even occur on the same host animal. The nature of the
interactions between the two species is unknown.
Oxpeckers feed exclusively on the backs of large mammals. Certain species are seemingly preferred, whereas
others, like the Lichtenstein's hartebeest or Topi are generally avoided. Smaller antelope such as lechwe,
duikers and reedbuck are also avoided, the smallest regularly used species is the Impala, probably because of
the heavy tick load and social nature of that species. In many parts of their range they now feed on cattle, but
avoid camels. They feed on ectoparasites, particularly ticks, as well as insects infecting wounds and the flesh
and blood of some wounds as well.[3]
Oxpecker/mammal interactions are the subject of some debate and ongoing research. They were originally
thought to be an example of mutualism, but recent evidence suggests that oxpeckers may be parasites
instead.[4] Oxpeckers do eat ticks, but often the ticks that have already fed on the ungulate host and there has
been no proven statistically significant link between oxpecker presence and reduced ectoparasite load .[4]
However one study of impalas found that impalas which were used by oxpeckers spent less time grooming
themselves suggesting a reduction in parasite load. Oxpeckers have been observed to open new wounds and
enhance existing ones in order to drink the blood of their perches .[5] Oxpeckers also feed on the earwax and
dandruffs of mammals, although less is known about the benefits of this to the mammal, it is suspected that
this is also a parasitic behaviour .[4] Some oxpecker hosts are intolerant of their presence.[5] Elephants and
some antelope will actively dislodge the oxpeckers when they land. Other species tolerate oxpeckers while
they search for ticks on the face, what one author described as "appears ... to be an uncomfortable and
invasive process.[3]
Botfly & Mammal/Deer
A botfly is a fly in the family Oestridae. It is one of several families of hairy flies whose larvae live as parasites
within the bodies of mammals. There are approximately 150 known species worldwide.[1]
Dermatobia hominis, the human botfly, is the only species of botfly known to use humans as the host to its
larvae.
Botflies deposit eggs on a host, or sometimes use an intermediate vector such as the common housefly,
mosquitoes and even a species of tick (see Dermatobia hominis). The smaller fly is firmly held by the botfly
female and rotated to a position where the botfly attaches some 30 eggs to the body under the wings. Larvae
from these eggs, stimulated by the warmth and proximity of a large mammal host, drop onto its skin and
burrow underneath.[2] Intermediate vectors are often used since a number of animal hosts recognise the
approach of a botfly and flee.[3]
Eggs are deposited on animal skin directly, or the larvae hatch and drop from the eggs attached to the
intermediate vector: the body heat of the host animal induces hatching upon contact or immediate proximity.
Some forms of botfly also occur in the digestive tract after ingestion by licking.
Myiasis can be caused by larvae burrowing into the skin (or tissue lining) of the host animal. Mature larvae
drop from the host and complete the pupal stage in soil. They do not kill the host animal, and thus are true
parasites (though some species of rodent-infesting botflies do consume the host's testes/ovaries).
The equine bot fly presents seasonal difficulties to equestrian caretakers, as it lays eggs on the insides of
horse's front legs, on the cannon bone and knees, and sometimes on the throat or nose, depending on the
species of bot fly. These eggs, which look like small, yellow drops of paint, must be carefully removed during
the laying season (late summer and early fall) to prevent infestation in the horse. When a horse rubs its nose
on its legs, the eggs are transferred to the mouth, and from there to the intestines, where the larvae grow and
attach themselves to the stomach's lining or they pass into the small intestine and attach there. The
attachment of the larvae to the tissue produces a mild irritation which results in erosions and ulcerations at
this site.[4] Removal of the eggs (which adhere to the host's hair) is difficult, since the bone and tendons are
directly under the skin on the cannon bones: eggs must be removed with a sharp knife (often a razor blade) or
rough sand paper, and caught before they reach the ground. The larvae remain attached and develop for 10–
12 months before they are passed out in the faeces. Occasionally horse owners will report seeing the bot fly
larvae in horse manure. These larvae are cylindrical in shape and are reddish orange in color. In 1–2 months
adult bot flies will emerge from the developing larvae and the cycle will repeat.[4] Bots can be controlled with
several types of dewormers, including dichlorvos, ivermectin and trichlorfon.
In cattle, the lesions caused by these flies can become infected by Mannheimia granulomatis, a bacterium that
causes lechiguana, characterized by rapid growing, hard lumps beneath the skin of the animal. Without
antibiotics an affected animal will die within 3–11 months.[5][6]
Certain type of botfly occasionally use humans as the host to its larvae. The larva, because of their spines, can
pose an extremely painful sub-epidermal condition. Removal processes include placing raw meat on to the
area, which in theory will coax the larva out.[citation needed] Another option is to use the tree sap of the
matatorsalo, found in Costa Rica, which will kill the larva, yet leave its body in the skin. Additionally, one can
attempt to seal the breathing hole of the larva with nail polish or vaseline and then, after a day, squeeze out
the suffocated, dead larva.[7][8] Use of adhesive tape can work, but carries additional risk of infection because
portions of the larva's breathing tube can be broken off by the tape and made difficult to remove.
Hermit Crabs and Sea Anemones
Hermit crabs and sea anemones often work together in a symbiotic relationship to provide each other with
survival support in the ocean. The creatures can work together for food and protection, but it's important to
take note of the characteristics of the creatures to understand why they can help one another.
Sea Anemones

Sea anemones often stay in one place in the ocean and attach themselves to a surface using a basal
disc. Sea anemones are generally between 5 cm and 17 cm long, are very colorful and have the
appearance of ocean flowers. The diet of sea anemones consists of shrimp , plankton, fish, isopods
and amphipods. Sea anemones are related to jellyfish and corals.
Hermit Crabs

Hermit crabs protect their bodies with empty seashells. Hermit crabs move to larger shells to
accommodate their bodies as they grow larger. Hermit crabs can range in size from 2 cm to 100 cm.
Hermit crabs are usually found in groups and usually live in colonies of 100 crabs or more. The diet of
hermit crabs consists of what they scavenge from the ocean floor.
Comparison

Both hermit crabs and sea anemones are ocean creatures, but the creatures have different biological
classifications. Hermit crabs are members of the Crustacea subphylum and the Malacostraca class; sea
anemones are part of the Cnidaria phylum and the Anthozoa class. Hermit crabs live inside and move
between shells; sea anemones use an adhesive "foot" to attach themselves to surfaces on the ocean
floor, as well as to hermit crabs.
Relationship

Since sea anemones sometimes attach themselves to the shell of hermit crabs, sea anemones can then
eat the food particles that are left floating when a hermit crab eats. Hermit crabs can benefit from
the sea anemones that attach themselves to the shell of hermit crabs and can sting predators that put
the hermit crabs in danger.
One of the best known examples of symbiosis is that between the hermit crab and a sea anemone (e.g.
, Adamsia). The anemone is often found attached to the shell in which the hermit crab lives. In their
long history hermit crabs have developed the habit of sheltering within the empty shells of mollusks
such as periwinkles and whelks. The hind portion of the has lost its hard covering and would otherwise
be unprotected. As the crab gets bigger it outgrows its shelter and so has to find a new one. Often, a
sea anemone attaches itself to the crab’s shelter and it may envelop part of the crab’s own shell as
well. The growth of the crab and anemone keep pace with each other and the crab has no need to
change its shell – more and more of its is sheltered by the anemone. As the crab moves about in search
of food the anemone is brought into contact with a greater supply of food and the crab is protected by
the anemone’s stinging cells.
Langur Monkey and Chital Deer
The relationship between a troop of hanuman langur monkeys (Presbytis entellus) and chital deer (Axis axis) was
examined in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central Indian Highlands. The frequency distribution of closest approaches between
the two species suggested that associations (defined as proximity < 25 m) were not chance encounters; 70.1% of all
those herds observed within 200 m came within 25 m of the troop. Associations were more frequent and lasted longer
during the hot and cold weather than in the monsoon. Chital initiated and terminated the majority of associations,
whilst langurs terminated them more frequently than they initiated. The langur troop dropped a mean of 4.0 kg
vegetation fresh weight/day and chital were seen to scavenge or glean this forage in 38.2% of associations; more
frequently in the hot and cold weather than in the monsoon. Chital gleaned items from 19 species of tree, with Shorea
robusta the most frequently utilized.Responses to potential predators suggested that chital and langur responded to
each other's alarm behaviour. Chital alerted to langur alarm more frequently than vice versa. Antagonistic interactions
between the two species were observed in 5.8% of associations, predominantly directed from langurs to chital. The
study suggests that chital-langur associations are asymmetrical mutualisms. Chital gained by opportunistically taking
advantage of vegetation dropped by langurs, and by responding to langur alarm behaviour. The benefit, if any, to
langurs was probably slight; they may have gained from responding to chital alarms but incurred costs of antagonism
and feeding competition with chital.
1. The Hanuman Monkey – The Gray Langur’s traditional name in India is the Hanuman Monkey. This is because the
Gray Langur monkey is mostly grey in color, except for both its black hands and black face. This relates back to
Hanuman, a famous monkey god who fought to save the wife of the legendary Indian King Rama. The Langur monkeys
came to Hanuman’s aid when he became trapped in a fire and in the process burnt their hands and faces. For this
reason, the Gray Langur is sacred in Hindu religion and is not hunted in India.
2. Seven Subspecies: The Gray Langur monkey is the most common monkey found in South Asia with approximately
300,000 existing today. The seven subspecies of this monkey are the Nepal, Kashmir, Tarai, Northern Plains, Blackfooted, Southern Plains and the Tufted Gray Langur.
3. They Self-Medicate: The Gray Langur monkey eats a diet that depends highly on what is currently in season and
abundant. It maintains a steady diet of fruit, flowers and leaves, preferring mature leaves over young leaves. Insects and
everygreen leaves are eaten when others foods are less abundant and bark is only eaten when there is no other food
available. The Gray Langur’s diet is high in strychnine, which can be harmful to animals. Therefor it will commonly ingest
the gum of the Sterculia Urens to counteract the effects. This gum is marketed in England as a prescription laxative
known as Normacol.
4. They Sleep in Trees: Although the Gray Langur spends more time than any other monkey species on the ground, it will
sleep in trees at night to avoid predators.
5. Leadership is Short-Term: Gray Langur monkeys live in groups consisting of 11 to 60 monkeys. The group is
dominated by a high-ranking male, who usually lasts in the leadership position for an average of 18 months. Often,
adolescent males are expelled from the group at an early age and go on to form bachelor groups. These groups will then
attack an existing leader in order to overtake his group. All of the children of the dominated leader will then be killed.
6. Only the Powerful Can Mate: In each group, only the male monkeys that have high-rankings are allowed to mate with
any female in the group. The males with lower rankings must sneak their way past a high-ranking male in order to get a
chance at copulation with a female. Tough!
7. A Chital Deer’s Best Friend: The Northern Plain Gray Langur monkey's superior eyesight and ability to sit atop high
trees allows it to spot predators easily. Researchers have noted that this species will often sit next to herds of the Chital
Deer and notify them when a predator is approaching. Additionally, the Langur will often drop fruit from tall trees, which
the Chital Deer will then feed on. In return, the Chital Deer’s excellent sense of smell allows it to detect predators early
on and warn the Langur that something may be approaching.
Sea Slug and Algae
Elysia chlorotica, common name the eastern emerald elysia, is a small-to-medium-sized species of green sea slug, a
marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusc. This sea slug superficially resembles a nudibranch, yet it does not belong to
that clade of gastropods. Instead it is a member of the clade Sacoglossa, the sap-sucking sea slugs. Some members of
this group use chloroplasts from the algae they eat; a phenomenon known as kleptoplasty. Elysia chlorotica is one of the
"solar-powered sea slugs", utilizing solar energy via chloroplasts from its algal food. It lives in a subcellular
endosymbiotic relationship with chloroplasts of the marine heterokont alga Vaucheria litorea.
Elysia chlorotica can be found along the east coast of the United States, including the states of Massachusetts,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Florida (east Florida and west Florida) and Texas. They can also be found
as far north as Nova Scotia, Canada.[1]
This species is most commonly found in salt marshes, tidal marshes, pools and shallow creeks, at depths of 0 m to 0.5
m.[1]
Adult Elysia chlorotica are usually bright green in colour, due to the presence of Vaucheria litorea chloroplasts in the
cells of the slugs digestive diverticula. However, they can occasionally appear reddish or greyish in colour, thought to
depend on the amount of chlorophyll in the branches of the digestive gland which ramify throughout the body.[2] This
species can also have very small red or white spots scattered over the body.[2] A juvenile, prior to feeding, is brown with
red pigment spots due to the absence of chloroplasts.[3] Elysia chlorotica have a typical elysiid shape with large lateral
parapodia which can fold over to enclose the body. Elysia chlorotica can grow up to 60mm in length but are more
commonly found between 20mm to 30mm in length.[3]
Elysia chlorotica feeds on the intertidal algae Vaucheria litorea by puncturing the algal cell wall with its radula. The slug
then holds the algal strand firmly in its mouth and, as though it were a straw, sucks out the contents.[3] Instead of
digesting the entire cell contents, or passing the contents through its gut unscathed, it retains only the algal chloroplasts,
by storing them within its own cells throughout its extensive digestive system. The acquisition of chloroplasts begins
immediately following metamorphosis from the veliger stage when the juvenile sea slugs begin to feed on the Vaucheria
litorea cells.[4] Juvenile slugs are brown with red pigment spots until they feed upon the algae, at which point they
become green. This is caused by the distribution of the chloroplasts throughout the extensively branched gut.[3] Initially,
the slug needs to continually feed upon algae to retain the chloroplasts, but over time the chloroplasts become more
stably incorporated into the cells of the gut enabling the slug to remain green without further feeding.
The incorporation of chloroplasts within the cells of Elysia chlorotica allow the slug to capture energy directly from light,
as most plants do, through the process known as photosynthesis. This is significantly beneficial for Elysia chlorotica
because during time periods where algae is not readily available as a food supply, the Elysia chlorotica can survive for
months on the sugars produced through photosynthesis performed by their own chloroplasts. Kept within the slug's
own cells, it has been found that the chloroplasts can survive and function for up to nine or even 10 months.[5] In one
study Elysia chlorotica were deprived of alga ingestion for a period of eight months. After the eight-month period,
despite the fact that the Elysia chlorotica were less green and more yellowish in colour, the majority of the chloroplasts
within the slugs appeared to have remained intact while also maintaining their fine structure.[4] Although Elysia
chlorotica are unable to synthesize their own chloroplasts, the ability to maintain the chloroplasts acquired from
Vaucheria litorea in a functional state indicates that Elysia chlorotica must possess photosynthesis-supporting genes
within its own nuclear genome; most likely acquired through horizontal gene transfer.[5] Since chloroplast DNA alone
encodes for just 10% of the proteins required for proper photosynthesis, scientists investigated the Elysia chlorotica
genome for potential genes that could support chloroplast survival and photosynthesis. The researchers found a vital
algal gene, psbO (a nuclear gene encoding for a manganese-stabilizing protein within the photosystem II complex[5]) in
the sea slug's DNA, identical to the algal version. They concluded that the gene was likely to have been acquired through
horizontal gene transfer, as it was already present in the eggs and sex cells of Elysia chlorotica.[6]
Fig Tree and Amazon Bat
Fig trees and Amazon fruit bats provide an excellent example of a dependent relationship in nature, a term
known as symbiosis. Without each other the fig tree and fruit bat would have a difficult time surviving.
Providing Meals
According to an article on the website of the PBS television show Nature, fruit bats nightly eat half their body
weight in figs. Clearly, the fig tree is a necessary staple in the Amazon fruit bat's survival. Without these trees,
the fruit bat's food source would quickly be depleted.
Spreading Seeds
Fruit bats return the favour to the fig tree by doing their own share of the work. Many times, fruit bats carry
their food a short distance away instead of perching in the tree while they eat it. The fruit's seeds fall as they
eat, and another fig tree has the opportunity to grow. In the case that the bat swallows the seeds, they pass
through the animal's digestive tract unharmed and are expelled in a new location.
Eliminating Competition
The Amazon fruit bat's eating habits not only help deposit the fig trees seeds, but also ensure that seedling will
sprout far enough from the parent tree that they do not have to compete for root space and soil nutrients.
Olive Baboon and African Elephant
The olive baboon (Papio anubis), also called the Anubis baboon, is a member of the family Cercopithecidae (Old World
monkeys). The species is the most widely ranging of all baboons:[3] It is found in 25 countries throughout Africa,
extending from Mali eastward to Ethiopia and Tanzania. Isolated populations are also found in some mountainous
regions of the Sahara.[3] It inhabits savannahs, steppes, and forests.[3]
Distribution and habitat
The olive baboon inhabits a strip of 25 equatorial African countries, very nearly ranging from the east to west coasts of
the continent.[13] The exact boundaries of this strip are not clearly defined, as the species' territory overlaps with that of
other baboon species.[4] In many places, this has resulted in cross-breeding between species. Throughout its wide
range, the olive baboon can be found in a number of different habitats.[3] It is usually classified as savanna-dwelling,
living in the wide plains of the grasslands.[14] The grasslands, especially those near open woodland, do make up a large
part of its habitat, but the baboon also inhabits rainforests and deserts.[3] Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, for instance, both support olive baboon populations in dense tropical forests.[4]
Social structure
The olive baboon lives in groups of 15–150, made up of a few males, many females, and their young.[15] Each baboon has
a social ranking somewhere in the group, depending on its dominance.[15] Female dominance is hereditary, with
daughters having nearly the same rank as their mothers,[15][16] with adult females forming the core of the social
system.[16] Female relatives form their own subgroups in the troop.[15] Related females are largely friendly to each other.
They tend to stay close together and groom one another, as well as team up in aggressive encounters with other troop
members.[16]
Diet
One major reason for its widespread success is the olive baboon is not bound to a specific food source.[4] It is
omnivorous, finding nutrition in almost any environment, and able to adapt with different foraging tactics. The olive
baboon will also hunt prey, from small rodents and hares to foxes and other primates.[4] Its limit is usually small
antelope, such as Thomson's gazelle and also, rarely, sheep, goats, and live chickens, which amount to 33.5% of its food
from hunting.[4] Hunting is usually a group activity, with both males and females participating.[4] Interestingly, this
systematic predation apparently was developed recently.[28] In a field study, such behavior was observed as starting with
the males of one troop and spreading through all ages and sexes.[28]
In Eritrea, the olive baboon has formed a symbiotic relationship with that country's endangered elephant population.
The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants, while the elephants use the tree-top baboons as an early
warning system.[29] Eritrea formerly supported a large population of elephants. The Ptolemaic kings of Egypt used the
country as a source of war elephants in the third century BC. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings
of elephant herds, and they are thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001 a herd of
about 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of the Gash River. The elephants seemed to have formed a
symbiotic relationship with olive baboons. It is estimated that there are around 100 elephants left in Eritrea, the most
northerly of East Africa’s elephants. The endangered Painted Hunting Dog (lycaon pictus) was previously found in
Eritrea, but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country.
In 2006, Eritrea announced it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an
environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mile) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209-miles) of coast
around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection.
Egrets and Cattle
The Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) is a cosmopolitan species of heron (family Ardeidae) found in the tropics, subtropics and
warm temperate zones. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Bubulcus, although some authorities regard its
two subspecies as full species, the Western Cattle Egret and the Eastern Cattle Egret. Despite the similarities in plumage
to the egrets of the genus Egretta, it is more closely related to the herons of Ardea. Originally native to parts of Asia,
Africa and Europe, it has undergone a rapid expansion in its distribution and successfully colonised much of the rest of
the world.
It is a white bird adorned with buff plumes in the breeding season. It nests in colonies, usually near bodies of water and
often with other wading birds. The nest is a platform of sticks in trees or shrubs. Cattle Egrets exploit drier and open
habitats more than other heron species. Their feeding habitats include seasonally inundated grasslands, pastures,
farmlands, wetlands and rice paddies. They often accompany cattle or other large mammals, catching insect and small
vertebrate prey disturbed by these animals. Some populations of the Cattle Egret are migratory and others show postbreeding dispersal.
The adult Cattle Egret has few predators, but birds or mammals may raid its nests, and chicks may be lost to starvation,
calcium deficiency or disturbance from other large birds. This species maintains a special relationship with cattle, which
extends to other large grazing mammals. The cattle egret removes ticks and flies from cattle and consumes them. This
benefits both species, but it has been implicated in the spread of tick-borne animal diseases.
The Cattle Egret was first described in 1758 by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae as Ardea ibis,[2] but was moved to its
current genus by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1855.[3] Its genus name Bubulcus is Latin for herdsman, referring, like the
English name, to this species' association with cattle.[4] Ibis is a Latin and Greek word which originally referred to another
white wading bird, the Sacred Ibis.[5]
The Cattle Egret feeds on a wide range of prey, particularly insects, especially grasshoppers, crickets, flies (adults and
maggots [47]), and moths, as well as spiders, frogs, and earthworms.[48][49] In a rare instance they have been observed
foraging along the branches of a Banyan tree for ripe figs.[50] The species is usually found with cattle and other large
grazing and browsing animals, and catches small creatures disturbed by the mammals. Studies have shown that Cattle
Egret foraging success is much higher when foraging near a large animal than when feeding singly.[51] When foraging
with cattle, it has been shown to be 3.6 times more successful in capturing prey than when foraging alone. Its
performance is similar when it follows farm machinery, but it is forced to move more.[52] In urban situations cattle egrets
have also been observed foraging in peculiar situations like railway lines [53]
A Cattle Egret will weakly defend the area around a grazing animal against others of the same species, but if the area is
swamped by egrets it will give up and continue foraging elsewhere. Where numerous large animals are present, Cattle
Egrets selectively forage around species that move at around 5–15 steps per minute, avoiding faster and slower moving
herds; in Africa, Cattle Egrets selectively forage behind Plains Zebras, Waterbuck, Blue Wildebeest and Cape Buffalo.[54]
Dominant birds feed nearest to the host, and obtain more food.[14]
The Cattle Egret may also show versatility in its diet. On islands with seabird colonies, it will prey on the eggs and chicks
of terns and other seabirds.[30] During migration it has also been reported to eat exhausted migrating landbirds.[55] Birds
of the Seychelles race also indulge in some kleptoparasitism, chasing the chicks of Sooty Terns and forcing them to
disgorge food.[56] A conspicuous species, the Cattle Egret has attracted many common names. These mostly relate to its
habit of following cattle and other large animals, and it is known variously as cow crane, cow bird or cow heron, or even
elephant bird, rhinoceros egret.[19] Its Arabic name, abu qerdan, means "father of ticks", a name derived from the huge
number of parasites such as avian ticks found in its breeding colonies.[19][57]
The Cattle Egret is a popular bird with cattle ranchers for its perceived role as a biocontrol of cattle parasites such as
ticks and flies.[19] A study in Australia found that Cattle Egrets reduced the number of flies that bothered cattle by
pecking them directly off the skin.[58] It was the benefit to stock that prompted ranchers and the Hawaiian Board of
Agriculture and Forestry to release the species in Hawaii.[30][59][60
Wombat and Snails
This large, pudgy mammal is a marsupial, or pouched animal, found in Australia and on scattered islands
nearby. Like other marsupials, wombats give birth to tiny, undeveloped young that crawl into pouches on their
mothers' bellies. A wombat baby remains in its mother's pouch for about five months before emerging. Even
after it leaves the pouch, the young animal will frequently crawl back in to nurse or to escape danger. By about
seven months of age, a young wombat can care for itself.
Wombats use their claws to dig burrows in open grasslands and eucalyptus forests. They live in these burrows,
which can become extensive tunnel-and-chamber complexes. Common wombats are solitary and inhabit their
own burrows, while other species may be more social and live together in larger burrow groups called
colonies.
Wombats are nocturnal and emerge to feed at night on grasses, roots, and bark. They have rodentlike incisors
that never stop growing and are gnawed down on some of their tougher vegetarian fare.
The field and pasture damage caused by wombat burrowing can be a destructive nuisance to ranchers and
farmers. Wombats have been hunted for this behavior, as well as for their fur and simply for sport. Some
species (the northern hairy-nosed wombats) are now critically endangered, while others (the common or
coarse-haired wombat) are still hunted as vermin. Space for all wombats is at a premium as farm and ranch
lands increasingly replace natural space.
Snails have a relationship with the wombats because they follow the wombat and feed on the waste of the wombat.
The wombat doesn’t get anything from the snail; however, the snail benefits by obtaining food from the wombat.
Coyote and American badger
Much of the Native American folklore recorded today was passed along through the oral tradition of storytelling, like the
earliest Greek and Roman myths. You can imagine a group of tribe members, gathered around a campfire as elders spun
yarns about how the world was created and the life that teemed on it. Many plots relied on allegory to communicate
fundamental truths about morality. Like the characters in well-known Aesop's fables, many of those found in Native
American folktales aren't humans but animals, such as rabbits, elk, grouse and turtles. Coyotes and badgers in particular
played joint roles in the lore of Western tribes, including the Crow, Plains, Navajo and Chinook. They act as neighbors,
friends and competitors in various stories, with the badger usually serving as the mild-mannered foil for the wily coyote.
The inspiration for this recurring relationship undoubtedly comes straight from nature. Native Americans were the first
people to recognize an interesting collaboration between coyotes and badgers: They help each other find and trap food.
The word "coyote" comes from Aztec "coyotl," meaning "trickster." These members of the Canid (dog) family are smaller
than wolves, weighing between 20 and 35 pounds (9 and 16 kilograms). Their natural prey consists of carrion, small
rodents and rabbits, but they'll also eat insects, frogs, snakes and fruits if the dietary push comes to shove [source: Texas
Tech University]. Coyotes are most abundant in the Southwest and Midwest and have expanded north and east from the
Great Plains since the 1800s. You'll find black- and white-patterned American badgers in the same habitats. Related to
weasels and skunks, furry badgers live off similar small rodents as coyotes. But instead of chasing them down above
ground like the canines, badgers use their long claws and pointed heads to dig into subterranean burrowing tunnels.
But if badgers and coyotes compete for the same prey, how and why would they assist one another?
Coyote-Badger Partnership
A 1992 study conducted at the University of California's Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Biology confirmed what
Native Americans recognized centuries before: Coyotes and badgers hunt together. In fact, you're far more likely to
witness coyotes seeking out food alongside badgers than hunting with other coyotes. Generally, the wild dogs hang out
in loose family units or lead solitary lives. They rarely hunt in packs, but the sparse prairie and desert vegetation can
make it challenging to stalk prey stealthily [source: Minta, Minta and Lott].
When coyotes and badgers team up, the pairs track small, burrowing animals such as prairie dogs and ground squirrels.
If the prey is above ground, the coyote usually chases it down, and the badger takes over the hunt if the prey descends
underground. And not only do they find food together, but coyotes also have more success in this partnership than if
they go it alone. Coyotes with badger cohorts catch an estimated one-third more ground squirrels than solo coyotes
[source: Line].
This isn't to imply that the two animals are friends -- they're essentially competing for the same meal. Instead, it all boils
down to energy savings. Badgers and coyotes conserve energy by sharing the workload of trapping elusive and fastmoving prey. Likewise, each animal takes advantage of the other's hunting adaptations. Coyotes have keener eyesight
for spotting prey than badgers. On the other hand, badgers can sniff out prey underground. Say the badger is busy
digging for a squirrel while the coyote stalks around up top. A frightened squirrel bursts forth from a burrowing hole to
escape the badger's prying claws. And little does that furry rodent know that a coyote is waiting for this very moment. It
spies the squirrel scrambling away and pounces eagerly.
But doesn't the badger get the short end of the stick? Not quite. The tables can turn quickly in the prairie and desert
ecosystems. If a hungry coyote chases around a prairie dog, for instance, the badger can benefit. The prairie dog dashes
into its burrow, and the badger digs down quickly near the entrance and snags it. Or if a coyote is patrolling an area,
rodents may stay inside their underground tunnels for protection, giving the badger more opportunity to locate them.
This unlikely collaboration has existed as long as humans have been around to notice it. Closer examination of the
environment reveals a broad variety of similar symbiotic relationships in nature. And just as the Native Americans wove
these observations into their folktales, we can glean lessons about the importance of cooperation and teamwork from
partnerships like the badger's and coyote's.