Download Chapter 21—Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism (1815

Chapter 21—Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism (1815-1850)
[See 5.12, 5.46, 5.47, 5.48]
OVERVIEW:
The forces of upheaval unleashed during the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars were temporarily
quieted in 1815 as rulers sought to restore stability by reestablishing much of the old order to a Europe ravaged by war. Kings, landed
aristocrats, and bureaucratic elites regained their control over domestic governments, while internationally the forces of conservatism tried
to maintain the new status quo; some states even used military force to intervene in the internal affairs of other countries in their desire to
crush revolutions.
But the Western world had been changed, and it would not readily go back to the old system. New ideologies, especially
liberalism and nationalism, both products of the revolutionary upheaval initiated in France, had become too powerful to be contained.
Not content with the status quo, the forces of change gave rise first to the revolts and revolutions that periodically shook Europe in the 1820s
and 1830s and then to the widespread revolutions of 1848. Some of the revolutions and revolutionaries were successful; most were not.
Although the old order usually appeared to have prevailed, by 1850 it was apparent that its days were numbered. This perception was
reinforced by the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution. Together the forces unleashed by the FR and the IR made it impossible to
turn back. Nevertheless, although these two revolutions initiated what historians like to call the modern European world, remnants of the
old persisted in the midst of the new.
I.
The Conservative Order, 1815-1830
 After the defeat of Napoleon, European rulers moved to restore the old order
 This was the goal of the great European powers—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia (Quadruple Alliance)—when the met
at the Congress of Vienna in September 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement
A.
B.
A Peace Settlement after Napoleon
1.
Restoration of Kingdoms
 Leader of the congress was the Austrian foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859), who
claimed that he was guided at Vienna by the principle of legitimacy...
 To keep peace and stability in Europe, he said it was necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who
would preserve traditional institutions
2.
Containment of France...another guiding principle of course, was one that had long been the center of
European diplomacy  balance of power...ensuring that no one country could dominate Europe as France
had tried to do under Napoleon
The Conservative Domination: The Concert of Europe
 The peace arrangements of 1815 were the start of a conservative reaction that sought to contain the liberal and
nationalist forces unleashed by the FR
 Metternich and his supporters were representative of the ideology (a political philosophy such as conservatism or
liberalism) of conservatism
1.
Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France as a Guide
 Conservatism dates to the publication of this important work by Burke in 1790
 He argued that government was a contract or partnership “not only b/w those who are living, but b/w those
who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born”
 No one generation has the right to destroy this partnership; each generation has the duty to preserve and
transmit it to the next
 Burke did not favor the violent overthrow of a government by revolution, but he did not reject the possibility
of change...gradual not sudden
2.
Principles of Conservatism:
a.
b.
c.
3.
Obedience to political authority, organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary
upheavals, were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative
governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the FR
The community took precedence over individual rights; society must be organized and ordered, and
tradition remained the best guide for order
Supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and
mainstream churches (both Protestant and RC)
From Quadruple to Quintuple Alliance (+ France)
a.
b.
Concert of Europe: one method used by the great powers to maintain the status quo they had
created was the Concert of Europe, according to which GB, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and later France,
agreed to meet periodically to discuss their interests and ensure the maintenance of peace in Europe
Concert of Europe failed: the Quintuple Alliance adopted a principle of intervention that was based
on the right of the great powers to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore
legitimate monarchs to their thrones
 Britain refused to agree to this principle...it had never been the intention of the alliance to interfere
in the internal affairs of other states
 The other four ignored Britain, and used military intervention to defeat revolutionary movements in
Spain and Italy and to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones
 COE broke down when the British rejected the p of i and ultimately prevented the Continental
powers from intervening in the revolutions in Latin America
4.
Revolt in Latin America
 Latin America remained in the hands of the Spanish and Portuguese up until the early part of the 19th century
 When the Bourbon monarchy in Spain was toppled by Napoleon, Spanish authority in its colonial empire
weakened
 From roughly 1810-1825, nearly every country in LA achieved their independence, with the help of such
“liberators” as Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin
5.
The Greek Revolt, 1821-1832
 p of i could be used to support revolution if the great powers found it in their interests to do so
 in 1821, the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters, who had ruled them for over 400 years
 A revival of Greek national sentiment made this a popular cause...Great Britain, France, and Russia aided
Greece in their struggle
 in the Treaty of Adrianople, the Turks agreed to allow Russia, France, and Britain to decide the fate of
Greece...in 1830, they declared Greece an independent kingdom, and two years later, a new royal dynasty
was established
 up until 1830, this was the only successful revolt in Europe because the great powers themselves supported it
C.
The Conservative Dominion: The European States
 domestically, conservative governments worked to maintain the old order
1.
Rule of the Tories in Britain
 GB governed largely by the aristocratic landowning classes that dominated both houses of
Parliament...within Parliament, there were two political factions, Whigs and Tories...both groups comprised of
members of the landed classes, although the Whigs were beginning to receive support from the new industrial
middle class
2.
The Bourbon Restoration in France
a.
b.
3.
Italy...after the Congress of Vienna still largely dominated by the Austrians, and all the states had extremely
reactionary governments eager to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment
4.
Repression of Liberalism in Central Europe
a.
b.
5.
Germany...the Vienna settlement recognized the existence of 38 sovereign states (called the
Germanic Confederation) in what had once been the HRE...Austria and Prussia were the two major
powers; the Confederation had little real power, but served as an instrument to preserve the
conservative status quo
The Stagnation of Austria...a multinational state (11 ethnicities)...forces of nationalism were strong,
though Metternich managed to repress the nationalist forces and hold the empire together
Tsarist Autocracy in Russia
a.
b.
c.
II.
Bourbon monarchy restored in the person of Louis XVIII (1814-1824), who understood the necessity to
accept some of the changes brought to France during the FR and Napoleonic eras...he died in 1824,
and was succeeded by his brother, Charles X
Charles’ attempt to restore the old regime as far as possible led to public outrage; by 1830, France
was on the brink of another revolution
The Ideologies of Change
At the beginning of the 19th c., Russia was overwhelmingly rural, agricultural, and autocratic...Russian
tsar still regarded as a divine-right monarch
Alexander I (1801-1825)...initially seemed willing to institute enlightened reforms, but after the defeat of
Napoleon, implemented reactionary policies
The Reaction of Nicholas I (1825-1855)...he also turned into a strict reactionary after a military revolt at
the beginning of his reign...called the “Policeman” of Europe b/c of his willingness to suppress brutally
revolutionary movements
 Although the conservative forces were in the ascendancy from 1815 to 1830, powerful movements for change were also at
work...these depended on ideas embodied in a series of political philosophies or ideologies that came into their own in the first
half of the 19th c
A.
Liberalism
 owed much to the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions
 became more significant as the IR progressed b/c the industrial middle class largely adopted the doctrine as its own
 most fundamental belief is that people should be as free from restraint as possible, which is evident in both economic
and political liberalism
1.
Economic liberalism (aka “classical economics”)
a.
Laissez-faire
 the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and
demand
 government should not interfere with the economic liberty of the individual and should restrict itself
to only 3 primary functions

Defense of the country

Police protection of individuals

Construction and maintenance of public works too expensive for individuals to
undertake
b.
2.
Economic liberty...if given this by the state, ultimately individuals would bring about the maximum
good for the maximum number and benefit the general welfare of society
Political liberalism
a.
Common set of beliefs

Protection of civil liberties or the basic rights of all people (equality before the law; freedoms of
assembly, speech, press; and the freedom from arbitrary arrest)

Freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document

Religious toleration, and a growing support for the separation of church and state

Right of peaceful opposition to the government

Creation of laws by a representative assembly elected by qualified voters

Limited suffrage (equal civil rights does not mean equal political rights)
b.
Its proponents

Tied to middle-class and especially industrial middle-class men who favored the extension of
voting rights so they could share power with the landowning classes

Liberals had little desire to let the lower classes share that power...liberals were not democrats
c.
John Stuart Mill as key advocate of liberalism in the 19th century


B.
On Liberty...all individuals should have an “absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all
subjects” that needed to be protected from both government censorship and the tyranny of
the majority
On the Subjection of Women...the “legal subordination of one sex to another” is
wrong...differences b/w men and women have nothing to do with different natures, but simply
social practices...with equal education, women could achieve as much as men
Nationalism
 the most powerful agent for change in the 19th century
1.
Origins...arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language,
and customs
 the community is the “nation”, and the primary political loyalty of individuals would be to the nation rather
than to a dynasty or a city-state or other political unit
 Nationalism did not become a popular force for change until the FR...from then on, nationalists believed that
each nationality should have its own government (idea of self-determination  right to establish their own
autonomy)
2.
Radical nature...nationalism threatened to upset the existing political order, both internationally and nationally,
which meant that nationalism was fundamentally radical
 b/c many states like the Austrian Empire were multinational, it is evident why conservatives tried so hard to
repress the radical threat of nationalism
→ a united German or Italian state also might upset the prevailing balance of power
Alliance with Liberalism...most liberals believed that freedom could be realized only by peoples who ruled
themselves...many nationalists believed that once each people obtained its own state, all nations could be
linked into a broader community of all humanity
3.
C.
Early Socialism
1.
2.
Origins...in the first half of the 19th c., the pitiful conditions found in the slums, mines, and factories of the IR gave
rise to another ideology for change known as socialism
 the term eventually became associated with a Marxist analysis of human society (Ch 22), but early socialism
was largely the product of political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social
conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early
industrial capitalism
“Utopians”...to later Marxists, such ideas were impractical dreams, and these early thinkers were labeled
“utopian socialists”, a label that has endured to this day (see Ch 20 outline)
 Key thinkers include Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Flora Tristan, Robert Owen
 Were against private property and the competitive spirit of early industrial capitalism; by eliminating these
things and creating new systems of social organization, a better environment for humanity could be achieved
III.
Revolution and Reform, 1830-1850
 beginning in 1830, the forces of change began to break through the conservative domination of Europe...by 1848, a
revolutionary fervor swept Europe
A.
The Revolutions of 1830
1.
France
a.
July Revolution...the attempt by ultraroyalists under Charles X (1824-1830) to restore the old regime as
far as possible led to a revolt by liberals in 1830 known as the JR
b.
Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)...moderate liberals appealed to the king’s cousin, Louis-Philippe to become
the constitutional king of France...he agreed...Charles X fled to France
The “bourgeois monarch”...political support for his rule came from the upper middle class...moderate
reforms that favored the bourgeoisie
c.
2.
3.
Nationalist sentiment fuels 3 revolutions
a.
Belgium...rose up against their Dutch rulers, and convinced the major European powers to accept an
independent, neutral Belgium
b.
Poland...crushed by the Russians
c.
Italian states...crushed by Metternich and the Austrians
Britain
a.
Revolution avoided by minor reforms
 Industrial leaders objected to the corrupt British electoral system, which excluded them from political power
 The Whigs realized that concessions to reform were superior to revolution

Reform Act of 1832 increased the number of male voters, primarily benefiting the upper
middle class (the lower middle class, artisans, and industrial workers still had no vote)

Industrial elite now on same level as landed aristocrats...as a result of these minor reforms,
Britain would not experience the revolutionary disturbances during 1848
B.
The Revolutions of 1848 (see 5.12)
 Despite the successful revolutions in France, Belgium, and Greece, the conservative order remained in control of
much of Europe. But liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. In 1848, these forces of change erupted once
more...again, France provided the spark.
1.
France
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Causes: industrial and agricultural depression starting in 1846; government scandals and corruption;
government’s refusal to extend suffrage  each segment of French society, excluding aristocrats and
the upper middle class, had grievances
Overthrow of monarchy on February 24, 1848, by a group of moderate and radical republicans
June Days: workers revolt inspired by closing of the national workshops, which had been worker-run
and owned manufacturing centers [publicly financed] and led by Louis Blanc; brutally suppressed
2nd French Republic proclaimed...by December a National Assembly had been elected by universal
male suffrage...new constitution made France a republic with a unicameral legislature and a
president (elected by universal male suffrage)...disagreements b/w moderates and radicals plagued
France and elsewhere...how far is too far?
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte elected...within four years, President Napoleon would become
Emperor Napoleon
2.
Central Europe
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.
Concessions...news of events in France inspired similar revolutions in Central Europe...typically,
monarchs tried to hold on to as much of their power as possible by offering concessions to
reformers...such things as constitutions, a free press, and jury trials
German states work towards unification...the German Confederation allowed elections, based on
universal male suffrage, to elect leaders for a pan-German parliament, whose purpose was to
prepare Germany for unification
Frankfurt Assembly...this pan-German parliament failed

Had no way of compelling the German rulers to accept the constitution they had drawn up

Since German liberals failed, leadership for unification would pass on to the Prussian military
monarchy
Austrian empire...see 5.12
Italian states...see 5.12
Outcomes
 generally speaking, the failure of the revolutionaries to stay united soon led to the reestablishment of the old
regimes
 in 1848, nationalities everywhere had also revolted in the pursuit of self-government...little was achieved
because divisions among nationalities proved utterly disastrous...instead of joining together against the old
empire, minorities fought each other
IV.
Culture in an Age of Reaction and Revolution: The Mood of Romanticism (see 5.46, 5.47, 5.48)
 At the end of the 18th c., a new intellectual movement known as Romanticism emerged to challenge the Enlightenment’s
preoccupation with reason in discovering truth
 the Romantics tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources
of knowing
A.
Characteristics of Romanticism
1.
2.
3.
4.
B.
Emotion, Sentiment, and the Inner World: The Example of Goethe
 The Sorrows of the Young Werther...the individual who seeks freedom to attain personal fulfillment; the tragic
figure who is misunderstood and rejected by society, but believes in his/her own worth through their inner
feelings; tragic figure who ends up “tragically”
Individualism...rebellion against middle-class conventions...for Romantics of the 19th c., long hair, beards, and
“outrageous” clothes served to reinforce the individualism that young Romantics were trying to express
The Lure of the Middle Ages...passionate interest in the past (YES!)...examples include the stories of Grimm
brothers and Hans Christian Andersen, revival of Gothic architecture, Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe
An Attraction to the Bizarre and Unusual...Gothic literature of Edgar Allan Poe and Mary Wollstonecraft
Shelley...extraordinary states of experience  focus on the dreamworld, use of drugs like cocaine and opium
Romantic Poets and the Love of Nature
 Poetry ranked above all other literary forms as it was the direct expression of one’s soul
1.
2.
3.
C.
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)...Prometheus Unbound
Lord Byron (1788-1824)...Child Harold’s Pilgrimage, Don Juan
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)...to WW, nature contained a mysterious force that the poet could perceive
and learn from...this worship of nature led some to pantheism
Romanticism in Art and Music
 Romantic artists typically

believed that all artistic expression was a reflection of the artist’s inner feelings (for instance, a painting
should mirror the artist’s vision of the world and be the instrument of his own imagination)

rejected the principles of classicism (restraint, symmetry, balance)
1.
Representative artists [see http://artchive.com/ftp_site.htm]
a.
2.
Caspar David Friedrich...his landscapes convey a sense of mystery and mysticism...Man and Woman
Gazing at the Moon (pg. 440)
b.
Eugene Delacroix...Liberty Leading the People, which glorified the French Revolution of 1830
Representative musicians
 A probe into human emotions
a.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)...bridge between classical and romantic styles