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OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 OCR Examinations A Level Physical Education A 7875 Module 2565 : Option B2 part 1 Psychology of Sport Performance Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.1 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 INDEX Index 3 4 5 6 - PERSONALITY - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT - CATTELL - EYSENCK - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING BANDURA / VICARIOUS CONDITIONING 7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN 8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TYPE A / TYPE B 9 - STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS 10 - PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE / TYPICAL RESPONSES 11 - EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL 12 - SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY SOMATOTYPE / PERSONALITY TYPE 13 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION 14 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE 15 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) MOODS / ICEBERG PROFILE 16 - THE SELF-CONCEPT - SELF-ESTEEM 17 - STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT 18 - FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT OBJECTIVE SOURCES / SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS 19 - THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL 20 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT 21 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES 22 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL COGNITIVE / AFFECTIVE / BEHAVIOURAL 23 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES 24 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT 25 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE - PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION 26 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES OBSERVATION / PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS / QUESTIONNAIRES Previous Next 27 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS 28 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION 29 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES 30 - MAJOR MOTIVES 31 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS / APPLICATION 32 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION 33 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - NACH / NAF 34 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS 35 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS 36 - AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM 37 - INVERTED U THEORY - OPTIMUM AROUSAL 38 - CATASTROPHE THEORY 39 - GROUPS 40 - STEINER’S MODEL 41 - SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION 42 - COHESION - CARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL 43 - LEADERSHIP - NATURE / NURTURE 44 - FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 45 - LEADERSHIP STYLE - FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM 46 - SITUATIONAL FACTORS - TASK / PERSON CENTRED 47 - MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS 48 - CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL 49 - CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR 50 - MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE 51 - GOAL SETTING - GOAL STRUCTURE 52 - SMARTER GOALS (NCF) Module 2565 B2.1.2 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 PERSONALITY PERSONALITY • unique characteristics of an individual • knowledge about personality is important to ensure optimum sporting performance extroversion introversion TRAIT innate and enduring PERSONALITY SOCIAL LEARNING neurotic stable behaviours learnt by observation and copying INTERACTIONIST mixture of trait and social learning Previous Next type A type B Module 2565 B2.1.3 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT TRAIT THEORIES • general (covering all situations) • underlying (inside of and part of the person) • enduring (long lasting) • predisposition (an inclination or motive formed earlier) CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality PERSONALITY PRIMARY TRAIT EXTROVERSION (deals with others easily and comfortably) INTROVERSION (prefers to remain independent / isolated from others) STABILITY (behaviour remains the same over time) NEUROTICISM (behaviours change unpredictably) SECONDARY TRAIT liveliness sociability Previous impulsiveness activity Next excitability Module 2565 B2.1.4 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D? A • • B • • C • • stable extrovert talkative, outgoing, easy going, carefree, showing leader qualities neurotic extrovert restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable neurotic introvert anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic D • stable introvert • careful, thoughtful, controlled, reliable, even tempered Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.5 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING SOCIALISATION • sport has a socialising effect • participation in sport establishes norms and values of our society BANDURA • behaviour is determined by the situation – social comparison – behaving the same way as the peer group SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • social approval or disapproval • explains behaviour in terms of the reaction determines our responses to specific situations – behaviour is reinforced or • we learn to deal with situations by penalised observing others • or by observing the results of our own VICARIOUS CONDITIONING behaviour on others • the learning of emotional responses • and by modelling our own behaviour on through observational learning what we have seen • example : – athletes learn behaviour by watching – learning to become angry after a others valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.6 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST INTERACTIONIST THEORIES • traits determine behaviour • but can be modified by situations – traits – situations – behaviour THE SITUATION THE PERSON (PERSONALITY) LEWIN • behaviour is a function of both the person (personality P) and the environment (E) • B = f(P,E) BEHAVIOUR Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.7 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY TYPE A • characterised by : • impatience • works at a rapid pace • higher levels of stress • easily aroused • strong desire to succeed • anxiety in stressful situations • lacking in tolerance • has a need to be in control • makes decisions quickly without much preparation or thought Previous TYPE B • characterised by : • relaxed and patient • allow time for tasks to be completed • tolerance of others’ mistakes • delegates easily • low personal stress • calm and unflappable in most situations • less competitive • prepared to wait and assess all options when decisions need to be made Next Module 2565 B2.1.8 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS EXTERNAL ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR example : good captain DYNAMIC TYPICAL RESPONSES example : 'win at all costs' - instrumental aggression INTERNAL Previous PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE : attitudes, values, beliefs, motives example : achievement motivation Next CONSISTENT Module 2565 B2.1.9 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE • beliefs and values that remain more or less permanent • example : a sportsman’s belief that fair play underlies his attitude on the field of play TYPICAL RESPONSES • the way in which an individual responds in certain situations • example : stopping fighting at the bell ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR • in other situations we may behave differently • example : striking after the bell when annoyed or frustrated SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT • how the behaviour and expectations of others affect our role • example : a player argues with the referee because others have done so and got away with it before Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.10 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL EYSENCK'S CATEGORIES CATTELL'S CATEGORIES examples INTROVERSION PRIMARY TRAIT SECONDARY TRAIT SURFACE TRAITS (secondary factors) (prefers to remain independent / isolated from others) rigidity persistence SOURCE TRAITS (primary factors) shyness etc HABITUAL RESPONSES no eye contact inability to speak to strangers avoids groups BEHAVIOURS etc SPECIFIC RESPONSES Previous likes being on his own Next enjoys fell running hates team games SPECIFIC RESPONSES Module 2565 B2.1.11 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY SOMATOTYPE PERSONALITY TYPE • • ectomorphy linearity • • • cerebrotonia tenseness introversion • • endomorphy plumpness • • • • viscerotonia sociability affection comfort-loving • • mesomorphy muscularity • • • • somatotonia risk taking adventure seeking extroversion Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.12 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY INTERVIEWS • before or after the event • not directly related to performance • open ended and flexible • transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed • difficult to quantify accurately • may be influenced by the interviewer Previous QUESTIONNAIRES • before or after the event • not directly related to performance • rigidly and systematically set out • transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed • able to quantify accurately • would not be influenced by another • can be used to assess specific traits Next OBSERVATION • made during an actual event • directly related to performance • varies according to the competitive nature of the event • difficult to quantify accurately • may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes Module 2565 B2.1.13 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE suspecting - accepting lax - controlled relaxed - tense high anxiety low anxiety adventurous - shy mature - immature timid - confident extroversion introversion sociable - aloof aggressive - mild enthusiastic - prudent tough minded tender minded self-sufficient - group oriented sensitive - tough imaginative - practical independence subduedness sophisticated unpretentious conscientious - casual mentally bright mentally dull Previous radical - conservative Next Module 2565 B2.1.14 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) MOODS • are an important aspect of personality which may influence sports performance • • • • • • tension depression anger vigour fatigue confusion • elite sportspeople show low – tension – depression – confusion high – vigour • • • Previous Next unsuccessful sportspeople show high – tension – depression – fatigue – confusion low – vigour Module 2565 B2.1.15 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 THE SELF-CONCEPT The SELF-CONCEPT • is the descriptive picture we have of ourselves SELF-ESTEEM • the extent to which we value ourselves • • this may or may not match up to the expectations of others • example : – player may take pride in an ability to tackle hard – the referee may see this as unnecessary aggression • • including : – physical attributes – attitudes – abilities – roles – emotions representing how we see ourselves which may not reflect reality or the way others see us Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.16 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT GLOBAL SELF-CONCEPT level 1 level 2 academic social physical attitudes etc Previous level 3 sports competence physical appearance level 4 tennis ability physique level 5 serving ability slim hips level 6 ‘I can get this serve in’ ‘I look good today’ Next Module 2565 B2.1.17 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT OBJECTIVE SOURCES • photos • records • results • mirrors SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS • reaction of others • comparison with others • identification with models Previous RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPERIENCES AND SELF-CONCEPT existing positive self-concept existing negative self-concept positive experience of sport or PE self-concept enhanced self-concept may become positive negative experience of sport or PE self-concept may become negative self-concept reinforced Next Module 2565 B2.1.18 Personality OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL successful experience anticipation of future success positive feedback from significant others development of positive self esteem development of high self esteem continued participation high motivation effective learning continued positive feedback enhanced performance Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.19 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Attitudes ATTITUDES IN SPORT ATTITUDES • a combination of beliefs and feelings about : – objects – people – situations – (called attitude objects) • this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them • learned or organised through experience • • • evaluative they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively about an attitude object • • • tend to be deep seated and enduring but can change or be changed Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.20 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Attitudes FORMATION OF ATTITUDES media friends peers family Previous FORMATION OF ATTITUDES teachers Next past experiences prejudice coaches Module 2565 B2.1.21 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Attitudes COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL COGNITIVE knowledge and beliefs example : fitness training keeps me fit ATTITUDE to regular exercise BEHAVIOURAL AFFECTIVE intended behaviour example : I attend training sessions regularly feelings and emotions example : I enjoy training Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.22 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Attitudes PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES PREJUDICE • a prejudgement of a person, group, or situation • usually based on inadequate information • or inaccurate or biased information • which reinforces stereotypes • example : – women are often excluded from male dominated sports clubs or events NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES • women in strength, endurance and contact sports • participation of the disabled in physical activity • older age groups interest and ability at sport • participation of particular ethnic groups in specific sports or positions within teams examples : – the black quarterback in American Football – the black sprinter – the white skier / swimmer • Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.23 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Attitudes POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT POSITIVE ATTITUDES • has a positive physical self-concept • satisfaction from participation in sport • believe sport promotes health • success at sport • willing to try new activities • encouraged by significant others • participates regularly • opportunity to participate Previous Next NEGATIVE ATTITUDES • had negative experiences at sport • have lifestyle which makes regular sport difficult • find sport frustrating • lack encouragement • unlikely to participate in sport • have a negative self concept • find sport boring Module 2565 B2.1.24 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Attitudes ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION • the person must – pay attention – understand – accept – retain – the message being given • • COGNITIVE DISSONANCE • the person must – be consistent between • cognitive • affective • behavioural components the coach must – be expert – be trustworthy the – – – message must be clear be unambiguous be balanced between emotion and logic – be balanced between pros and cons Previous Next • the person must be consistent between different elements • cognitive dissonance occurs hence attitudes must change – if two factual elements of attitude conflict – example : the smoker who knows that smoking is bad for health Module 2565 B2.1.25 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Attitudes MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES BY OBSERVATION • related to actual events as they are happening • difficult to quantify or measure • open to interpretation by observer USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS • indicators such as – blood pressure – skin conductivity – brain activity (ECG) • can be interpreted to indicate telling the truth – about an attitude object • measurable • independent of observer • but takes a long time to set up requiring special apparatus Previous Next QUESTIONNAIRES • only as good as the questions asked • measurable using – Thurstone scale – Likert scale – Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale Module 2565 B2.1.26 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS MOTIVATORS • the reasons why sportspeople think and behave as they do drive to strive persistence continuity intensity MOTIVATION performance THEORIES Previous direction social perception Next goal orientation Module 2565 B2.1.27 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION money EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION trophies criticism badges positive and negative reinforcement fame praise EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION MOTIVATION the drive to strive INTRINSIC MOTIVATION INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Previous competence Next mastery feeling good Module 2565 B2.1.28 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES INTRINSIC SOURCES satisfaction achievement feeling good INTRINSIC SOURCES money EXTRINSIC REWARDS trophies badges TANGIBLE certificates medals EXTRINSIC REWARDS positive praise fame winning Previous Next INTANGIBLE negative criticism defeat Module 2565 B2.1.29 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation MAJOR MOTIVES FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION • fun • being with friends • thrills • excitement • success • developing fitness • improving skills • being good at it Previous Next FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION • health factors • weight loss • fitness • self-challenge • feeling better Module 2565 B2.1.30 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES • adding extrinsic reward to a situation which already provided intrinsic motivation • decreases the intrinsic motivation • eventually replacing it • so when rewards are no longer available • interest in the situation (sports activity) reduces EXPLANATIONS • the reward acts as a distraction • to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to work at his / her own pace • rewards may turn play into work • relationships with the person giving rewards might change • the nature of the activity changes • people like to determine their own behaviour • rewards may make them feel that someone else is in charge Previous Next APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION • to attract youngsters to an activity • to revive flagging motivation • to help a sportsperson over a bad period in training • to provide information about levels of achievement and competence Module 2565 B2.1.31 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF • personal characteristics • situational aspects MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN • the performer is keen to participate • the performer is keen to learn • the performer is keen to perform • the performer is keen to perform effectively • when the motivational climate is right • when the training programme is interesting and varied MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY • routine • competition between motives Previous PEOPLE • have multiple motives • share motives • have unique motivational profiles • need variation in training and competition • need variation in intensity and competitiveness • need structured coaching and teaching environments MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS Next Module 2565 B2.1.32 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION • the drive to achieve success for its own sake • related to – competitiveness – persistence – striving for perfection NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) Tendency to approach success (Ts) • this personality type likes a challenge • likes feedback • is not afraid of failure • has high task persistence • NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF) Tendency to avoid failure (Taf) • this personality type avoids challenges • does not take risks • often gives up • does not want feedback influenced by – personality factors • need to achieve • need to avoid failure – situational factors • probability of success • incentive value of success Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.33 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS A= • someone with a high need to achieve • will probably have a low need to avoid failure • will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky • the hard route up a rock face B= • someone with a high need to avoid failure • will probably have a low need to achieve • will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved • the easy route up the rock face Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.34 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS A= • probability of success low • (competing against the world champion) • therefore strive very hard to win • (incentive high) • (will be highly chuffed if win) B= • probability of success high • (competing in local club match) • therefore don’t need to try as hard to win • (incentive low) • (and expect to win easily) • (not so pleasing) Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.35 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY AROUSAL • this is the level of inner drives • which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve • it needs to be under control • and at the right level depending on the task DRIVE THEORY • the higher the arousal level • the higher the achievement / performance level • the more likely that a well learned skill (a dominant response) will be produced RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM • RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal • extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts • hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal • introverts seek low arousal situations Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.36 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation INVERTED U THEORY INVERTED U THEORY • there is an optimum arousal level • if aroused more than this • performance will decline OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ON type of activity • gross skills (weight lifting) require high arousal • fine skills (snooker) require low arousal skill level of the performer • the more skilful the performer • the higher the optimum arousal could be personality of the performer • the more extrovert the performer • the higher the arousal likely for optimum performance • whereas introverts would optimise performance at lower arousal levels Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.37 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Motivation CATASTROPHE THEORY CATASTROPHE THEORY • here performance increases as arousal increases • but if arousal gets too high • a complete loss of performance occurs (the catastrophe) • example : the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position • example : the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well executed routine in a national final • anxiety affects arousal Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.38 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Groups and Teams GROUPS A GROUP IS • two or more people • interacting with one another • so that each person influences and is influenced by the others • has a collective identity • and a sense of shared purpose Previous • • • a social aggregate involving mutual awareness and potential interaction with structured patterns of communication • examples : – crowd at a soccer match – soccer team – parents watching their children swim Next Module 2565 B2.1.39 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Groups and Teams STEINER’S MODEL • • team success = potential for success - coordination and motivation problems actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes POTENTIAL FOR SUCCESS • usually skilful individuals make the best team • usually individual success (of team members) correlates with overall team success COORDINATION PROBLEMS (for players) • occur if there is a high level of interaction between them • if one player is being selfish or aggressive • if a defence is not working together • hence overall team performance suffers MOTIVATION PROBLEMS • people seem to work less hard in a group than they do on their own • example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly faster than single sculls • this is social loafing ‘the Ringlemann Effect’ MOTIVATIONAL LOSSES • individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group cohesion • example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order to win Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.40 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Groups and Teams SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION SOCIAL LOAFING • individuals reduce their effort when in a group • and can hide their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members • can be eliminated if the contribution of an individual can be identified • as with player statistics (American Football, Rugby League, Cricket, Basketball) • the need for interaction between players varies between sports • cooperation between players can be significant COHESION • selection of less skilled but more cooperative players • the extent to which members of a group exhibit a desire to achieve common goals and group identity • friendship groups can have negative effects • cohesion has both task and social elements TASK COHESION • people who are willing to work together whether or not they get on personally • have the potential to be successful SOCIAL COHESION • teams with high social cohesion but low task cohesion are less successful Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.41 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Groups and Teams COHESION CARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL • four factors affect the development of cohesion ENVIRONMENTAL environmental • factors binding members to a team factors – contracts, location, age, eligibility • avoid star system, provide opportunities for socialising PERSONAL • factors which members believe are important – motives for taking part • give opportunities for motives to be realised • develop ownership feelings and social groupings within the team LEADERSHIP • the behaviour of leaders and coaches – coaches should use all leadership behaviours to influence different individuals personal factors COHESION leadership factors team factors TEAM • factors relating to the group – team identity, targets, member ability and role • creation of team short and long-term goals • rewarding of individual and team efforts Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.42 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Leadership LEADERSHIP A LEADER • can influence the behaviour of others towards required goals • will influence effective team cohesion • will help fulfil expectations of a team • develops an environment in which a group is motivated rewarded and helped towards its common goals • • emergent leaders come from within a group – because of their skill and abilities – or through nomination / election prescribed leaders – are appointed by a governing body – or agency outside the group Previous Next LEADERSHIP • the ‘great man’ theory • NATURE • leaders are born not made • leaders have relevant innate personality qualities • • • • social learning theory NURTURE leaders learn their skills through watching and imitating models leaders are formed throughout life – by social or environmental influences – observation of a model – high status of a model – imitation or copying of behaviour Module 2565 B2.1.43 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Leadership FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS LEADERSHIP QUALITIES • communication • respect for group members • enthusiasm • high ability • deep knowledge • charisma LEADER CHARACTERISTICS qualities styles - autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire LEADER CHARACTERISTICS LEADER EFFECTIVENESS THE SITUATION MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS THE SITUATION individuality tradition time size of group Previous Next MEMBER's CHARACTERISTICS expectations preferred leadership style Module 2565 B2.1.44 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Leadership LEADERSHIP STYLE FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY • there is a continuum between : CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM • between : task-centred leadership • best for most favourable or • least favourable situations autocratic authoritarian • leader who makes all the decisions democratic • leader who shares the decisions • (with members of group or team) • seeks advice • is prepared to change his / her mind based on advice person (or relationship) centred leadership • best for moderately favourable situations favourableness depends on • whether relationships are warm • if the task has a clear structure • if the leader is powerful • pressure of time Previous laissez faire • leader who lets others make decisions • Next each type can be effective depending on the situation Module 2565 B2.1.45 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Leadership SITUATIONAL FACTORS SITUATIONAL FAVOURABLENESS • • • • • • TEAM SPORTS • leader should be directive • and organises and structures group tasks if things are going well for the team or things are going badly (poor facilities, no support) then a leader needs to be TASK-ORIENTED INDIVIDUAL SPORTS • look for a person oriented leader SIZE OF GROUP • affects leadership style • the more members in a group • the less likely individual needs will be taken into account if things are going moderately well then a leader needs to be PERSON-CENTRED DECISION NEEDS TO BE MADE QUICKLY • autocratic style of leader TRADITION • members resent change Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.46 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Leadership MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS A GOOD LEADER will adapt to – expectations – knowledge – experience – of group members Previous • • if group is hostile leader adopts autocratic style • • • if group is friendly leader adopts more democratic person-centred style • problems arise if strategies for preparation used by leader do not match group expectations Next Module 2565 B2.1.47 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Leadership CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL LEADER CHARACTERISTICS ACTUAL LEADER REQUIRED BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOUR the way in which the coach normally goes about his job what is expected by team management of the coach performance / satisfaction PREFERRED LEADER BEHAVIOUR the way in which members prefer their coach to relate to them SITUATION CHARACTERISTICS Previous MEMBER's CHARACTERISTICS Next Module 2565 B2.1.48 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Leadership CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION • behaviour aimed at improving performance • strong on technical and tactical aspects DEMOCRATIC APPROACH • allows decisions to be made collectively AUTOCRATIC APPROACH • personal authority • least preferred if coach does not show he / she is aware of athlete’s needs and preferences SOCIAL SUPPORT • concern shown for well-being of others • preferred by youngsters REWARDS • leader uses positive reinforcement Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.49 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Mental Preparation for Sport Performance MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE COMMITMENT SELF-CONFIDENCE CONCENTRATION EMOTIONAL CONTROL Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.50 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Commitment GOAL SETTING GOAL STRUCTURE • easily attained initially • progressively more difficult • training goals should be planned around overall goals • short-term / medium-term / long-term • goal setting as a means of managing anxiety / stress • goal setting to increase motivation GOALS ARE EITHER • outcome oriented – towards the end result of the sporting activity – example : to win a race • performance oriented – judged against other performances – example : to beat best time • process oriented – improvement in techniques Previous Next GOALS SHOULD BE • stated positively • specific to the situation and the performer • time phased • challenging • achievable • measurable • negotiated between sportsperson and coach • progressive, from short-term to longterm • performance oriented rather than outcome oriented • written down • reviewed regularly (with downward adjustment if necessary - in the case of injury) Module 2565 B2.1.51 OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875 Commitment SMARTER GOALS (NCF) SPECIFIC • directly related to sporting situation MEASURABLE • progress can be assessed ACCEPTED • by both performer and coach REALISTIC • challenging but within capability of performer TIME PHASED • a date is set for completion EXCITING • inspiring and rewarding to the performer RECORDED • written down Previous Next Module 2565 B2.1.52
