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Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline
August 2016
Volume 19 Number 4
Editor-in-Chief
Official Research Journal of
Tommy
the American
Boone, PhD,
Society
MBA
of
Review
Board
Exercise
Physiologists
Todd Astorino, PhD
Julien Baker,
ISSN 1097-9751
PhD
Steve Brock, PhD
Lance Dalleck, PhD
Eric Goulet, PhD
Robert Gotshall, PhD
Alexander Hutchison, PhD
M. Knight-Maloney, PhD
Len Kravitz, PhD
James Laskin, PhD
Yit Aun Lim, PhD
Lonnie Lowery, PhD
Derek Marks, PhD
Cristine Mermier, PhD
Robert Robergs, PhD
Chantal Vella, PhD
Dale Wagner, PhD
Frank Wyatt, PhD
Ben Zhou, PhD
Official Research Journal
of the American Society of
Exercise Physiologists
ISSN 1097-9751
JEPonline
Comparison of Factors Related to Jump Performance
in Volleyball Players and Swimmers
Mami Yoshimura, Yoshihisa Umemura
Laboratory for Exercise Physiology and Biomechanics, Graduate
School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University, Aichi,
Japan
ABSTRACT
Yoshimura M, Umemura Y. Comparison of Factors Related to
Jump Performance in Volleyball Players and Swimmers. JEPonline
2016;19(4):53-65. The purpose of this study was to compare the
morphometry of Achilles tendon (AT), the stiffness of ankle joint, and
the leg strength of swimmers with that of volleyball players. Further,
the role of long-term training in the different playing styles was
examined, as well as factors related to jump performance between
the two groups. The subjects were 17 male swimmers (age, 20 ± 1
yrs; sport history, 15 ± 1 yrs; height, 174.6 ± 6.2 cm; body mass,
70.0 ± 6.9 kg) and 16 male volleyball players (age, 20 ± 1 yrs; sport
history, 10 ± 2 yrs; height, 180.9 ± 4.0 cm; body mass, 76.3 ± 9.1
kg). The findings indicate that the volleyball group had a significantly
greater AT length ratio and AT thickness than the swimming group.
There were no significant differences between the swimming group
and volleyball group in leg extension strength or stiffness of the
ankle joint, although the swimming group had significantly greater
range of motion than the volleyball group. The length of the AT and
leg extension strength were factors that related to jump performance
in the swimming group; however, this was not the case in the
volleyball group. These results suggest that the morphology of the
AT and the factors correlated to jump performance may change in
accordance with the different exercise training over an extended
period.
Key Words: Jump Performance, Achilles Tendon Stiffness, Different
Playing Characteristics, Different Adaptation
54
INTRODUCTION
In certain sports, jump ability is an important factor in determining performance. According to
previous studies (3,9,11,15), physical characteristics, mechanical properties of the tendon
and muscle, and leg muscle strength and power contribute to jump ability. However, in these
studies, the authors have not always fully considered the career or exercise training mode of
the subjects, making it difficult to determine whether the factors related to jump performance
resulted from adaptations to jump training. Specifically, it is possible that different factors
contribute to jump performance among subjects who carry out different exercise training over
long periods.
Volleyball players frequently perform jump movements characterized by large instantaneous
power during actions such as spiking, serving, and blocking. In contrast, swimmers perform
most characteristic movements in the water (except the dive movement), where loads are
lightened by the buoyancy condition. The way that physical fitness and morphological
characteristics adapt in relation to jump performance for athletes with extended exercise
training of such different playing types is not well understood. Previous studies in which
jumping-related factors were investigated did not investigate swimmers. Therefore, it is
important to investigate the factors that determine the jump ability of swimmers compared
with that of volleyball players.
In this study, we investigated the morphometry of the Achilles tendon (AT), the stiffness of the
ankle joint, and leg strength as factors associated with jump ability. With regard to Achilles
tendon length (ATL) ratio, no significant differences among long-distance runners, volleyball
players, and kayakers have been reported. To our knowledge, no studies have shown
different ATL ratios between different types of athletes. However, the cross-sectional area
(CSA) of the AT is greater in runners compared with non-runners and greater in volleyball
players compared with kayakers. In addition, it was reported that short-term plyometric
training significantly enlarged the CSA but not the length of the AT. These studies suggested
that large intermittent loads enlarge the CSA of the AT. However, how the AT adapts to
swimming training compared with training with gravity is not clear, nor is the adaptation of
ankle joint stiffness and leg strength to swimming training.
Therefore, in this study, we compared the morphometry of AT, the stiffness of the ankle joint,
and the leg strength of swimmers with that of volleyball players. Further, we examined how
each measured variable adapted during long-term training with the different playing styles, as
well as how the factors involved in jump performance differed between the two groups.
METHODS
Subjects
The subjects were 17 male swimmers (age, 20 ± 1 yrs; sport history, 15 ± 1 yrs; height, 174.6
± 6.2 cm; body mass, 70.0 ± 6.9 kg) and 16 male volleyball players (age, 20 ± 1 yrs; sport
history, 10 ± 2 yrs; height, 180.9 ± 4.0 cm; body mass, 76.3 ± 9.1 kg). All subjects belonged
to the university’s sports teams and did not have any injuries to their lower limbs. Moreover,
the volleyball players who were recruited played the “attacker” position and jumped well
during routine practice. Each subject was informed of the purpose, procedure, and possible
55
risks of the study in oral and written form. This study was carried out after obtaining informed
consent in writing from all subjects. Informed consent was obtained from the parents of minor
subjects. This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Chukyo University.
Procedures
Height, Body Mass, and Morphometry of the AT
The measured morphological characteristics were height, body mass, the center of the
popliteal fossa (CPF), ATL, and AT thickness (ATT). ATL was defined as the length from the
gastrocnemius muscle tendon junction to the AT calcaneus stop portion for the right leg and
was measured using an ultrasound system (LOGIQ P5; GE Healthcare, Little Chalfont, UK)
(Figure 1). CPF was defined as the length from the floor to the wrinkle at the center of the
popliteal fossa for the right leg. In addition, the ratios of ATL to CPF (ATL/CPF), ATL to height
(ATL/H), and CPF to height (CPF/H) were calculated. ATT was measured using an
ultrasound system in the horizontal plane at the height of the lateral malleolus of the right foot
(Figure 2).
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. The Achilles Tendon Length (ATL) was Measured with the Subject in the Prone
Position on the Bed. ATL was defined as the length from the gastrocnemius muscle tendon junction
to the AT calcaneus stop portion and measured using an ultrasound system for the right leg. “a”
shows the muscle-tendon transition of the gastrocnemius. “b” shows the calcaneus stop part of the
AT.
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Figure 2. Achilles Tendon Thickness (ATT) was Measured in the Same Position as the ATL
(shown in Figure 1) and was Measured Using an Ultrasound System in the Horizontal Plane at
the Height of the Lateral Malleolus of the Right Foot. ATT is the length between the arrows on the
left in the figure.
Mechanical Properties of the Ankle Joint
To evaluate the mechanical properties of the ankle joint, the ankle dorsiflexion angle and
ankle joint passive torque were measured sequentially, and the muscle-tendon complex
stiffness was calculated from these parameters. Subjects sat in the right knee maximum
extended position in a isokinetic strength meter (System 3; Biodex Medical Systems, Inc.,
Shirley, NY, USA). The right foot was firmly secured with a belt to the foot plate. Then, the
rotation axis of the foot plate and the position of the lateral malleolus were set in a straight
line (Figure 3).
Figure 3. For Evaluation of the Mechanical Properties of the Ankle Joint, Ankle Dorsiflexion
Angle and Ankle Joint Passive Torque were measured sequentially, and the Muscle-Tendon
Complex Stiffness was calculated from these values. While the foot plate was rotated at a speed
of 1°·sec-1, the dorsiflexion angle and ankle joint passive torque were measured throughout the ankle
range of motion (ROM).
57
In this study, we defined ankle joint angle at 0° (dorsiflexion 0°) when the foot plate was
perpendicular to the ground and measured the ankle joint angle as the rotation angle of the
foot plate; we defined dorsiflexion as positive. While the foot plate was rotated at a speed of
1°·sec-1, the dorsiflexion angle and ankle joint passive torque were recorded throughout the
ankle’s range of motion (ROM). The angle and torque were measured by the isokinetic
strength machine. These data were converted from analog to digital date at a sampling rate
of 1.5 kHz using a data recorder (LX-10; TEAC Corporation, Tokyo, Japan).
In determining ROM, the subjects were instructed to press the stop button if they felt pain.
During this process, the subjects were blindfolded to remove possible visual bias. Three
ROM trials were carried out for each subject, and the trial with the highest ROM was used for
analysis. Muscle-tendon complex stiffness was calculated from the slope of the ankle joint
angle-passive torque curve, which was fitted by quadratic regression from the last 12° of
ROM data (i.e., the maximal dorsiflexion ankle angle [MDA]). The stiffness was calculated at
the MDA, MDA −4°, MDA −8°, and MDA −12°, in a similar manner as prior studies (4,14).
Measurement of Jump Height
The squat jump (SJ), counter movement jump (CMJ), and rebound jump (RJ) were measured
as jump performance data. Each jump height was measured using a jump mat (Multi Jump
Tester II; DKH Inc., Tokyo, Japan). In the SJ, the subjects jumped vertically from a static
squat position. In the CMJ, the subjects jumped vertically after dropping from a standing
position into a squat position. In the RJ, the subjects jumped eight times consecutively.
During each jump, the subjects were instructed to jump without an arm swing to prevent their
contribution to jump height. SJ and CMJ were measured several times; RJ was measured
twice. The maximum values of the SJ and CMJ trials were recorded, while the trial with the
higher average value of all eight jumps was recorded for the RJ. The subjects were allowed
to rest as much as needed before the next trial.
Leg Strength
Subjects sat on the chair of the isokinetic strength meter, and their chest, abdomen, and
thighs were fixed with the belt. Then, the subjects performed knee joint extension and flexion
at maximum effort at a rotation speed of 60°·sec-1. Three trials were performed for each leg,
and the maximum value was recorded. To become familiar with this measurement technique,
the subjects first practiced at submaximal effort.
Statistical Analyses
The age of the subjects, their sports history, height, body mass, and other measured
variables are shown as mean ± standard deviation. An unpaired t-test was used to test for
significant difference between the two groups (volleyball vs. swimming). The correlations
between measured variables and jump height were tested between the swimming and
volleyball groups using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient. Moreover, the
correlations between AT parameters and jump height among all subjects were tested using
Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient. The levels of significance were P<0.05 and
P<0.01.
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RESULTS
Height, Body Mass, and Morphometry of AT
A comparison of the physical characteristics of the swimming and volleyball groups is shown
in Figure 4. The volleyball group had significantly greater height and body mass than the
swimming group.
A
C
＊＊
＊＊
B
D
E
＊＊
F
G
＊＊
H
＊＊
＊
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Figure 4. Mean ± Standard Division of the Height (A), Body Mass (B), CPF (C), CPF/H (D), ATL
(E), ATL/H (F), ATL/CPF (G), and ATT (H) in the Swimming Group (open bar) and the Volleyball
Group (filled bar). Statistically significant differences between the swimming and volleyball groups
are denoted as *P<0.05 and ** P<0.01; CPF = the center of the popliteal fossa, CPF/H = ratio of the
center of the popliteal fossa per height, ATL = Achilles tendon length, ATL/H = ratio of Achilles tendon
length per height, ATL/CPF = ratio of Achilles tendon length per the center of the popliteal fossa, ATT
= Achilles tendon thickness.
The volleyball group had a significantly greater CPF than the swimming group. However,
there were no significant differences in CPF/H ratio between the groups. The volleyball group
also had significantly greater ATL, ATL/H ratio, and ATL/CPF ratio than the swimming group.
In addition, the volleyball group had significantly greater ATT than the swimming group.
ROM and Mechanical Properties of the Ankle Joint
ROM was significantly greater in the swimming group than the volleyball group (Table 1).
Muscle tendon complex stiffness at the ROM dorsiflexion endpoint (MDA), MDA −4°, MDA
−8°, and MDA −12° was not significantly different between groups (Table 1).
Table 1. ROM and MTC Stiffness in the Swimming and Volleyball Groups.
ROM (°)
Stiffness
(Nm/°)
MDA − 12°
MDA − 8°
MDA − 4°
MDA
Swimming
Volleyball
29.4 ± 10.4
0.84 ± 0.54
1.06 ± 0.46
1.29 ± 0.46
1.51 ± 0.55
20.7 ± 11.1
1.05 ± 0.94
1.24 ± 0.67
1.43 ± 0.58
1.62 ± 0.75
P<0.05
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
Variables are represented as mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences between the swimming and
volleyball groups are denoted by P<0.05. n.s. = indicates no significant difference. ROM = maximal dorsiflexion
ankle angle, MTC = muscle-tendon complex
Jump Height
Each jump height was significantly greater in the volleyball group than the swimming group
(Table 2).
Table 2. Jump Height of Squat Jump (SJ), Countermovement Jump (CMJ), and Rebound Jump
(RJ) in the Swimming and Volleyball Groups.
Jump height
(cm)
SJ
CMJ
RJ
Swimming
Volleyball
39 ± 7
42 ± 7
36 ± 5
45 ± 5
50 ± 5
40 ± 6
P<0.05
P<0.01
P<0.05
Variables are represented as mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences between the swimming and
volleyball groups are denoted by P<0.05 or P<0.01.
60
Leg Strength
Leg strength was calculated by dividing each of the measured values by the individual’s body
mass. There were no significant differences between the swimming group and the volleyball
group in extension-flexion strength of the right and left legs (Table 3).
Table 3. Right- and Left-Leg Extension-Flexion Strength in Swimming and Volleyball Groups.
Leg strength
(Nm/ kg)
Right leg
Left leg
Extension
Flexion
Extension
Flexion
Swimming
Volleyball
2.5 ± 0.6
1.2 ± 0.3
2.4 ± 0.6
1.2 ± 0.3
2.8 ± 0.5
1.4 ± 0.3
2.8 ± 0.6
1.4 ± 0.3
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
Variables are represented as mean ± SD. n.s. = no significant difference
Correlation
There were significant correlations between RJ height and ATL, ATL/H ratio, and ATL/CPF
ratio in the swimming group, but no significant correlations between morphometry parameters
and jump height were found in the volleyball group (Tables 4 and 5).
Table 4. Correlation of Squat Jump (SJ) Height, Counter Movement Jump (CMJ) Height,
Rebound Jump (RJ) Height, and Measured Items in the Swimming Group.
SJ
CMJ
RJ
Height
Body mass
CPF
CPF/H
ATL
0.18
0.14
0.21
0.10
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.03
0.31
0.03
−0.03
0.04
0.01
0.55*
ATL/H
0.09
0.24
0.52*
ATL/CPF
0.05
0.22
0.49*
MDA − 12°
MDA − 8°
MDA − 4°
MDA
0.13
0.07
−0.08
−0.06
−0.03
0.01
0.03
0.20
−0.03
−0.05
−0.05
−0.05
Extension
Flexion
Extension
0.49*
0.26
0.45
0.60*
0.42
0.56*
0.72**
0.39
0.64**
Flexion
0.38
1
---
0.46
0.92**
1
0.44
0.79**
0.86**
ATT
ROM
MTC stiffness
−0.06
0.26
−0.31
−0.33
−0.28
−0.21
Leg strength
Right leg
Left leg
SJ
CMJ
RJ
---
---
1
Variables are represented as mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences are denoted by *P<0.05 or
**P<0.01. CPF = the center of the popliteal fossa, CPF/H = ratio of the center of the popliteal fossa per height,
61
ATL = Achilles tendon length, ATL/H = ratio of Achilles tendon length per height, ATL/CPF = ratio of Achilles
tendon length per the center of the popliteal fossa, ATT = Achilles tendon thickness
There were no significant correlations between SJ and ATL/CPF ratio within the two groups
combined, but there were significant correlations between CMJ or RJ (Figure 5) and
ATL/CPF ratio within the two groups combined. There were no significant correlations
between muscle-tendon complex stiffness and jump height in either group (Tables 4 and 5).
There were significant correlations between right- and left-leg extension strength and jump
height except between the left-leg extension strength and SJ height in the swimming group.
Conversely, there was only a significant correlation between extension strength of the right
leg and CMJ height in the volleyball group (Tables 4 and 5).
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RJ height (cm)
50
40
30
20
r = 0.451
(p < 0.01)
10
0
35.0
45.0
55.0
ATL/ CPF(%)
Figure 5. Scatter Plot of the Rebound Jump (RJ) Height and Tendon Length Ratio for the
Swimming and Volleyball Groups. O = swimming group, ◆ = volleyball group, ATL/CPF = ratio of
Achilles tendon length per the center of the popliteal fossa
Table 5. Correlation of Squat Jump (SJ) Height, Counter Movement Jump (CMJ) Height,
Rebound Jump (RJ) Height, and Measured Items in the Volleyball Group.
SJ
CMJ
RJ
Height
Body mass
CPF
CPF/H
ATL
−0.01
−0.08
−0.02
−0.02
−0.18
−0.27
−0.36
−0.15
0.07
0.03
0.04
−0.24
0.00
−0.03
0.10
ATL/H
−0.19
0.13
0.09
ATL/CPF
−0.24
0.12
−0.11
ATT
ROM
MTC stiffness
MDA − 12°
MDA − 8°
MDA − 4°
MDA
0.10
0.06
0.08
−0.07
−0.30
−0.40
0.21
0.03
−0.11
−0.23
−0.35
−0.34
−0.23
0.12
0.18
0.10
−0.07
−0.19
Extension
0.01
0.12
−0.11
Leg strength
Right leg
62
Left leg
SJ
CMJ
RJ
Flexion
Extension
−0.11
0.06
0.27
0.51*
0.01
−0.14
Flexion
−0.07
1
---
0.22
0.47
1
−0.14
0.09
0.09
---
---
1
Variables are represented as mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences are denoted by *P<0.05 or
**P<0.01. CPF = the center of the popliteal fossa, CPF/H = ratio of the center of the popliteal fossa per height,
ATL = Achilles tendon length, ATL/H = ratio of Achilles tendon length per height, ATL/CPF = ratio of Achilles
tendon length per the center of the popliteal fossa, ATT = Achilles tendon thickness
DISCUSSION
In this study, we measured the morphological characteristics of the AT, the mechanical
properties of the muscle-tendon complex of the ankle flexor, leg strength, and jump ability in
male university swimmers and volleyball players. In additional to comparing adaptation to
different types of long-term physical training, we examined the differences in how these
significant factors correlated with jump ability for the two groups. Our results showed that the
mechanical properties of the muscle-tendon complex of the ankle flexor and leg strength
were not different between groups, although jump ability was significantly greater in the
volleyball group than in the swimming group. In addition, the volleyball group had greater
average ATL and ATT compared with the swimming group. The ATL was one of the factors
that correlated with RJ capacity in the swimming group but not in the volleyball group. Based
on these results, the morphology of the AT may change because of long-term training in
accordance with the playing characteristics of the sport.
Height, Body Mass, and Morphometry of AT
Although we found a significant difference in the ATL ratio between the different athletes, this
finding was not always consistent with that of previous studies. For example, Kongsgaard et
al. (6) reported that the ATL ratio was not significantly different among long-distance runners,
volleyball players, and kayakers. To our understanding, no studies have focused on
swimmers’ ATL. The swimmers who participated in the present study did not have intensive
jump experience (i.e., characterized by quick stretch shortening cycles and body-weight
resistance) because their routine training occurs in a setting with water buoyancy. Therefore,
a significantly different ATL ratio could be expected between the swimmers and the volleyball
players, who use quick SSC operations routinely. However, the ATL ratio was not changed in
the intervention study (5). Thus, long training period may be required to change the ATL ratio.
Fouré and colleagues (3) suggested that the ATL ratio is associated with jump performance.
In this study, ATL was significant correlated with some jump performance parameters in the
swimming group or the combined group; whereas, the ATL was not correlated with jump
performance in the volleyball group alone. This interesting result may indicate that both ATL
ratio and jump performance increase during jump training, although the increase of the ATL
may reach a limit.
The ATT of the volleyball group in this study showed a significantly higher value than that of
the swimming group. This result is supported by several previous studies. In the study by
Kongsgaard et al. (6), the CSA of the AT measured by MRI was significantly greater in the
63
volleyball players than in the long-distance runners, and kayak athletes. They concluded that
large intermittent load to AT accompanied by the routine movement of volleyball players
enlarged the CSA. Also, in the study by Magnusson (12), who compared the CSA of the AT
measured by MRI of runners and non-runners, the CSA of the AT in runners was significantly
greater at 10, 20, 30, and 40 mm from the calcaneus stop of the AT compared with nonrunners.
These results indicate that the CSA of the AT is enlarged by the larger exercise loads over a
long period. In the present study, we measured the ATT by ultrasound, and it was
significantly greater in the volleyball group than in the swimming group. Measurement by
ultrasound is considered to have reduced accuracy compared with measurements by MRI.
However, the coefficient of variation (CV) of the ATL measurement was 4.0% and the CV of
the ATT measurement was 1.1% during this study. Therefore, we think we were able to
evaluate the morphology of the AT reasonably well by ultrasound.
ROM and Mechanical Properties of the Ankle Joint
In the present study, ROM was significantly greater in the swimming group. However, there
were no significant differences between groups in the stiffness of the muscle-tendon complex
of the ankle flexor. In addition, there was no significant correlation between the ROM or
stiffness and jump height in either group. In previous studies, there was no consensus about
whether the stiffness of the ankle joint or tendon was correlated to jump ability. In the crosssectional study of Møller et al. (13), there was significant correlation between the stiffness of
the tendon of the vastus lateralis muscle, measured in voluntary muscle isometric
contraction, and SJ or CMJ height. In contrast, in the cross-sectional study of Kubo et al.
(10), there was no significant correlation between ankle stiffness and SJ, CMJ, or RJ heights,
nor a correlation between AT stiffness and CMJ or drop jump heights. We measured the
ankle joint stiffness in passive dorsiflexion to avoid voluntary muscle isometric contraction
associated with optional effort. As a result, the measured values were not a factor in
determining the jump ability.
Leg Strength
There were no significant differences between the groups in leg strength. There was a
significant correlation between right- and left-leg extension strength and jump height in the
swimming group, while no significant correlation existed between leg extension strength and
jump height in the volleyball group, except between left-leg strength and CMJ height. In
Sheppard’s study (15), when measured in men’s volleyball players, a significant correlation
between relative CMJ height (absolute jump height (cm) -standing reach height (cm) =
relative jump height) and peak power per unit body weight existed.
In addition, in the Nuzzo et al. study (11) involving football players and track-and-field
athletes, there were significant correlations between squat (1 repetition maximum per body
weight) and CMJ height, peak power of CMJ, and peak velocity. Thus, leg extension strength
may be a factor related to jump performance. However, the higher correlations between leg
strength and jump performance observed in the swimming group may suggest that if an
athlete is trained in jumping daily like volleyball players, the contribution of the lower-limb
muscle strength to jump performance is decreased.
64
CONCLUSIONS
The male university volleyball players have a longer and thicker AT compared with male
university swimmers. Thus, different types of exercise training over a long period can affect
the morphology of the AT as well as factors correlated with jump performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We appreciate his participation and parents of the minority who admitted participation in this
study.
Address for correspondence: Mami Yoshimura, Laboratory for Exercise Physiology and
Biomechanics, Graduate School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University, 101
Tokodachi, Kaizu-cho, Toyota, Aichi, Japan, 470-0393, Email: [email protected]
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