Download NOTE: This annotated bibliography was developed and intended for

NOTE: This annotated bibliography was developed and intended for my own personal use; much of its content reflects both verbatim and modified quotations
without being identified as such.
Abbreviations: anx=anxiety or anxious; approx=approximately; assoc=associated; beh=behavior; Ch=Christian; dev=develop or development; diff=difference;
env=environment; freq=frequent/ly; rel=relationship; sign=significant/ly; w=with
Garlett, M. W. (1997). Female faculty on the fringe: Theologizing sexism in the evangelical academy. Research on Christian Higher Education, 4, 69-97.
Description: Marti Watson Garlett interviewed 24 randomly selected female academics at a variety of CCCU institutions. The article explores recurring themes
throughout the interviews:
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
Hostility toward female faculty in religious studies (from both male students, faculty members, & depts as a whole).
Students are more traditional than male faculty members in their view of women & family responsibilities.
Many women independently brought up controversial social issues, namely homosexuality & abortion.
"Potty power" is one woman’s name for the informal politicking that excludes women, occurring around the men’s urinals.
Many women believe that students are becoming pagan in nature, revering the icon of motherhood & family.
Institutions model Paul, not Jesus.
It’s easier for women to work in secular institutions than in Christian settings. The latter is blatantly sexist. One woman labeled it a pervading evil
masquerading in the guise of orthodoxy.
Another woman lumped patriarchy & feminism together, arguing that both exclude the relational aspect that Christianity embraces.
Type of Data: Gender, Education
Getz, I. (1984). The relation of moral reasoning and religion: a review of the literature. Counseling and Values, 28(3), 94-116.
Description: A useful tool -- includes a handy table of studies examining religion & moral judgment. A number of categories are addressed:
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Religious Ideology (Belief)
Intrinsic-Extrinsic Motivation
Religious Affiliation
Religious Education
Religious Knowledge
Caution: Irene Getz doesn’t critically examine the studies, but only reports surface findings -- generally that conservative religious & political persons score lower
on moral reasoning. But still useful tool.
Type of Data: Moral, Religion
Gibbs, J. C. (1991). Toward an integration of Kohlberg’s and Hoffman’s theories of morality. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior
and development: Vol. 1: Theory (pp. 183-222). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Description: Hoffman’s theory of morality emphasizes the role that society plays in transmitting moral norms, a theory that stresses empathic emotions as the basis
of moral motivation. Gibbs’ contention is that Hoffman’s & Kohlberg’s theories are complementary. Moral decisions should be made based on a balance of
cognition & affect.
Kohlberg views an adult w an external moral orientation as immature developmentally. Hoffman views external orientation as a byproduct of certain child-rearing
practices:
o
o
o
Discipline in which love is withdrawn does not result in moral internalization. Love withdrawal methods are frequently used when the
child has expressed anger toward the parent..
Children who experience a harsh, arbitrary style of discipline are more likely to feel fear rather than guilt when contemplating a wrongful
act.
Initial guilt intensity is the same between internally & externally moral oriented. But the internals sustained their guilt, while the externals
externalized theirs via blaming the victim, etc.
Kohlberg cheated!! Kohlberg found 20% of his sample who had been designated as postconventional/principled in high school, regressed to Stage 2 in college. So
Kohlberg apparently reclassified such principled-sounding moral judgment as Stage 3 or 4 (p. 196).
Gibbs argues that Stages 3 & 4 evidence moral maturity, albeit embedded in social arrangements. In cross-cultural studies Stages 5 & 6 are relatively rare & not
seen at all in tribal or village societies. Stages 5 & 6 are indicative not of a standard toward which to aim, but reflect the existential philosophy of those trained in
the formal philosophical thought of Kant, Rawls, & other Western philosophers.
Gibbs includes a good flow chart depicting the integration of Hoffman & Kohlberg’s theories.
Type of Data: Moral
Gielen, U. P. (see Adler)
Gielen, U. P., & Markoulis, D. C. (1994). Preference for principled moral reasoning: A developmental and cross-cultural perspective. In L. L. Adler & U. P. Gielen
(Eds.), Cross-cultural topics in psychology. (pp. 73-87). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Description:
Goal: Determine whether DIT is biased in favor of a Western, masculine, or upper SES class (whether DIT is multicultural in scope).
Methods: Analysis of 15 studies employing DIT in 14 countries (Anglo-Saxon, European, Caribbean, E Asian, Arab, & African countries.
Subjects: 8th grade - Postgraduate
Findings:
1.
All non-Arab studies report p scores increasing w educational level.
1.
Taiwan, S Korea, & Hong Kong had highest HS scores. US was average
1.
Among college students, N America, Europe, & E Asian countries had similar scores
1.
Dividing line for data is not between Western and non-Western countries, but between industrialized countries w demanding educational systems &
Third World countries: Third World countries (Belize, Trinidad-Tobago, & Nigeria) scored lower than industrialized countries in N America, Europe, &
E Asia.
1.
Arab countries (Egypt, Kuwait, & Sudan) show no development. DIT may not be suitable measure of moral judgment in Arab cultures: in 2 of the
studies, more than half the subjects failed consistency checks.
1.
Overall, females score (slightly) significantly higher on P
1.
Low correlations between parental SES and moral judgment of adolescents.
1.
DIT not biased in favor of individualistic, male-oriented, upper-class Western conceptions of morality.
Type of Data: Moral
Gillespie, V. B. (see Lee, J. W.)
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Description: Developmental theories have been built on research largely conducted on males, not females, and that female experience and underlying ethic differ
from, but are not inferior to, that of males. Based on studies of females faced with a moral dilemma (abortion), she maintains that the female ethic of care
(Kohlberg stage 3) is not inferior to male ethic of justice (stage 4).
Type of Data: Moral, Gender
Gilligan, C. (1979). Woman’s place in man’s life cycle. Harvard Educational Review, 49(4), 431-446.
Description:
Synopsis: Women’s dev focuses on the importance of attachment in the human life cycle: woman’s place in man’s life cycle has been to protect this recognition.
Male dev focuses on separation, autonomy, individuation, & rights: the male stance has been to denigrate the feminine emphasis on care.
Instead of developmental theories being sexually neutral in their scientific objectivity, they instead reflect a bias. Male theorists have typically regarded male dev as
the norm, & female beh as deviation from the norm.
Given that for both genders, the primary caretaker in childhood is female, interpersonal dynamics of identity formation differ. Female identity formation takes place
in a context of ongoing relationship. Females have more flexible ego boundaries. In contrast, boys must separate from their mothers, individuating early on,
resulting in firm ego boundaries. Masculinity is defined through separation, while femininity is defined through attachment. Thus, male identity will be threatened by
intimacy while female identity will be threatened by individuation.
Lever’s (1976) study examined gender differences in playing.
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boys play more out of doors than do girls
boys play in large & age-heterogeneous groups. Girls play in smaller, more intimate groups.
boys play competitive games more often than girls. Girls games are turn-taking games where competition is indirect: one person’s success does not
signify another’s failure.
boys games last longer, because
o
o
o
require a higher level of skill & were thus less likely to be boring
when disputes arose, boys were able to resolve the disputes more effectively than girls. Indeed, boys seem to relish the legal debate as
much as the game itself.
In contrast, disputes tend to end girls’ games. girls are more concerned with maintaining relational ties.
boys are more concerned w rules, girls w relationships
Lever concludes that boys learn independence, how to deal w competition, to play w enemies & compete w friends from the games they play. Girls
learn empathy & sensitivity from their games.
Erikson (1968) states that a woman "holds her identity in abeyance as she prepares to attract the man by whose name she will be known, by whose status she will
be defined, the man who will rescue her from emptiness and loneliness by filling the inner space." For men, identity precedes intimacy & generativity. For women,
these tasks are fused: intimacy goes along with identity. The female comes to know herself as she is known, through her relationships.
As Gilligan notes, in the world of fairy tales, the girl’s first bleeding is followed by a period of intense passivity in which nothing seems to be happening: Snow White
& Sleeping Beauty awaken from their deep sleep not to conquer the world, but to marry the prince.
McClelland (1961) divided achievement motivation into 2 components: hope of success & fear of failure. Horner (1972) identified a third category typical of women
as fear of success, an anxiety present in women only when achievement was directly competitive (one person’s success was at the expense of another’s failure).
Women tend to perceive femininity & success as either/or categories.
Women’s reluctance to make moral judgments can be indicative of the same care & concern for others that infuses feminine dev. Thus women not only define
themselves in context of relationships, but also in terms of their ability to care. Eventually, women come to value caring for themselves as well as others. Woman’s
place in man’s life cycle has been that of nurturer, caretaker, & helpmate, while male theorists have devalued that care.
Males value a morality of rights, while females value a morality of responsibility. Males worry about interfering w one another’s rights, while females worry about
the possibility of omission of care. From a male perspective, female’s judgments appear inconclusive & diffuse, given their contextual relativism. But from a female
perspective, a morality of rights, indifference, & unconcern appear frightening.
Type of Data: Individual, Gender
Gilligan, C. (see Norman, D. K.)
Glendon, M. A. (1997). Contrition in the age of spin control. First Things, 77, 10-12.
Description: Mary Ann Glendon comments on Pope John Paul II’s penitential statements regarding misdeeds committed by the Church throughout the ages (I love
the title!). She fears (w good reason) that secular media will twist his words, reconstructing & reinventing history in the service of various agendas. Ultimately she
fears that the distinction between the Church & her sinful children will be blurred.
Included is a response to feminists who accuse the Church of sexism. She asks, "Compared to what other institution?" She argues that it was the Church that
advocated the indissolubility of marriage (in societies where men had always been permitted to put aside their wives). And who fostered the rise of strong, selfgoverning orders of women in the Middle Ages? She contends that the advance of Christianity has strengthened the position of women.
To their response that the Church is sexist because it refuses to ordain women, she replies that Catholic women run the second largest health care system in the
world, & that Catholic women run the world’s largest system of private elementary & secondary education. She wonders where the idea came from that one must
be ordained to be a leader (is Mother Teresa less a leader than the Archbishop of Calcutta?).
She appeals to laypersons to help make sure that public penitential activities are kept in proper perspective: (1) remember that when we ask forgiveness, we are
addressing ourselves to God, not others, (2) challenge those who seek to erase the distinction between the Church & her believers, & (3) be vigilant to prevent
public acts of repentance from being hijacked & exploited.
NOTE: I think she raises a valid & needed warning. But it almost sounds as if she would rather the Pope hadn’t made such utterances or had such a repentant
attitude. That it makes him & the church look weak. Absolutely! That’s the paradox of Christianity. Confession & contrition are essential to spiritual health institutional & individual. It is in our weakness that He is strong. An attitude of humility is a refreshing change of pace & is what should be expected of God’s
children.
Type of Data: Gender, Religion
Miscellaneous Information: Commentary on Pope’s public statements of repentance.
Goldberger, N. R. (see Belenky, M. F.)
Golding, G. (see Pratt, M. W.)
Gorsuch, R. L. (1988). Psychology of religion. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 201-221.
Description: Richard Gorsuch discusses the prominence of psych of religion in the early psychology, then its decline, then its recent rebirth. A number of possible
hypotheses are presented:
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Scholarly Distance Hypothesis: Attempts to explain why those in social sciences are less religious than those in the physical & natural sciences. It
argues that psychology values objectivity over subjectivity. But it fails to account for the rebirth of interest.
Personal Relevance: Psychologists find religion less relevant to their own lives & assume it to be the same for others.
Backlash: Roman Catholics & Protestants had a negative reaction, a backlash, to psychology.
Coming of Age of Psych: Other areas in psych, such as cognition, have experienced decline & rebirth at approx the same time as psych of religion.
Is Religion an Important Psych Variable? Yes. Religion consistently relates to reductions in illegal drug use, prejudicial attitudes, & nonmarital sexual beh.
Research on Religion Within Other Psych Areas. Religion is usually a nonfocal variable & is often measured primitively (membership or preference).

Attitudes & Beh: Attitudes correlate only .2-.3 w an individual beh. This has been a continuing embarrassment to a social psych that defines itself as
primarily concerned w beh (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1974). When they correlated religious-attitude scales w any individual beh, the median correlation was
.14; but when they correlated the religious-attitude scale w the sum of 100 religious behaviors, the median correlation was .64
Religious-attitude sales predict aggregated religious behaviors. To predict an individual beh in a particular situation, one needs scales as specific as
the beh to be predicted.

Social Attitudes & Beh: Despite primitive measurement, large differences are found here. Religious people have been involved in premarital &
extramarital sex at a rate approx half that of nonreligious people. Also, religion is one of the most consistent correlates of drug noninvolvement. In
alcohol use, differences are also found across denominations, w those opposed to alcohol using it less; all denominations use less alcohol than the
nonreligious. Of those who do drink, the religious abuse alcohol less than the nonreligious.
Researchers rarely take religion seriously, even when it turns out to be a major variable. It’s not unusual to find religion the most significant predictor
in the study & yet be ignored in the discussion & abstract.
Active Research Areas:
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Nature of Religion: Its multifaceted aspect is stressed instead of a universal definition. The most useful religious scale has been Allport’s Intrinsic
(terminal) & Extrinsic (instrumental) measure. Gorsuch suggests that beliefs should be researched: some leaders see religion as based upon a
certain understanding of the nature of reality.
Religious Experience & Mysticism: Personal religious experiences involve encountering transcendence & may meet the criteria for mystical
experiences (noetic, ineffable, holy, positive, & paradoxical).
Religious Dev: Approaches include projection, socialization, & cognitive theories. Projection theories use concepts of God & concepts of parental
figures. Socialization approaches investigate impact of parents, teachers, & peers. Cognitive approaches attempt to understand how ways of viewing
the world structures develop over time.
Religion & Social Beh:
o
o
o
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Prejudice: Least prejudice among active church members, those heavily involved in their church, & the intrinsically religious.
Helpfulness, Pro-social beh, Conformity, & Social Desirability: Religious people report more helpfulness & more religious people help
others. Care needs to be applied in interpreting responses & labeling actions. For example, the religious person who stops to help
someone, but leaves when told there is no problem has been labeled as conforming (Batson). But the person who remains is labeled as
responding in a "socially desirable" manner (Batson). Value-laden terms are readily misapplied (or damned if you do & damned if you
don’t).
Batson uses the social desirability data to infer that intrinsically motivated people only appear low on measures of prejudice because
this is the "socially desirable" thing to do. However, the date of the studies, conducted from late 1940s to the early 1970s, was
unrelated to the findings. Also, unrelated was geographic region. These facts are important because the social desirability of a
nonprejudiced position varied greatly across those years. Additionally, Gorsuch notes that costs to the churches that favored prointegration were stiff in terms of contributions & membership. Few in the ministry saw favoring integration & being nonprejudiced as
socially desirable in the eyes of their congregations until at least the late 1960s or early 1970s.
MMPI Lie Scale: Illustrates the problem of interpretation. Religious persons report engaging in fewer peccadilloes (white lies,
insignificant acts of dishonesty, etc). So the researchers assume that Christians lie more: they control their behaviors more than others
do. It seems that most who interpret this correlation assume everyone always commits these peccadilloes. hence religious people
either lie or repress memories of what they have done. Another hypothesis, though, is that they commit fewer peccadilloes.
Physical & Mental Health:
Attribution Research:
Misc:
o
o
o
Conversion:
Death:
Social Institutions:
Type of Data: Religion
Miscellaneous Information: review of psych of religion studies
Gourde, A. (see Lavallee, M.)
Greer, H. S. (see Case, B. W.)
Griffin, B. M. (1997). Do we have a major problem? Assessing moral reasoning development by major field of study. Poster presentation at Annual KPA 1997
Conference, Louisville KY.
Description:
Goal: See if there are significant differences in P & N2 DIT scores per major
Subjects: 161 upper-class Asbury College students from the following majors: English, Education, Secondary Education, Bible, Business Communications,
Psychology
Methods: DIT
Findings:
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English majors significantly higher P than all others except Psychology. None of the other majors differed from one another.
Similarly, English majors significantly outscored all other majors, including Psych on N2.
None of the demographic info, including traumatic life experience, & international exposure, were predictors.
Type of Data: Moral
Grimley, L. K. (1991). A theological perspective on Kohlberg’s sixth stage of moral development. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 10(4), 293-299.
Description: Kohlberg (1981) argued that each of the first five stages can have nonreligious reasoning as their foundation, but Stage 6 requires a religious
orientation. Stage 6 is based on a respect for the dignity of human beings as individuals. Liam Grimley lays a theological foundation for Stage 6 based on humans
created in the image of God.
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Image of God in Old Testament: The word of God ushers in all of creation, but in verse 26 there is special resolve on God’s part which indicates the
high point of creation that is to follow - humans. The nearness of God is emphasized - God participates more intimately in this than in the other works
of creation - He sculpts Adam & Eve.
Christ, the perfect image of God in the New Testament
The image of God in human beings: Believers are being changed into His likeness.
Image of God in glory: In the resurrection, we will manifest the glory of Christ
Lit Review:
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
Fowler (1976) distinguished between faith & religion:
o
o
Faith: a universal way of knowing about life & relating the self to some form of transcendence.
Religion: a particular expression of faith.
Power & Kohlberg (1980) & Shulik (1979) found correlation of .75 between moral & faith stages.
Type of Data: Moral, Theology
Gross, M. L. (1996). Moral reasoning and ideological affiliation: a cross-national study. Political Psychology, 17(2), 317-338.
Description:
Goal: Examine claim of moral dev being structural & bias-free by cross-cultural comparison of liberals & conservatives.
Subjects: Moderate members of American (Illinois) pro-life & pro-choice groups, & Israeli settlers & Israeli Peace Now activists: 374 households of pro-choicers,
350 of pro-lifers, 290 of settlers, & 415 of Peace Now.
"For all groups involved, ordering competing moral principles lies at the very center of the political debate. As a result, there are no grounds for surrendering the
moral high ground to any side."
Methods: Lind’s MJT (moral judgment test) & demographic questionnaire. The MJT differentiates between one’s moral preferences (affective) & the ability to use
them consistently (cognitive).
Only those w mature cognitive structures will exhibit consistency or reversibility (the ability to recognize the merit of a hostile moral position).
Findings:
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
Pro-choicers are younger, more highly educated, & wealthier than pro-choicers.
Settlers & Peacers differ only in age, the former being younger

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
Pro-lifers have sign lower moral competence scores than pro-choicers, greater preference for Stage 3, & weaker preference for Stage 5. Once
income, activism, gender, & particularly age & education are controlled, sign decreases, but is still sign at p < .01
No sign differences between two Israeli groups
Measured stereotyping by comparing differences between actual & perceived motivations for political participation.
o
o


The author says a striking feature of enlightened moral dev is reversibility, that is, an appreciation for the moral worth of an opponent.
As such pro-lifers again evidence lower levels of moral dev.
Pro-choicers perceive themselves as highly morally motivated, while pro-lifers disparage these intentions. The author interprets this
data as meaning that stereotyping is far more pervasive among pro-lifers. But perhaps pro-choicers are mistaken. Again, it comes back
to a clash between world views.
The author also states that moral dev is linked to political independence & autonomous judgment. On all measures, pro-lifers were more influenced in
political decisions, again evidencing lower moral dev.
On the basis of the Israeli data of (1) no sign differences in moral scores, (2)greater levels of political independence, & (3) lower levels of
stereotyping, the author concludes that there is no bias in cognitive dev theory, but that instead, American conservatives (at least pro-lifers) are lower
in moral reasoning.
Discussion:
Perhaps there is something unique about the Israeli groups. Markoulis demonstrated the ability of Greek subjects to fake higher on the DIT, and Emler also. I
wouldn’t be so quick to make the conclusions that he has. More research is needed.
Type of Data: Moral, Religion
Guldhammer, B. A. (1982). Factors in the college experience relating to moral judgment development. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43(07), 2250A.
(University Microfilms No. AAC82-29272)
Goals:
1. Determine rel between Moral judgment & demographic variables
2. Determine diff in moral judgment between traditional & non-traditional students defined in terms of 5 clusters/concepts:
o
o
o
o
o
Traditional vs non-trad (maturity): age, marital status, # children, # hrs worked off campus, # hrs worked on campus
Assoc w educational env (campus orientation): distance of residence from campus, classload, time of day of classes, hrs worked on
campus, hrs worked off campus
Responsibilities/commitments (personal freedom): marital status, # relatives living w student, place of residence, hrs worked on
campus, hrs worked off campus
Opportunity for developing personal relationships: place of residence, # non-relatives living w, # relatives living w, distance of
residence, marital status, age
Experience college life: residence, distance from campus, # hrs enrolled, # hrs completed
3. Determine amount of variance in moral judgment due to trad/non-trad concepts, GPA, & ACT
Subjects:
1.
299 undergrad students at So Illinois Univ in 1980 (from 100, 300, & 400 level courses). Male/female ratio = 2/1.
Findings:
1.
2.
DIT scores related to: age, hrs completed, GPA, separated & divorced higher than singles (but small n), American students
DIT not related to ACT, major, logic & moral decision classes, religious activity, international students
NOTE: Entire study is suspect because she included categorical data in a regression analysis. Unfortunately, the top item in the regression outcome was place of
residence (categorical).
Type of Data: Moral
Gutkin, D. C., & Suls, J. (1979). The relation between the ethics of personal conscience - Social responsibility and principled moral reasoning. Journal of Youth
and Adolescence, 8(4), 433-441.
Description:
Goals: Examine relationship between moral reasoning, ethical attitudes, internal-external locus of control, & self-monitoring.
Subjects: 3 samples (78, 145, & 61 subjects) of college students from New York
Methods: Hogan’s Survey of Ethical Attitudes (SEA), DIT, Collin’s revision of Rotter’s Internal-External Scale (I-E), & Snyder’s Self-Monitoring Scale.
Findings:




Those who endorsed SEA’s "ethics of personal conscience" had higher P scores.
Those who endorsed "ethics of social responsibility" (they agree w the idea that the legal system provides a good guide to morality) had higher Stage
4 scores.
Internal locus of control sign correlated to social responsibility (conservatism).
Those w high Stage 4 scores had high Self-Monitoring scores.
Lit Review:


Hogan (1973) found that those advocating personal conscience make more mature moral judgments than those advocating social responsibility.
Snyder (1974): high self-monitoring individuals more concerned w acting appropriately, conform to majority opinion.
NOTES:



The finding that Stage 4 sign correlates w social responsibility is initially counter-intuitive. Stage 5a would seem to be more representative. However,
the SEA is probably defining social responsibility as adherence to rules & a law/order mentality. The authors understand social responsibility as
referring to conservatism.
That an internal locus of control is sign correlated to social responsibility is also counter-intuitive. One would expect conservatives to exhibit an
external locus of control. Interestingly, Stage 4 & I-E are not correlated, but I-E & social responsibility are.
Would like to see a regression analysis of the data.
Type of Data: Moral