Download Concerns of corrosive effects with respect to lightning protection

Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Engineering Failure Analysis
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/efa
Review
Concerns of corrosive effects with respect to lightning
protection systems
Aidin Ghavamian a,⁎, Mohammad Reza Maghami b, Shayan Dehghan c, Chandima Gomes b
a
b
c
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400 Selangor, Malaysia
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400 Selangor, Malaysia
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400 Selangor, Malaysia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 11 June 2015
Accepted 13 August 2015
Available online 16 August 2015
Keywords:
Lightning protection system (LPS)
Galvanic corrosion
Down-conductor
Air termination system
Earth termination system
a b s t r a c t
Lightning protection system elements need to be selected from materials which are resistant to
corrosion and should be protected from fast degradation. However, over the time corrosion will
take place in the presence of galvanically dissimilar metals in the same electrolyte (moisture). Historically, copper, aluminium and copper alloys (including bronze and brass) have been used in
lightning protection applications as these materials are highly conductive and abundantly available. Corrosive effects on system components are influenced by the environmental factors such
as moisture, soil type and temperature that make the corrosion process highly complex in soil.
As per many standards on the installation of lightning protection systems, combinations of materials that naturally form electrolytic couples shall not be used, for example copper and steel, especially in the presence of moisture, in which corrosion will be accelerated. Similarly, the conditions
within soil will have adverse effects on the ground system elements. Down conductors entering
corrosive soil must be protected against corrosion by a protective covering. The paper presents
the causes of corrosion and recent developments in minimising the corrosion associated with
lightning protection and grounding systems.
© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Contents
1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.
Significant factors in a LPS system based on corrosion aspects.
2.1.
LPS materials and coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Material selection in a grounding system. . . . . . .
2.3.
Environmental aspects of corrosion in LPS . . . . . .
3.
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
434
435
435
437
438
439
440
442
442
1. Introduction
Lightning is a charge of electricity that travels from a thunder cloud and can produce a very high current that can possibly damage
any electrical component that it encounters. Therefore, all electrical components should be protected by a lightning protection system
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Ghavamian).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2015.08.019
1350-6307/© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
435
(LPS). The aim of a LPS is the transport of lightning current safely to ground [1–3]. An external LPS consists of an air termination system, a down conductor system and an earth termination system as shown in Fig. 1. The earth-termination system, also known as a
lightning protection grounding system, is intended to provide a low resistance path to dissipate high current into the soil. The conductors that do this job are called down conductors [1,2,4]. The current passed by a down conductor should be dissipated securely in the
soil without raising the potential of the down conductor to high values that could cause sparks. In other words, the integrity of this
system is important and worthwhile for consideration [4,5]. The transient nature of lightning produces fast rise times and large magnitude currents, meaning the grounding system should perform effectively to limit the voltage imposed by the lightning [6,7].
Corrosion which occurs in the presence of different metals in the same electrolyte or similar metals in various electrolytes or various concentrations of the same electrolyte has caused many problems in electrical systems [8–11]. Among the different kinds of corrosion, galvanic corrosion has a high impact on the performance of a LPS. Galvanic corrosion is the outcome of the interaction of
dissimilar metals with each other under specific environmental conditions, such as the same electrolyte. An example of common electrolyte would be rainwater [12–17].
Grounding normally refers to the connection of an electrical circuit to earth. A good grounding system would be expected to demonstrate high electrical conductivity, with the conductors being capable of withstanding large fault currents, have a long life, exhibit
low ground resistance and impedance and have good corrosion resistance. A grounding system is important for human safety, reliability
of the electrical equipment, fault current return and to limit the transient overvoltage. The grounding system components can be divided
into a grounding conductor, grounding connector and grounding electrodes. An improper grounding system can lead to a dangerous
situation which could be worse than having no grounding system at all [1,6,18–26].
The electrical engineer that designs the grounding system is often not knowledgeable of the corrosion issues. This subject comes
also under the purview of the chemical engineer. Unfortunately, many practical designs only consider the electrical aspects of the best
lightning protection and grounding systems and ignore possible corrosion effects [1,6,27]. Literature that discusses this issue is scarce,
thus, in the work presented the cause of corrosion and recent developments in minimising the corrosion associated with lightning
protection and grounding systems have been discussed. This paper also discusses the problems created by dissimilar metal bases.
2. Significant factors in a LPS system based on corrosion aspects
2.1. LPS materials and coatings
Lightning protection elements are constructed from materials which are resistant to corrosion and should be protected from fast
degradation. Over time, corrosion will occur in the presence of galvanically dissimilar metals in the same electrolyte (typically moisture). Historically, copper, aluminium and copper alloys (including bronze and brass) have been used in lightning protection applications as they are conductive [1,3,28]. The grounding rods that are used practically are made from copper bonded steel, galvanized
steel, solid stainless steel, stainless-clad, solid copper, copper-clad and plain steel. Unfortunately, all of these materials are exposed
to the corrosion issue and this reduces the performance of the grounding system [1,3,4,24,25]. Corrosion is one of the most destructive
mechanisms in aluminium alloys. Corrosion pits typically start because of some chemical or physical heterogeneity on the surface,
such as phase particles, defects, mechanical damage or dislocations [10,11,29–32]. Aluminium alloys include many constituent particles, which play an important role in the creation of pitting corrosion [3,32–38]. Other than aluminium, historically, bronze and copper
materials have been utilised in lightning protection applications for all the surfaces on rooftops, due to their good conductivity,
Fig. 1. Lightning protection system (LPS); transfer the lightning current safely to the ground. This system includes air termination, down conductor and earth termination system which is also known as a lightning protection grounding system that intended to provide a low resistance path to dissipate high current into the soil.
436
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
Fig. 2. A multi-metal contact point (copper, iron and stainless steel) with paint coating layers, a copper conductor attached to painted iron plate with stainless steel nuts
and bolts.
durability and thermal characteristics. It is important that a properly installed LPS will last for a long time and maintain its integrity
with only minimum repair. However, the first problem is that bronze and copper materials in contact with external painted steel
or galvanized surfaces may create considerable corrosion over time and the effect is only partially alleviated by traditional methods
such as repainting (Figs. 2 & 3) [12,18,39–42]. Fig. 2 shows a joint of a copper conductor made of painted iron plate with stainless
steel nuts and bolts used for tightening the components. The coating of white paint of the plate is almost entirely removed by the
swelling iron due to extensive corrosion. The stainless steel nuts and bolts are almost unaffected by the presence of both iron and
Fig. 3. Copper-galvanized iron contact point with galvanized iron covered with a coating of paint. A painted galvanized iron box has been partially damaged by the
corrosion.
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
437
copper. Fig. 3 also shows a similar situation where a painted galvanized iron box has been partially damaged by the corrosion. The
corrosion process may have accelerated due to the galvanic effect between copper and galvanized iron and also the dampness of
the environment. These cases clearly show that paint coating may not be a proper solution for the rapid corrosion of materials at
bi-metal or multi-metal contact points.
With respect to the grounding of down conductors, one of the most important factors is that the ground conductors should not be
made of aluminium or aluminium alloys and if the soil is corrosive, then a corrosive protection cover must be applied to the grounding
electrodes, including parts of the down conductor close to the ground [43]. Łoboda and Marciniak [3] in 2003 in Poland started a field
corrosion test in a long term project of steel earthing rods. In this project several tens of rods, each having total length of 3 m with
various protective coatings was embedded in various types of soil (Fig. 3). After two years of exposure in soil the rods with zinc
and copper coating was removed from the soil. Subsequently, the other rods were removed (after four years of exposure in two different locations; Mielno and Inowroclaw sites (Figs. 4a, b, and 5a, b). The results depict better corrosion protection of steel earthing
rods coated with pure copper compared to zinc coatings having various thicknesses of coating and using different kinds of technologies so that loss of zinc on galvanized steel rods caused extreme corrosion, while copper-bonded steel earth rods revealed little corrosion (Fig. 5a–c) [3].
2.2. Material selection in a grounding system
The materials used in the construction of a lightning protection grounding system should possess good electrical conductivity,
have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand the electrodynamic stresses and electromagnetic effects of the lightning current,
and demonstrate suitable resistance to corrosion in aggressive environments. Table 1 gives a general guide to materials that are normally used in a LPS based on IEC 62305-3 [3,44,45]. Gold and platinum show the best corrosion-resistance; however, the extreme high
cost prevents them from using as components of grounding system. Consequently, steel, aluminium and copper are the three main
metals used in grounding system applications [3]. Aluminium is subject to rapid corrosion attack due to the fact that aluminium is
Fig. 4. (a) Condition of installation and (b) zinc galvanized rod exhumation's picture [3]. After two years of exposure in soil the rods with zinc and copper coating was
removed from the soil.
438
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
Fig. 5. The sample pictures show rods after removing from the soil after four years. (a) Copper-bonded coating. (b) Zinc galvanized coating. (c) Zinc electroplated coating [3]. The results depict better corrosion protection of steel earthing rods coated with pure copper compared to zinc coatings having various thicknesses of coating and
using different kinds of technologies so that loss of zinc on galvanized steel rods caused extreme corrosion, while copper-bonded steel earth rods revealed little
corrosion.
always anodic in soil relative to other metals [46–48]. Table 1 provides information about lightning protection system materials using
in different conditions. Referring to the table, the usable material in Earth is copper while aluminium is unsuitable.
2.3. Environmental aspects of corrosion in LPS
In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 780: Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems [51]), makes it clear that copper should not be used in contact with aluminium surfaces, and vice versa. In other words, combinations of the materials should not be used that form electrolyte pairs of such a kind that in the presence of humidity galvanic
corrosion is accelerated [52]. Down conductors entering corrosive soil should be protected against corrosion by a protective covering
beginning at a point 0.9 m (3 ft) above grade level and extending for the entire length below grade [1,26,52]. In nature, soil corrosion of
earth electrodes takes place at a rate relying on different environmental factors such as soil resistivity, dissolved salt forming an electrolyte, moisture, degree of aeration and temperature that make this situation very complex [3,53,54].
Moreover, Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Inc. says in its standard 96A Standard for Installation Requirements for Lightning Protection Systems, that copper should not be put in contact with any exterior painted steel surface [3,19,55,56]. It is obvious where steel
and copper are in contact and subject to an electrolyte fluid such as rainwater, galvanic corrosion will take place. Fig. 6 shows a case
where a copper conductor, fixed with brass clips to a galvanized steel roofing sheet. The site is located in a region with extremely high
precipitation level in Malaysia. The figure depicts the seriousness of material degradation due to corrosion which has also been reported elsewhere [3,18].
Table 1
Lightning protection system materials and condition of use [3,5,44,45,49,50].
Material
Use in open air
Use in earth
Use in concrete
Resistance
Increased by
May be destroyed by
galvanic coupling with
Copper
Solid stranded
Sulphur compounds
organic materials
High content of chlorides
–
Solid stranded
Solid stranded
as a coating
Solid stranded
Good in many environments
Hot galvanized
steel
Stainless steel
Aluminium
Solid stranded
as a coating
Solid
Solid stranded
Solid stranded
Solid stranded
Unsuitable
Solid stranded
Unsuitable
High content of chlorides
Alkaline solutions
–
Copper
Lead
Solid as a coating
Unsuitable
Unsuitable
Acid soils
Copper, stainless steel
Acceptable in air, concrete
and benign soil
Good in many environments
When low concentration of
sulphur or chloride
When high concentration of
sulphate
Copper
This table shows a general guide to materials that are normally used in a LPS. Steel, aluminium and copper are the three main metals used in grounding system
applications.
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
439
Fig. 6. Copper conductor in contact with galvanized steel roofing sheet fixed with brass clips in a region with extremely high precipitation level in Malaysia.
In the selection process of the materials for the design of a lightning protection grounding system, the corrosion effect can be
minimised by avoiding the use of unsuitable materials in an aggressive environment [1,3,57]. No combination of materials shall be
used that will form an electrolytic junction, although it may be impractical to avoid a junction between dissimilar metals. The corrosion effect shall be reduced by the use of plating or special connectors, such as stainless steel connectors used between aluminium and
copper or copper alloys [3,5,52].
3. Discussion
The abovementioned corrosion problems often do not constitute any danger to the function of the lightning protection system.
Despite the fact that the boundaries to which LPS materials are connected will degrade, copper is considered nobler than aluminium
or steel (Fig. 10). It cannot be avoided that there will be a very small effect on the efficiency of the main conductor. However, a lightning protection system cannot be presented as an independent system, but as an integral component of the whole building envelope.
The importance of the LPS can only be realised in the event of a direct strike to the building and this may only happen once every few
years [18]. In 1995, Durham and Durham [6] conducted research to show that variants exist concerning how to protect a tower. One
approach is to place a lightning rod on top of the tower then a copper ground wire is run down the building [3,6,58–60]. However the
different metals such as copper and steel cause a corrosion problem. In addition, the inductance of the long wire tends to create a highimpedance path [3,6,61]. Thus the effects of corrosion must be considered as part of the whole LPS.
The deterioration of metals may not pose any immediate danger to the building materials. Roofing layers are usually overlapped,
thus giving a layer of waterproofing for the second layer so that any penetration due to corrosion through the substructures will be
very small at worst. On the other hand, for the case of standing-seam roofs, the primary penetration barrier is related to the metal itself. Fig. 6 shows metal corrosion on a standing-seam roof after less than 15 years in contact with a bare copper conductor [3,18,62,63].
Fig. 7. Copper in touch with a metallic standing-seam roof [18]. The suppliers have installed air-terminals grounded by bare copper strips laid on the metal roofing and
facades. It is noted that the aluminium casing of the test joints that are fixed to the facades by nuts and bolts, has caused even worse corrosion problems due to the
presence of various metals together.
440
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
Likewise, sometimes it can be seen that opportunistic suppliers make unnecessary or sometimes even dangerous choices. Fig. 7 shows
that the suppliers have installed air-terminals grounded by bare copper strips laid on the metal roofing and facades. It is noted that the
aluminium casing of the test joints that are fixed to the facades by nuts and bolts, has caused even worse corrosion problems due to
the presence of various metals together. This unnecessary installation of a LPS caused severe corrosion consequences that has damaged the building structure As is shown in (Fig. 8a, 8b) [3,4].
It is worth to note that preventative maintenance may alleviate a number of problems associated with corrosion by using different
types of paint to influence the surface of the metals to slow down the oxidation process. However, as shown in Fig. 9, the prevention of
any type of corrosion will not be permanently effective through painting. Due to the fact that the lightning conductor is normally
braided, absorption of humidity via the spaces is unavoidable. There will always be penetration, and thus there will always be large
amounts of corrosion. Even if the corrosion is very small, in accordance with the UL and LPS standards if galvanized or painted
steel comes into contact with steel, it is sufficient for a lightning protection system to become non-compliant [3,27,52]. The maintenance/replacement cycle and the system life is dependent on the selection of materials and the local environment must be coordinated with the structural materials [3,18,52,64].
As mentioned before, in a LPS another fact to be taken into account is the effects of corrosive soil on the ground conductors. These
conductors should not be made of aluminium and if the soil is corrosive then a corrosive protection cover should be applied to the
ground rods, including part of the down conductor [18,26,43]. Also prohibited is the attachment of aluminium conductors to a surface
coated with an alkaline-based paint, embedded in concrete, or set up in a location subject to high humidity [52,65].
Further, the only material allowed to be set up in contact with the earth at very humid locations is copper. Aluminium–copper alloys (including bronze and brass) and copper are the fundamental system component materials. These materials provide the best
joining features in terms of weathering and current-carrying capacity. However, aluminium materials have reduced current-carrying
capability and mechanical strength compared to the same sized copper products. Moreover, water will oxidise galvanized surfaces
and aluminium if the water cannot run off. So coordination of system design and material selection must include consideration of galvanic corrosion as one of the problems of installation [3,64]. Since 2007, changes to the UL96A standard means that most lightning
protection firms have taken up the practice of aluminium conductor installation and components on all non-copper external metal
surfaces. As the conductivity of aluminium is less than copper, cables made of aluminium are larger and therefore more visible.
This issue has the advantages of using materials that are less noble than the materials to which they are attached (Fig. 10)
[3,18,52]. Despite the fact that the aluminium will tend to degrade over time instead of the substructure in practice, the impact of
the lightning conductor will be minimal and the LPS performance will not be greatly hampered [18].
4. Conclusion
To ensure the integrity of a structure, both the LPS and the structure such as rooftop surfaces are considered as part of the building.
In other words, the LPS should not be considered as a separate system so that it can maintain its full capability for as long as possible
in-station. In this case, by improving the lightning protection materials by selecting only those materials suitable for the LPS and
Fig. 8. An all-metal structure (supporting struts, roof, and facades) installed with ESE air terminations and bare copper down conductors in contact with the building
material. The air termination and painted aluminium test joint could be seen in both pictures a and b. The picture has been taken soon after the installation of the system.
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
441
Fig. 9. Corrosion between a painted conductor and a painted unit [18].
adjusted for the substructure, the risk of galvanic corrosion can be reduced. This will ensure that both systems exceed or meet their
anticipated service life. In this way, the safety of the building contents, its structural integrity, and the residents can be guaranteed.
The importance of the choice of materials by making them a priority to ensure proper maintenance of their performance in the
installed location is an essential factor. In some cases, persistent vendors insist on installing unnecessary LPS materials which can
cause grave corrosion consequences that can damage the building structure and subsequently result in high-cost structural repairs.
Despite the relevant costs, when the opportunity arises it would be beneficial in the long-run for building owners to replace the
copper components on the external steel surfaces with aluminium. It is suggested that the bronze and copper materials that pose
no immediate danger can be retained in place to protect the structure, as long as the whole system remains in conformance with
the published standards. However, if substantial roof work is required, it is proposed that the lightning protection system should
Fig. 10. The galvanic series, despite the fact that the boundaries to which LPS materials are connected will degrade. Copper is considered nobler than aluminium or steel.
As the conductivity of aluminium is less than copper, cables made of aluminium are larger and therefore more visible. This issue has the advantages of using materials
that are less noble than the materials to which they are attached.
442
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
be brought into full compliance where possible. It may be helpful to note that notwithstanding the above, that bronze and copper will
constantly be the materials of choice in places where corrosion is not possible such as with non-metallic surfaces.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the Faculty of Engineering at the University Putra Malaysia for placing their excellent research facilities at our disposal to complete this work.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48]
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
[54]
[55]
[56]
V. Cooray, Basic principles of lightning protection, An Introduction to Lightning. Springer, 2015 301–330.
G. Ala, M.L. Di Silvestre, A simulation model for electromagnetic transients in lightning protection systems, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 44 (2002) 539–554.
M. Łoboda, R. Marciniak, Field Corrosion Tests in Poland of Copper Coated Steel Earthing Rods for LPS, 2008.
C. Gomes, A.G. Diego, Lightning protection scenarios of communication tower sites; human hazards and equipment damage, Saf. Sci. 49 (2011) 1355–1364.
C. Bouquegneau, A critical view on the Lightning Protection International Standard, J. Electrost. 65 (2007) 395–399.
M.O. Durham, R.A. Durham, Lightning, grounding and protection for control systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 31 (1995) 45–54.
companies F-Rgo, Lightning Protection Guidelines for Instrumentation Systems, 1995.
S. Rajan, S.I. Venugopalan, Corrosion and grounding systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. (1977) 297–306.
R.W. Revie, Corrosion and Corrosion Control, John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
Z. Szklarska-Smialowska, Pitting corrosion of aluminum, Corros. Sci. 41 (1999) 1743–1767.
G. Frankel, Pitting corrosion of metals. A review of the critical factors, J. Electrochem. Soc. 145 (1998) 2186–2198.
B. Zhang, V.R. Patlolla, D. Chiao, D.K. Kalla, H. Misak, et al., Galvanic corrosion of Al/Cu meshes with carbon fibers and graphene and ITO-based nanocomposite
coatings as alternative approaches for lightning strikes, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 67 (2013) 1317–1323.
F. Mansfeld, Area relationships in galvanic corrosion, Corrosion 27 (1971) 436–442.
M. Tavakkolizadeh, H. Saadatmanesh, Galvanic corrosion of carbon and steel in aggressive environments, J. Compos. Constr. 5 (2001) 200–210.
V.S. Sastri, Corrosion Inhibitors: Principles and Applications, Wiley, Chichester, 1998.
H.P. Hack, Galvanic Corrosion, ASTM International, 1988.
F. Mansfeld, J. Kenkel, Galvanic corrosion of Al alloys—III. The effect of area ratio, Corros. Sci. 15 (1975) 239–250.
S.C. Larter, Galvanic Corrosion in Lightning Protection Applications — Problems & Solutions, 2013.
UL96A, Installation Requirements for Lightning Protection Systems, 2014.
D.W. Zipse, Lightning protection systems: advantages and disadvantages, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 30 (1994) 1351–1361.
V.A. Rakov, F. Rachidi, Overview of recent progress in lightning research and lightning protection, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 51 (2009) 428–442.
Y. Liu, M. Zitnik, R. Thottappillil, An improved transmission-line model of grounding system, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 43 (2001) 348–355.
L. Grcev, Modeling of grounding electrodes under lightning currents, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 51 (2009) 559–571.
B.A. DeCarlo, V.A. Rakov, J.E. Jerauld, G.H. Schnetzer, J. Schoene, et al., Distribution of currents in the lightning protective system of a residential building—part I:
triggered-lightning experiments, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery 23 (2008) 2439–2446.
L. Li, V.A. Rakov, Distribution of currents in the lightning protective system of a residential building—part II: numerical modeling, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery 23
(2008) 2447–2455.
A. Habjanic, M. Trlep, The simulation of the soil ionization phenomenon around the grounding system by the finite element method, IEEE Trans. Magn. 42 (2006)
867–870.
J.M. Tobias, C.L. Wakefield, L.W. Strother, V. Mazur, J. Covino, The Basis of Conventional Lightning Protection Technology: A Review of the Scientific Development
of Conventional Lightning Protection Technologies and Standards, DTIC Document, 2001.
E.M. Bazelyan, Y.P. Raizer, Lightning Physics and Lightning Protection, CRC Press, 2000.
Z. Szklarska-Smialowska, Pitting Corrosion of Metals, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1986.
C. Blanc, B. Lavelle, G. Mankowski, The role of precipitates enriched with copper on the susceptibility to pitting corrosion of the 2024 aluminium alloy, Corros. Sci.
39 (1997) 495–510.
G. Chen, M. Gao, R. Wei, Microconstituent-induced pitting corrosion in aluminum alloy 2024-T3, Corrosion 52 (1996) 8–15.
J.M. Kolotyrkin, Pitting corrosion of metals, Corrosion 19 (1963) 261t–268t.
R.M. Pidaparti, B.S. Aghazadeh, Degradation modeling of 2024 aluminum alloy during corrosion process, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 20 (2011) 348–354.
V. Evans, The Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals (second supplementary volume), 1976.
M. Kermani, A. Morshed, Carbon dioxide corrosion in oil and gas production—a compendium, Corrosion 59 (2003) 659–683.
A.J. Sedriks, Corros. Stainless Steel (1996) 2.
H.H. Uhlig, The Corrosion Handbook, J. Wiley, 1948.
H.H. Uhlig, R.W. Revie, Uhlig's Corrosion Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
Brick RO (1988) Lightning protection system for conductive composite material structure. Google Patents.
Schroeder JE (1992) Conformal lightning shield and method of making. Google Patents.
Bannink Jr ET, Olson GO (1984) Integral lightning protection system for composite aircraft skins. Google Patents.
De JCDLF, Torrijos JIL-R (2007) Lightning strike protection system for aircraft fuel tanks made of low electrical conductivity composite material. Google Patents.
N.M. Nor, Soil electrical characteristics under high impulse currents, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 48 (2006) 826–829.
J.M. Bentley, P.J. Link, Evaluation of motor power cables for PWM AC drives, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 33 (1997) 342–358.
G. Gardner, Lightning strike protection for composite structures, High Perform. Compos. 14 (2006) 44.
Koróznych D. Diagnosis of corrosion problems in underground electricity distribution equipment.
Heller A, Pishko MV (2000) Corrosion resistant working electrodes with nonleaching enzymes, counterelectrode, and device to compare signals generated from
electrodes in response to electrolysis of analyte; subcutaneous implantation for monitoring diabetes. Google Patents.
Heller A, Pishko MV (2000) A small corrosion resistant wire electrode apparatus for the in situ analysis of compounds. Google Patents.
F. Heidler, W. Zischank, Z. Flisowski, C. Bouquegneau, C. Mazzetti, Parameters of Lightning Current Given in IEC 62305—Background, Experience and Outlook,
2008 6.
F. Heidler, W.J. Zischank, Necessary Separation Distances for Lightning Protection Systems—IEC 62305-3 Revisited. X SIPDA: 91103, 2009.
N.F.P. Association, NFPA 780 Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems. Estados Unidos, edición, 2004.
NFPA780, NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems, 2004.
J.D. Palmer, Environmental characteristics controlling the soil corrosion of ferrous piping, Effects of Soil Characteristics on Corrosion1989 5–17.
S.A. Bradford, The Practical Handbook of Corrosion Control in Soils, 2000.
C. Graves, B. Wibisono, E. Tenicela, Installation of Bulkhead Plates for Lightning Energy Diversion at FAA Communication Towers Sites, IEEE, 2014 246–250.
A. Adoghe, A.F. Agbetuyi, A. Abdulkareem, J. Olowoleni, C. Awosope, Review of lightning protection standard in building structures in Nigeria, J. Electr. Electron.
Eng. 9 (2014) 51–54.
A. Ghavamian et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 57 (2015) 434–443
443
[57] A. El-Meligi, Corrosion preventive strategies as a crucial need for decreasing environmental pollution and saving economics, Recent Pat. Corros. Sci. 2 (2010)
22–33.
[58] M.O. Durham, R.A. Durham, Grounding system design for isolated locations and plant systems, IEEE, 1995 145–153.
[59] C. Zimmermann, M.A. Cooper, R.L. Holle, Lightning safety guidelines, Annals of emergency medicine 39 (2002) 660-A1.
[60] W.P. Roeder, R.J. Vavrek, Lightning Safety for Schools—An Update, 2005 9–13.
[61] J. Brown, J. Allan, B. Mellitt, Calculation and Measurement of Rail Impedances Applicable to Remote Short Circuit Fault Currents, IET, 1992 295–302.
[62] Pearson RE (1988) Lightning protection system for composite material aircraft structures. Google Patents.
[63] B. Glushakow, Effective lightning protection for wind turbine generators, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 22 (2007) 214–222.
[64] B. VanSickle, Lightning Protection Overview, 2009.
[65] K. Yamamoto, T. Noda, S. Yokoyama, A. Ametani, Experimental and analytical studies of lightning overvoltages in wind turbine generator systems, Electr. Power
Syst. Res. 79 (2009) 436–442.