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Final Outline (bring a 5X8 notecard)
Know the difference between geocentric (Earth centered) and heliocentric (sun centered).
Copernicus discovered the arrangement of the know planets and how they orbited the sun.
Galileo invented telescope and supports heliocentric model
Kepler says orbit of planets in an ellipse (oval shaped)
Sun’s atmosphere: photosphere, chromosphere, corona
Sun’s features: sunspots (cool spots), prominences (loops of gas), solar flares (gas eruption), solar wind
Solving for astronomical units (AU) distance of a planet in km/ Earth’s distance (150,000,000) example:
mars distance 228,000,000/150,000,000= 1.9 AU
Rocky (inner) planets; Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. These planets are small, dense, with rocky surfaces.
Gas (outer) planets; Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. These planets are larger, more mass, no solid
surfaces
Gravity keeps gas from escaping so they have thick atmospheres. (gas planets)
Comets are loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. Come from Kuiper belt or Oort cloud.
Most asteroids revolve around the sun between Mars and Jupiter, Asteroid belt
Meteors: meteoroid comes from comets or asteroids. Meteor is when a meteoroid enters Earth’s
atmosphere. Meteorite is when a meteoroid passes through the atmosphere and hits Earth.
Planets in order; Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Star classification: color, temperature, size, composition, brightness (depends on size and temperature)
Apparent brightness; brightness as seen from Earth
Absolute brightness; brightness at a standard distance from Earth
Light-year: distance light travels in a year
Star is born in a nebula. Nebula is a large cloud of gas and dust spread out in an immense volume.
How long a star lives depends on its mass. Smaller the star the longer the life. Large stars burn out
quickly.
Death of a star: after a star runs out of fuel, it becomes a white dwarf, neutron star, black hole
Neutron star (LGM) was once called the little green men, because it sends of pulses of radio waves. Now
the star is called a pulsar. Pulses are caused by rapid spinning.
Galaxy are classified into three groups; spiral, elliptical, irregular. We live in the Milky Way (spiral)
Earth moves in two ways; rotation and revolution.
Rotation is the spinning of Earth
Revolution is movement around the sun
Earth has seasons because it sits on an axis as it revolves around the sun.
Equinox; day and night are about 12 hours. Happens twice a year.
Strength depends on two factors; mass of the objects and the distance between them
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist motion
Newton’s first law of motion says that an object at rest will stay at rest and object in motion will stay in
motion unless acted upon.
Newton say two forces keep Earth in orbit; inertia and gravity
Phases of the moon depends on how much sunlight touches the moon’s surface
Solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes directly between the Earth and the sun, blocking sunlight
from Earth.
Lunar eclipse Earth blocks sunlight from reaching the moon.
Tides are caused by differences in how much the moon’s gravity pulls on different parts of Earth
Spring tide: sun and moon’s gravity pull in the same direction (causing oval shape around Earth) causing
high tide to occur. Spring tides occur twice a month; new and full moon
Neap tide: sun’s pull is at a right angle to the moons pull. Tide with the least difference between
consecutive low and high tides. Neap tides occur twice a month.
Features on Earth’s surface; maria (dark, flat areas), craters (round pits), and highlands (mountains).
Energy from the sun travels to Earth in the form of radiation
Heat is transferred in three ways; radiation, conduction, and convection.
Wind is caused by differences in air pressure
Local winds are caused by the unequal heating of Earth’s surface within a small area.
Global winds are created by unequal heating of Earth’s surface. Occur over a large area
Coriolis Effect is the way Earth’s rotation makes winds curve.
Major global wind belts are the trade winds, polar easterlies, and prevailing winds
Jet stream are bands of high-speed winds high above Earth’s surface.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air.
Clouds form because of condensation
Dew point is the temperature at which condensation begins
Classify clouds into three main types based on shape: cirrus, cumulus, and stratus
Common types of precipitation: rain, sleet, freezing rain, snow, and hail
Polar=cold tropical=warm
continental=air mass over land
maritime=air mass over ocean
Four major types of air masses influence the weather in North America; maritime tropical, continental
tropical, maritime polar, and continental polar.
In the U.S. air masses are commonly moved by the prevailing westerlies and jet streams
Colliding air masses can form four types of fronts: cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts and
occluded fronts
Thunderstorms form in large cumulonimbus clouds also known as thunderheads
Tornados commonly form in thick cumulonimbus clouds
Hurricanes begin over warm ocean water as a low pressure, tropical disturbance.
Mineral is naturally occurring, inorganic solid, crystal structure, and chemical composition
Mineral identification; color (not reliable), streak (scratch test), luster (light reflection), density
(mass/volume), hardness (Mohs hardness scale)
Know the difference between cleavage and fracture
Minerals form as hot magma cools inside Earth, or as lava hardens on the surface. When these cool to
solid they form crystals
Slow cooling= large crystals
Fast cooling= small crystals
When elements and compounds that are dissolved in water leave a solution, crystallization occurs
Vein is a narrow channel of a mineral that is different from the surrounding rock
Minerals are sources of gemstones, metals, and a variety of materials used to make many products
Prospecting is anyone who searches for ore deposits
Three types of mines; strip mines, open pit mines, and shaft mines
Smelting is when an ore is mixed with other solutions and then melted to separate the useful metal
from other elements the ore contains.
Steel is an alloy, a solid mixture of two or more elements, at least one is a metal
When studying rocks, geologists observe mineral composition, color and texture
20 minerals make up most rocks on Earth, rock forming minerals
Grains are particles of minerals or other rocks. Grains give rock texture
Texture is the look and feel of the rock’s surface
Rocks are classified in three major groups; igneous rock, sedimentary rock, and metamorphic rock
Igneous comes from cooling magma or lava
Sedimentary rock comes from particles of other rocks or organic materials press and cement together
Metamorphic rock forms when an existing rock is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reaction
Igneous rocks are classified according to their origin, texture, and mineral composition
Extrusive rock (igneous) is formed from lava on Earth’s surface
Intrusive rock (igneous) is formed from magma cooling underground
Sedimentary are formed through erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation
Three major groups of sedimentary rocks; clastic rock, organic rock, and chemical rock. Know the
difference between each
Metamorphic rock are classified according to arrangement of grains that make up the rocks. Foliated
(layers) and non-foliated, know the difference.
Rock cycle
Weather fronts wh