Download Chapter 11 - Horizon Medical Institute

CHAPTER
11
Anatomy and
Physiology of the
Human Body
UNIT
1
Anatomical Descriptors
and Fundamental Body
Structure
11 - 2
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Anatomical Position

A body is said to be in the anatomical
position when the patient is standing
erect, with the arms down at the sides,
and the palms of the hands facing
forward.
11 - 3
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Appropriate Terminology for
Anatomical Directions



11 - 4
To describe exact location when charting,
the body is divided by imaginary lines.
One line divides the body into right and
left.
The other line divides the body into
upper and lower halves.
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Appropriate Terminology for
Anatomical Directions

Medial


Proximal


Farthest from the point of
attachment
Lateral

11 - 5
Nearest the point of
attachment
Distal


Toward the midline
Away from the midline
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Appropriate Terminology for
Anatomical Directions

Anterior



Cranial


Toward the front
Toward the front or
belly side

Superior

Above the
transverse plane

Below the transverse
plane
Caudal


Toward the head
Inferior
Ventral


Toward the front
Frontal


Toward the tail or feet
Posterior

Toward the back
11 - 6
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Body Cavities and Major Organs

The body is divided into two main
cavities:
1.
Anterior or ventral

2.
Cavity toward the belly side that contains the
head, chest, and major abdominal organs
Posterior or dorsal

Cavity toward the back that contains the brain
and spinal cord
11 - 7
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Diaphragm

Diaphragm

A large dome-shaped muscle that separates
the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity
11 - 8
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Organs of the Abdomen

The abdomen contains the:







Stomach
Small intestine
Most of the large intestine
Liver
Spleen
Pancreas
Gallbladder
11 - 9
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Regions of the Abdomen

11 - 10
Because of its
size, the abdomen
is first divided into
four areas called
quadrants.
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Regions of the Abdomen

The abdomen is
then divided into 9
regions for purposes
of identification and
reference.
11 - 11
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Basic Characteristics of a Cell

The cell is the basic building block of the
human body:





11 - 12
Cells need nutrients and oxygen to survive.
Cells perform specific functions.
Cells produce heat and energy.
Cells can give off waste products.
Some cells can reproduce themselves.
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Basic Characteristics of a Cell

Organelles are minute bodies within the
cytoplasm:






11 - 13
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Centriole



Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Some organelles physically separate the
chemical reactions that are not compatible.
Organelles also control the time when
reactions take place.
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Basic Characteristics of a Cell

Chromosomes



Located within the nucleus, each human has
23 pairs of chromosomes that store the
hereditary material passed from one
generation to the next
22 pairs are identical.
The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes:


11 - 14
XY = male
XX = female
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Basic Characteristics of a Cell

Cytoplasm


Cell membrane


Fluid that makes up the cell
Separates the cell from the surrounding
environment
Cytoplasm

Semisolid fluid within the membrane where
chemical reactions, such as respiration,
occur
11 - 15
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
What Happens When Mutations Occur

DNA that is lost, rearranged, or paired in
error results in a change in the genetic
code called a mutation.
11 - 16
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Six Ways Molecules Pass
Through Cell Membranes
1.
Diffusion

2.
Osmosis

11 - 17
Gas, solids, or liquids are distributed evenly
through a medium.
Diffusion of water or another solvent through
a selectively permeable membrane
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Six Ways Molecules Pass
Through Cell Membranes
3.
Filtration


4.
Active transport

11 - 18
Movement of solutes and water across a
semipermeable membrane
Filtration occurs as a result of force such as
gravity or blood pressure.
Molecules move across a membrane from
an area of low concentration to an area of
high concentration.
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Six Ways Molecules Pass
Through Cell Membranes
5.
Phagocytosis

6.
White blood cells become phagocytes and
engulf bacteria, cell fragments, or damaged
cells.
Pinocytosis

Cells engulf large molecules of liquid
materials; cell drinking
11 - 19
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The Patterns of Inheritance and
How They Affect a Trait

A trait is a recognizable result of the
effect of a gene or a group of genes

3 patterns of inheritance can produce these
traits
1.
2.
3.
Dominant genes: produce the trait
Recessive genes: produce the trait if both parents
have the same mutation
X-linked: traits that are sex linked
11 - 20
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Genetic and Congenital Disorders

These disorders can result from improper
sex cell division at the time of
fertilization, from the inheritance of
altered genes, or as the result of
environmental factors or poisons.
11 - 21
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate

Cleft lip


A structural defect is present in the upper lip
caused by failure of the soft or bony tissues
to unite during the 8th to 12th week of
gestation.
Cleft palate

A structural defect is present in the roof of
the mouth caused by failure of the soft or
bony tissues to unite during the 8th to 12th
week of gestation.
11 - 22
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Down Syndrome





A genetic syndrome caused by improper cell
division
Occurs in about 1 in every 1,000 births,
depending on the mother’s age
The result is an extra chromosome 21.
Down syndrome has several physical
characteristics, e.g., slanting eyes, large
tongue, pug nose, and a small head.
Mental retardation occurs in all cases and
there is some degree of growth restriction.
11 - 23
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Spina Bifida


A structural malformation of the spine
The posterior portion of the spinal tissues
fails to close during the first 3 months of
pregnancy.
11 - 24
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome



Sex-linked disorder where there is one or
more extra X chromosomes; affects 1 in
every 600 males.
At puberty, the penis and testicles fail to
mature and there is little body hair.
Breasts may enlarge and long legs with a
short, obese trunk are noted.
11 - 25
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Talipes



A structural deformity of one or both feet
Commonly called clubfoot
There may be varying degrees of inward,
outward, downward, or upward turning of
one or both feet.
11 - 26
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Turner’s Syndrome




Sex-linked defect that affects about 1 in
every 10,000 females.
Only 45 chromosomes are present
because the sex cells failed to divide
correctly.
Ovaries fail to develop.
The chest is wide and there is poor
breast development and
underdevelopment of the genitalia.
11 - 27
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Discoveries in Genetics


February 2001: The Human Genome
Project identified a 3 billion letter code of
human DNA, which is the chemical
sequence containing the basic
information for building and running a
human body.
This sequence determines every human
characteristic from eye color to
vulnerability to disease.
11 - 28
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
DNA Fingerprinting


This method of identification can match
blood, semen, and body fluids found at
crime scenes to the DNA of the criminal.
Evidence of a DNA match is considered
to be a positive identification.
11 - 29
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Cell to Tissue Progression


When cells of the same type group
together for a common purpose, they
form a tissue.
Tissue has four main classifications and
is 60% to 99% water.
11 - 30
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Four Main Types of Body Tissue
1.
Epithelial tissue

2.
Connective tissue

11 - 31
Forms the body’s glands, covers the surface
of the body, and lines the body cavities
Connects tissues together to form the
organs and body parts
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Four Main Types of Body Tissue
3.
Nerve tissue


11 - 32
The basic structural unit of this tissue is the
neuron, which serves as the body’s
communication network.
These neurons are made up of a nerve cell
body and fibers that resemble tree branches
to bring impulses toward the cell and carry
impulses away from the cell.
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Four Main Types of Body Tissue



11 - 33
Sensory neurons in the skin or sensory
organs send impulses to the brain and
spinal cord.
Interneurons carry impulses to another
neuron.
Motor neurons receive an impulse and send
a message, which causes a reaction.
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Four Main Types of Body Tissue
4.
Muscle tissue



Designed to contract on stimulation
Involuntary action occurs without control or
conscious awareness, such as the heartbeat
and respirations.
Tissues controlled at will by brain impulses
are called voluntary muscle tissue.
11 - 34
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Body Organs


The organs are made up of two or more
types of tissues working together to
perform a specific body function.
The human body is made up of 10 body
systems and the organs of each are
discussed in the unit that relates to that
particular body system.
11 - 35
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The 10 Body Systems
1.
Integumentary

2.
Muscular system

3.
11 - 36
Bones and joints
Nervous system

5.
Muscles
Skeletal system

4.
Skin
Brain and spine
Endocrine system

9 glands
(continued)
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
The 10 Body Systems
Circulatory system
6.

Respiratory system
7.

Mouth, nose, and lungs
Digestive system
8.

Intestines
Urinary system
9.

Bladder, kidneys, ureters, and urethra
Reproductive
10.
11 - 37
Heart and blood vessels

Sex organs
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
Unit Summary



Name the main types of tissue.
What causes a cleft lip and cleft palate?
What causes Down syndrome?
11 - 38
Copyright © 2008 Thomson Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning Inc. All rights reserved.