Download The State of Detroit`s Environment

The State of Detroit’s Environment:
An Initial Assessment Using the Framework of Environmental Justice
The impetus of this assessment was an invitation to participate in the creation of
an Environment Report for the city of Detroit, generated in collaboration with
many organizations throughout the metro area, to be prepared for use by the
Detroit Works Project (DWP). We perceive the operating procedures of the
DWP to be lacking genuine community direction and protections. That their
membership includes individuals and organizations that perpetuate environmental
injustices presents the DWP with a conflict of interest that we feel must be
resolved before Sierra Club Detroit collaborates in this process. As a result, we
felt inclined to produce our own report on the state of Detroit’s environment, using
the most up-to-date, unbiased and most relevant information available to our
office. May this report be useful to both community members and policy-makers.
statistics are consistent with statistics for the entire
United States (NOAA, 2012)2. These record
temperatures are attributed to human caused climate
disruption(IPCC, 2007)3. Atmospheric concentrations
of carbon dioxide (CO2) are higher today than at any
other point in the last 650,000 years (IPCC, 2007)4.
The development of modern civilization, with the
resulting decrease in vegetation and the combustion of
fossil fuel is the principal cause of climate change,
which is accelerating due to an elevated concentration
of atmospheric CO2 (IPCC, 2007)5. Although Detroitspecific information has not been released, climate
disruptions projected to have significant effects upon
the Great Lakes region of the United States, and will
play a critical role in shaping the economic and social
well-being of the region (Karl et al, 2009)6. The Great
Lakes region has been warming at a rate of 0.4°F per
decade, since the 1970s. Perhaps more alarming,
average winter temperatures are rising at a rate of 0.9°F
per decade (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2009a) 7.
By the year 2100, average temperatures will be 3.6 to
11.2° F higher in the Great Lakes region (GLISA,
2012)8. Water levels of the Great Lakes and
surrounding lakes are projected to decline, and
maintain this steady pace of decline throughout the
future (NOAA GLERL, 2012)9. This will undoubtedly
affect fresh water availability, as well as disrupt
commerce and agriculture throughout the region (Kling
et al, 2003)10.
Climate disruptions are affecting public health
and well-being through rising temperatures and
changes within the hydrologic cycle (Bajayo, 2012)11.
These risks will likely challenge the economic, social,
and geophysical environments that promote and
sustain human health (WHO, 2008)12. The extent to
which climate impacts affect any given population is
directly related the resident’s wealth, occupation and
assets, institutional links, and social networks (Agrawal,
2009)13. Disparities in wealth, employment
opportunities and available resources throughout the
Great Lakes region will render certain demographic and
socioeconomic groups more vulnerable to health
problems. These populations tend to be the elderly, the
infirm, the poor, children, minorities, or marginalized
populations (Altman, 2012)14. Without access to
proper health care and resources, these groups will
likely become more marginalized and vulnerable,
possessing less resilience to the stressors. Oftentimes,
While we applaud the DWP’s efforts at
enhanced community engagement laid out in their
January 9, 2013 rollout of the “Detroit Future City”
Plan, it remains unclear to what degree community
feedback genuinely has or will be taken into account in
this or future versions of the DWP. Some of the
proposals for creating “green” and “blue” spaces to
beautify areas of the city while allowing residents to
remain in their homes with city services provided
sounds promising on paper. However, the basic plan to
channel resources toward certain target areas of the city
while neglecting others remains intact and
fundamentally contradicts the principles of
environmental justice.
Furthermore, the DWP plan offers nothing
toward alleviating existing environmental justice
hazards listed below. The continued push of
privatization of public lands and resources with respect
to land use, air and water quality is also not addressed
and remains a concern of the Sierra Club.
Complete and transparent independence from
any entities significantly contributing to environmental
hazards in the city is critical if local environmental
groups intend to advocate on behalf of the general
public. Accordingly, the Sierra Club of Detroit feels it
necessary to release this separate report in hopes of
engaging our fellow environmental groups and citizens
of the various Detroit Metro communities, along with
both corporate and non-profit institutional
stakeholders in dialogue about the best ways to
preserve the highest possible environmental quality
throughout the Detroit Metro area.
Climate Change and Public Health
The period from January to June 2012 was the
hottest temperatures ever recorded in the state of
Michigan, since recording began in 1895, with record
highs in the city of Detroit (Edwards, 2012)1. These
1
the inequitable distribution of resources after the
occurrence of extreme weather events further
exacerbates the vulnerability of these populations to
negative health outcomes (McEntire, 2005)15.
Given these realities, we assume that residents
of Southeast Michigan and surrounding communities
are disproportionately vulnerable to the negative
outcomes of climate change, and will face significant
challenges in adapting to new environmental and
climatic realities. Below, Sierra Club will illustrate
several other environmental issues facing Wayne
County, MI, with specific focus on Detroit, MI.
related mortalities in the forty cities surveyed by the
year 2055 and second again by the year 2099, only
being surpassed by Louisville, KY (Altman, 2012)23.
EHE days can provoke or exacerbate lifethreatening illnesses, such as kidney diseases,
cardiovascular disease, heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
In addition to these, excessive heat can also invoke
cramps, fainting, and swelling. Further complicating
human health is the prevalence of high humidity during
EHE days, which hinders the evaporation of sweat
from human skin. This causes the body temperature to
rise, without the regulation of natural cooling
mechanisms like sweat (Altman, 2012)24. The
populations most vulnerable to heat waves are the
elderly, the infirm, young children, the poor, as well
those comprising minority ethnic and racial
demographics. Residents of city centers are more
vulnerable to the effects of heat because paved surfaces
and infrastructure magnify the heat’s intensity (the
urban heat island effect). As Detroit is an urban center
lacking tree cover, it is particularly vulnerable to this
type of excessive heat buildup.
The State of the People
Per the 2010 census, there are 713,777
residents within the city of Detroit (US Census Bureau,
2012)16. Of these, 82.7% are African American (US
Census Bureau, 2012)17. The median household
income level in Detroit is $25,787 per year, with 32.3%
of the population living below the poverty level (US
Census Bureau, 2012)18. Educational attainment
remains low within the city, with 22.6% of the
population lacking a high school diploma. Residents of
Detroit suffer an unemployment rate of 45.3% (US
Census Bureau, 2012)19. Due to bleak economic
opportunities and vast divides between social classes,
families within the city are unstable. Out of all the
housing units within the city, 22.8% are vacant (US
Census Bureau, 2012)20. Detroit remains one of the
most racially segregated cities in the United States,
upon analysis of individual neighborhoods. And
African Americans and Latinos within the city are
disproportionately burdened with industrial pollution.
We believe this reality contributes to many of the social
statistics outlined above.
Industrial Epidemiology
The Michigan Department of Community
Health has found that Detroit adults suffer from
asthma 50% more than the state of Michigan as a
whole (Wasilevich et al, 2008)25. Detroit children are
also hospitalized for asthma 50% more than Detroit
adults. Roughly 13.7% of all Detroiters suffer from
asthma. In addition, Detroiters suffer from asthmarelated hospitalizations three times more than Michigan
as a whole. Asthma-related deaths are two times higher
in Detroit than Michigan at-large. Perhaps even more
troubling is the racially divided statistics of asthma
prevalence; hospitalizations due to asthma among white
Detroiters is roughly 27 per 10,000 people, whereas
among black Detroiters, the rate jumps to 56.9 per
10,000 people. African Americans residing within the
city of Detroit are more than two times more
susceptible to asthma hospitalizations than white
residents.
Excessive Heat Events
A recent study from the American
Meteorology Society (Green, 2011)21, published in
Weather, Climate and Society, surveyed forty US cities,
over one million in population, for the relationship
between, heat, weather conditions and mortality
projected into the future. Ten cities within Great Lakes
region are projected to show a considerable increase in
Excessive Heat Event days (EHE) due to climate
change (Altman, 2012)22. These EHE days are
projected to dramatically increase heat-related
mortalities within Great Lakes cities. Perhaps the two
urban centers most vulnerable are Detroit, MI and
Cleveland, OH. Most relevant to this assessment is that
Detroit is projected to experience 4,109 additional
EHE mortalities by mid-century and 17,877 by the end
of the century. Detroit ranks as second highest heat-
Air Pollution Around Schools
Dr. Paul Mohai of the University of MichiganAnn Arbor’s School of Natural Resources conducted a
research study examining the extent of air pollution
from industrial sources near 3,660 public schools in
Michigan (Mohai, 2011)26. This study examined
whether pollution burdens varied by demographic
characteristics of the student body, whether air
pollution is linked to student performance, and how
pollution burdens flux throughout the state of
2
Michigan, metropolitan centers as well as the various
school districts within Michigan. Public schools in
Michigan are disproportionately located in places with
high air pollution from industrial sources; the majority
of Detroit public schools fall within the 10th decile
of most polluted areas (please refer to Figure A)
(Mohai, 2011)27. The research found that 67.3% of all
Michigan students attended schools within the two
most polluted deciles. Forty-four percent of white
students attended schools within the most polluted
decile, versus 81.5% of African American students and
62.1% of Hispanic students (Mohai, 2011)28. The
majority of air pollutants found at the schools were
diisocyanates, manganese, sulfuric acid, nickel,
chromium, trimethylbenzene, hydrochloric acid,
molybdenum trioxide, lead, cobalt and glycol ethers
(Mohai, 2011)29. These chemicals have been associated
with increased risks of cancer, neurological disorders,
respiratory disorders, cardiovascular disorders, and
developmental disorders (Good Guide, 2012)30.
from mobile sources, such as cars and trucks in Wayne
County, Michigan. Roughly 14.4% (55 schools) of
schools within the Detroit School District are within
150 meters of major roads, compared with 5.5% (25
schools) of the remaining schools in Wayne County. In
the urban core of Wayne County, 7.6% of students are
traffic-exposed while at school (Wu and Batterman,
2006)31. The majority of the exposed students are
African American or Hispanic, recipients of a meal
program, and reside in low-income neighborhoods (Wu
and Batterman, 2006)32. Traffic-related exposures of
pollution are associated with a myriad of negative
health outcomes, such as respiratory diseases, asthma,
cardiopulmonary mortality, and adverse birth outcomes
(Wu and Batterman, 2006)33.
Motor City Automakers
Ford Motor Company owns a number of
facilities in the community of Dearborn, MI. Of all
Detroit automakers, Ford produces the largest burden
of industrial pollution. The cumulative emissions of
toxic substances released by the Ford Motor Company
in 2010 is 604,041 pounds, 90.8% of which was
released into the air (RTK, 2012)34, contributing to an
elevated risk of asthma-related illnesses in neighboring
communities.
The sprawling facility of the GM DetroitHamtramck Assembly Center not only manufactures
cars and car parts, it also exacerbates negative public
health outcomes in the neighboring community of
Hamtramck, MI. This particular facility is not far from
the Detroit Renewable Power incinerator, and
contributes to the cumulative impact of environmental
toxicity in the region. In 2010, GM produced 184,388
pounds of toxic releases and 240,711 pounds of waste
generated (RTK, 2012)35. Much of what is released by
the operation of this plant is methanol, hydrochloric
acid, and 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene, which is almost all
released into the air. It isn’t just the automobiles being
manufactured that assails the health of neighboring
communities, it is also I-94 that skirts the GM plant,
contributing to mobile-source pollution.
The Chrysler Jefferson North Assembly plant
produces slightly less toxic releases than GM, though
generates much more waste on average (RTK, 2012) 36..
This facility located in an area of Detroit that is much
less beleaguered by industrial pollutants in comparison
to other communities discussed above. Chrysler’s
impact is further magnified by the Detroit Axle Plant
that generates 16,934 pounds of waste per year (RTK,
2012).
Figure A: Map of Michigan, generated by Dr. Paul Mohai,
indicating locations of polluting facilities in proximity to public
schools.
Exposure of Schools to Traffic-Related Pollutants
A recent study from Dr. Yi-Chen Wu and Dr.
Stuart Batterman from the University of Michigan-Ann
Arbor’s Department of Environmental Health Sciences
studied the prevalence of air pollution in K-12 schools
3
Detroit Renewable Power
Detroit Renewable Power (DRP) is the
nation’s largest solid waste incinerator and operates
within the city of Detroit. This facility is purported to
burn 432,000 tons of waste per year. Residents
complain of noxious odors emitting from the plant,
due to the rotting garbage on the premises. However,
residents have much more to worry about than stinky
trash. Recent reports from the Michigan Air Emissions
Reporting System shows that the DRP is Wayne
County, Michigan’s fourth largest producer of nitrous
oxides (MDEQ, 2012)37. Residents living in the census
tracts near this facility are 94% African American,
earning a median household income of $18,479 per
year, versus $25,787 for the city of Detroit at-large (US
Census Bureau, 2012)38.
Figure B: Locations of brownfields throughout Wayne County,
Michigan (EPA, 2012)46.
Brownfields
The term brownfield refers to “real property for
which the expansion, redevelopment or reuse may be
complicated by the presence or potential presence of a
hazardous substance, pollutant or contaminant (US
Congress, 1980)39.” There are numerous locations,
throughout the city of Detroit and neighboring
communities that fit this criteria, and pose a very
serious public health risk to community members
(please refer to Figure B). The Michigan Economic
Development Corporation has estimated that more
than 44,000 acres of brownfields exist in the state of
Michigan (MEDC, 2008)40. The estimated number of
brownfields within the city of Detroit ranges from
45,000 sites (EPA, 2000)41 to 90,000 sites.
As many of these sites are abandoned
industrial lots, there remains considerable amounts of
heavy metals, hydrocarbons, pesticides, and other toxic
substances that were once utilized or produced on-site
(Adelaja, 2010)42. Not only are these locations
hazardous to residents, they are barriers to economic
development (Dorsey, 2003)43 and contribute to a
decaying aesthetic that emotionally affects community
members (Adelaja, 2010)44. Brownfields also promote
urban sprawl, by discouraging the reuse of
contaminated inner city land (Adelaja, 2010)45. Detroit
brownfields remain a very serious environmental threat
to residents, though there is much promise in the
possibilities of brownfield redevelopment for purposes
of clean energy generation.
Michigan Zip Code 48217
Southwest Detroit zip code, 48217, is
Michigan’s most polluted zip code, based upon the
emissions of industrial facilities weighted for toxicity of
the chemicals released (please refer to Figure C) (Lam,
2010)47. In addition to the enormous burden of
industrial pollution, this zip must grapple with the
immense mobile sources of pollution, most notably
from Insterstate-75 that skirts the community. In fact,
Southwestern High School is located just half a city
block from I-75. Neighbors assert that nearly every
household in the community has at least one case of
asthma, leukemia, sarcoidosis or other rare forms of
cancer (Lam, 2010)48.
The industrial facilities that most impact
48217 are the Severstal Steel plant, the DTE River
Rouge coal-fired power plant, Marathon Oil
Corporation oil sands refinery, EES Coke and Battery
(owned by DTE), and Edward C Levy Company which
produces slag for Severstal Steel (RTK, 2010) 49. Many
of these industries are quite literally across the street
from people’s homes, and many are adjacent to public
schools in the community (Lam, 2010)50.
4
Figure C: Industrial facilities with the largest toxic releases into
the community of 48217.
Ecorse, MI
The community of Ecorse, MI experiences an
immense amount of environmental pollution as a result
of the operations of the US Steel facility, also known as
Great Lakes Works (please refer to Figure E) (RTK,
2012)54. Among all industrial facilities in Wayne
County, Michigan, Great Lakes Works is the most
polluting. This particular facility released 10,198,270
pounds of toxic releases and 10,598,638 pounds of
waste in 2010 (RTK, 2012)55. Among the substances
most emitted by this facility are zinc, manganese,
asbestos, creosote and lead. The Great Lakes Works
facility has been found to have concentrations of
manganese at levels far higher than MDEQ’s
Residential Particulate Soil Inhalation Criteria (Beck,
2009)56. Long-term exposure to manganese can result
in neurological damage, with symptoms ranging from
tremors to memory loss (NIEHS, 2012) 57.
River Rouge, MI
The community of River Rouge is another
area disproportionately burdened by the pollution from
industrial facilities relative to most other communities
within the Detroit metro area (MOJO, 2012)51. The
facilities that pose the greatest health risk for the
residents of River Rouge are the DTE River Rouge
power plant, the EES Coke battery plant (owned by
DTE), and the Detroit Wastewater Treatment Plant,
among many neighboring facilities not physically
located within the geographic boundaries of River
Rouge (please refer to Figure D) (RTK, 2012) 52. Much
of what is released into the community of River Rouge
by the facilities listed above are barium compounds,
hydrochloric acid, fine particulate matter, sulfuric acid,
mercury and volatile organic compounds (RTK,
2012)53.
Figure E: Toxic substances released into the community of
Ecorse in 2010.
Toxic Substances Released (lbs/year)
Pounds
Per Year,
Manganes
e
compoun
ds ,
1,228,566
, 13%
Figure D: Industrial facilities located in River Rouge, MI, with
toxic releases represented in pounds released per year.
Releases
per
pound
per year,
EES Coke
Battery
LLC…
Releases
per
pound
per year,
BP
Products
NA Inc,…
Releases
per
pound
per year,
Fritz
Enterpris
es Inc,…
Releases
per
pound
per year,
Carmeus
e NA,
41,065…
Pounds
Per Year,
Asbestos
,
3,380,000
, 35%
Pounds
Per Year,
Lead
compoun
ds ,
133,731,
1%
Zinc
compounds
Asbestos
Manganese
compounds
Creosote
River Rouge Power Plant
In 2010, the Clean Air Task Force estimated
that the Detroit Edison River Rouge coal-fired power
plant releases mercury, nitrous oxides, sulfur oxides,
and particulate matter in quantities that provoke 44
deaths, 72 heart attacks, and 700 asthma attacks on a yearly basis
(CATF, 2010)58. Despite receiving a community
service award from the Michigan Department of
Environmental Quality for the restoration of native
species and habitat around the plant, DTE remains one
Hazardous Industries
(lbs released/year)
1,621,382
Pounds
Per Year,
Zinc
compoun
ds ,
4,730,964
, 49%
Pounds
Per Year,
Creosote ,
179,725,
2%
DTE River Rouge Power
Plant
EES Coke Battery LLC
(DTE)
Carmeuse NA
5
of the biggest polluters of the community of River
Rouge, emitting more than 3.7 metric tons of carbon
dioxide annually (CARMA, 2012)59. In sum, this
facility generates 1,621,382 pounds of toxic releases
annually, with 1,839,563 pounds of waste generated
(RTK, 2010)60. The NAACP has ranked the River
Rouge power plant to be the ninth worst coal-fired
power plant for health outcomes in communities of
color (NAACP, 2011)61. This facility places an
additional burden on school children, as it is 0.8 miles
from River Rouge High School.
remains a vital source of energy for this plant
(Kueppers, 2012)65.
Marathon Petroleum
Since 2001, MDEQ has issued 13 airpollution violations notices to Marathon’s Detroit
Refinery. These violations from 5,400 tons of
pollutants expelled into the atmosphere each year have
resulted in $460,000 in fines to settle clean air act
violations. Since the $2.2 Billion expansion of its tar
sands oil refinery in 2008, Marathon has been forced to
commit to investing in over $2 million dollars of
equipment to bring them into compliance with EPA
guidelines after four years of expelling in excess of 15
tons of toxic compounds and at least another ton of
the primary hazardous bi-product of tar sands refining
– benzene over that four year period.
Meanwhile, Marathon has agreed to relocate up to 90%
of residents from the nearby Oakwood Heights
community, but has failed to reach similar buyout
agreements with residents of 48217 who live even
closer to the refinery. Residents of 48217 had to
conduct their own air sampling to prove benzene,
sulfur dioxide and other hazardous toxins were being
pumped into their basements via the public water main
as Marathon pumps over three million gallons of waste
water from the refinery to the city’s Wastewater
Treatment Plant. Similarly, several fire, noise and other
environmental hazards from flaring and other activities
at the refinery continue to plague residents in the area.
Detroit Wastewater Treatment Plant
The Detroit Wastewater Treatment Plant
processes waste from over 250 of the region’s most
polluting facilities and has a history of violating its
permit, most recently from late 2009 to 2011. It is the
largest source of discharge into the Detroit River. In
2011, the Detroit Waste Water Treatment Plant
polluted over 47 billion gallons of diluted raw sewage
and storm water into the Detroit and Rouge Rivers
from combined sewer overflows (Great Lakes
Protection, 2012)62. Impacts from the sewage
overflows contribute to contaminated drinking water,
decreased property values, waterborne illnesses and
basement backups (Sierra Club, 2012)63. Downriver
residents, especially in the community of River Rouge,
use these waterways for fishing, and water for domestic
use. As a result of the water contamination from the
treatment plant, these residents are experiencing a
myriad of negative health outcomes.
Addressing Environmental Injustice
On November 21st, 2007, the Governor of Michigan
signed an Executive Directive, charging the MI
Department of Environmental Quality with developing
and implementing a state environmental justice plan to
promote environmental justice in Michigan. The DEQ
was then combined with the Department of Natural
Resources (DNR) to form the Department of Natural
Resources and Environment (DNRE) which developed
an Environmental Justice Plan in December of 2010.
The two pillars of environmental justice are stated in
this plan as:
Severstal Steel
The second largest emitter of toxic releases in
Wayne County, Michigan is the Severstal Steel plant in
Dearborn, Michigan. In the year 2010, Severstal
emitted 8,573,618 pounds of toxic releases and
generated 11,486,806 pounds of waste (RTK, 2012)64.
This facility is literally located just behind Salina
Elementary school, the sight of which evokes quite an
ironic juxtaposition. Community members of 48217
engaged Severstal Steel in a lawsuit because of immense
amounts of particulate fallout and the resulting negative
health outcomes. They suspect that much of this
fallout is zinc, manganese and lead compounds. Since
the Keystone XL pipeline was proposed, Severstal has
expanded their operations to generate steel for the
spiral and seam pipes used to transport the oil sands to
refineries. Severstal also generates much of the steel
used to manufacture the pipes for purposes of
hydraulic fracturing an industry that has grown in the
Midwest in recent years. The plant’s operations benefit
doubly from expanded natural gas extraction, as gas
“Fair, non-descriminatory treatment means that no
group of people, including racial, ethnic or low-income
populations should bear a disproportionately greater
burden resulting from environmental laws, regulations,
policies and decision-making. The activities and actions
of the DNRE and the other state agencies have the
potential to significantly impact the health and
environmental well-being of all Michigan residents and
6
businesses; particularly individuals living in minority
and low-income communities.”
Works Cited
1
Edwards, Chris. "It's Official! First Half of 2012 Was Hottest Ever
Recorded in Michigan and U.S." Detroit 7 Action News. N.p., 9 July
2012. Web. 10 July 2012. <http://www.wxyz.com/dpp/news/itsofficial-first-half-of-2012-was-hottest-ever-recorded-in-michiganand-us>.
2
"Global Analysis May 2012." State of the Climate. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, n.d. Web. 10 July 2012.
<http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/>.
3
IPCC. "2. Causes of Change." Climate Change 2007: Synthesis
Report Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, 2007. Web. 10 July 2012.
<http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms2.ht
ml>.
4
Ibid.
5
Ibid.
6
Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States, Thomas R.
Karl, Jerry M. Melillo, and Thomas C. Peterson, (eds.). (2009)
Cambridge University Press.
7
Union of Concerned Scientists. (2009a). Climate change in the
Midwest projections of future temperature and precipitation.
Hayhoe, K., VanDorn, J., Naik, V., and Wuebbles, D. Retrieved
from
http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/global_warming/midw
est-climate-impacts.pdf
8
Great Lakes Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments
Center (GLISA). (2012). Climate Change in the Great Lakes Region.
GLISA.
9
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Great
Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL). (2012). “Water
levels of the Great Lakes.” National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Retrieved from
http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/pubs/brochures/lakelevels/lakelevels.
pdf.
10
Kling, G.W. et al. (2003). Confronting climate change in the
Great Lakes Region: Impacts on our communities and ecosystems.
Union of Concerned Scientists, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and
Ecological Society of America, Washington, D.C.
11
Bajayo, Rachael. "Building Community Resilience to Climate
Change through Public Health Planning." Health Promotion
Journal of Australia 23 (2012): 30-36. Print.
12
World Health Organization Secretariat. Climate Change and
Health. Report No.: EB 122/4. Geneva (CHE): WHO; 2008 January
16.
13
Agrawal, Arun. (2009). “The Role of Local Institutions in
Adaptation to Climate Change.” Paper Presented at the Social
Dimensions of Climate Change Workshop. World Bank. March
2008.
14
Altman, Peter. (2012). “Killer Summer Heat: Projected Death
Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate
Change.” Issue Brief, Natural Resources Defense Council.
15
McEntire DA. “Why Vulnerability Matters: Exploring the Merit
of an Inclusive Disaster Reduction Concept.” Disaster Prevention
and Management. 2005;14(2):206-22.
16
"Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics:
2010." American FactFinder. US Census Bureau, n.d. Web. 10 July
2012.
<http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/prod
uctview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_DP03>.
17
Ibid.
“Meaningful involvement means that residents have an
appropriate opportunity to participate in decisions
about a proposed activity that will affect their
environment and/or health. To be effective, an
environmental justice plan must incorporate
comprehensive measures for including the public in
legal and policy decisions related to environmental
issues. Indeed, full public involvement in governmental
decision-making is a basic tenet of democracy.”
Many communities within the state of Michigan are
beleaguered by the immense quantities of
environmental pollutants emitted by industrial facilities.
Most of these industrial facilities are located in
communities principally comprised of people of color.
These communities tend to be at overwhelmingly low
socioeconomic thresholds, and without legal recourse
or resources with which to defend themselves or
improve their domestic situations. Given the
contamination of their immediate environments, these
communities have inordinately high levels of asthma,
cancer, neurological disorders, and birth defects. These
communities embody the Executive Directive’s
definition of Environmental Justice communities and
are bearing a “disproportionately greater burden” of
pollution today. It is therefore essential and required
by the DNRE’s Environmental Justice Plan, that state
decisions work to reduce and not increase the burden
of pollution in these communities.
Before issuing permits for any new or modified
facilities that emit toxic air pollutants in the city of
Detroit, the Michigan Department of Environmental
Quality must ensure that these facilities do not create
disproportionate impacts on already burdened
communities. The MDEQ should set stringent limits
for these facilities based on a careful analysis of the
cumulative impacts of polluting facilities faced by many
Detroit communities. In the absence of action initiated
by State agencies, the City of Detroit has responsibility
to call the State’s attention to issues of pollution and
environmental justice. Any solutions lacking this
analysis and consideration will perpetuate existing
environmental injustices and human rights abuses of
Detroit residents by some of the most profitable
corporations of the region.
7
18
40
"Selected Economic Characteristics." American FactFinder. US
Census Bureau, n.d. Web. 10 July 2012.
<http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/prod
uctview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_DP03>.
19
Ibid.
20
Ibid.
21
Greene, S; Kalkstein L; Mills D; Samenow, J. 2011. “An
Examination of Climate Change on Extreme Heat Events and
Climate–Mortality Relationships in Large U.S. Cities.” Weather,
Climate and Society, October 2011, 3, 281-292.
22
Altman, Peter. (2012). “Killer Summer Heat: Projected Death
Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate
Change.” Issue Brief, Natural Resources Defense Council.
23
Ibid.
24
Ibid.
25
Wasilevich EA, Lyon-Callo S, Rafferty A, Dombkowski K. “Detroit
- The Epicenter of Asthma Burden”. Epidemiology of Asthma in
Michigan. Bureau of Epidemiology, Michigan Department of
Community Health, 2008.
26
Mohai, Paul, Byoung-Suk Kweon, Sangyun Lee and Kerry Ard.
“Air Pollution Around Schools is Linked to Poorer Student Health
and Academic Performance.” Health Affairs, 30, no. 5 (2011): 852862.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.
30
Scorecard. Chemical profiles [Internet]. Washington. (DC):
Scorecard; [cited 2012 Jul 9]. Available from:
http://scorecard.goodguide.com/chemical-profiles/
31
Wu, Yi-Chen, and Stuart A. Batterman. "Proximity of Schools in
Detroit, Michigan to Automobile and Truck Traffic." Journal of
Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 16.5 (2006):
457-70. Print.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
"Ford Motor Co Dearborn Truck Plant (2010)." The Right-toKnow Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?reptype=f&facility_id=481
21FRDM23001M&reporting_year=2010&dbtype=C&detail=1&datype=T>
35
"General Motors GM VA Detroit-Hamtramck Assembly Center
(2010)." The Right-to-Know Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?reptype=f>.
36
"Chrysler Jefferson North Assembly Plant (2010)." The Right-toKnow Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?reptype=f&facility_id=482
15CHRYL2101C&reporting_year=2010&dbtype=C&detail=1&datype=T>.
37
"Detroit Renewable Power LLC." Michigan Air Emissions
Reporting System. Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
(MDEQ), n.d. Web. 11 July 2012.
<http://www.deq.state.mi.us/maers/facility_info.asp?SRN=M414
8&EI_Year=2010>.
38
"Selected Economic Characteristics." American FactFinder. US
Census Bureau, n.d. Web. 10 July 2012.
<http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/prod
uctview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_DP03>.
39
U.S. Congress, 1980. Comprehensive environmental response,
compensation, and liability act of 1980—Section 101 (42 U.S.C.
9601), Washington, D.C., U.S. Library of Congress.
Michigan Economic Development Corporation (MEDC), 2008.
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Brownfield Redevelopment. The Michigan Economic Development
Corporation
<http://ref.themedc.org/cm/attach/b0bc12b6-18b0-4e74-823f50b40d116e36/BrownfieldSBT.pdf>, accessed October 13, 2008.
41
"Brownfields Supplemental Assistance." Solid Waste and
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Apr. 2000. Web. 12 July 2012.
<http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/P100AIP4.TXT?ZyActionD=Z
yDocument&Client=EPA&Index=2000+Thru+2005&Docs=&Query=
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42
Adelaja, Soji. "Potential Application of Renewable Energy on
Brownfield Sites: A Case Study of Michigan." Energy Policy 38.11
(2010): 7021-030. Print.
43
Dorsey, J. “Brownfields and Greenfields: the Intersection of
Sustainable Development and Environmental Stewardship.”
Environmental Practice, 5 (1) (2003), pp. 69-76.
44
Adelaja, Soji. "Potential Application of Renewable Energy on
Brownfield Sites: A Case Study of Michigan." Energy Policy 38.11
(2010): 7021-030. Print.
45
Ibid.
46
"Cleanups in My Community." Cleaning Up Our Land, Water and
Air. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), n.d. Web. 12 July
2012.
<http://ofmpub.epa.gov/apex/cimc/f?p=255:41:34324370893926
01:::41:P41_WELSEARCH:MI|State|MI|||true|true|true|true|tru
e|true||-1|sites|N|basic>.
47
Lam, Tina. "48217: Life in Michigan's Most Polluted ZIP
Code." Detroit Free Press. Detroit Free Press, 20 June 2010. Web.
<http://www.freep.com/article/20100620/NEWS05/6200555/482
17-Life-Michigan-s-most-polluted-ZIP-code>.
48
Ibid.
49
"List of Facilites: Wayne County, MI." TRI Search Results: 2010.
The Right-to-Know Network, n.d. Web. 10 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?database=tri>.
50
Lam, Tina. "48217: Life in Michigan's Most Polluted ZIP
Code." Detroit Free Press. Detroit Free Press, 20 June 2010. Web.
<http://www.freep.com/article/20100620/NEWS05/6200555/482
17-Life-Michigan-s-most-polluted-ZIP-code>.
51
Hertsgaard, Mark. "How a Grassroots Rebellion Won the
Nation's Biggest Climate Victory." Mother Jones, 2 Apr. 2012.
Web.
<http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2012/04/beyondcoal-plant-activism?page=2>.
52
"TRI Facilities for River Rouge, MI (2010)." The Right-To-Know
Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?citystate=river+rouge%2C
+mi>.
53
Ibid.
8
54
"TRI Facilities for Ecorse, MI (2010)." The Right-To-Know
Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?citystate=ecorse%2C+mi>.
55
Ibid.
56
Beck, Barbara D., and Gradient Corporation. "Health
Consultation: Public Health Implications of Inhalation of
Manganese in Downriver Soils." Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, 26 Mar. 2009. Web. 12 June 2012.
<http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/pha/DownriverSoils/Downriver_S
oilsHC3-26-2009.pdf>.
57
"Manganese & Brain Damage." Manganese & Brain Damage.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, n.d. Web. 11
July 2012.
<http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/impacts/manganese/index.cf
m>.
58
"River Rouge Power Plant." Death and Disease from Power
Plants. Clean Air Task Force (CATF), 2010. Web. 10 July 2012.
<http://www.catf.us/fossil/problems/power_plants/existing/map.
php?state=Michigan>.
59
"River Rouge." Power Plants. Carbon Monitoring for Action, n.d.
Web. 11 July 2012. <http://carma.org/plant/detail/37557>.
60
"TRI Facilities for River Rouge, MI (2010)." The Right-To-Know
Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?citystate=river+rouge%2C
+mi>.
61
NAACP. "Coal Blooded: Putting Profits Before People in
Michigan." NAACP. N.p., July 2011. Web. 11 July 2012.
<http://www.naacp.org/pages/coal-blooded1>.
62
"Great Lakes Protection." Michigan Chapter. Sierra Club, n.d.
Web. 11 July 2012.
<http://michigan.sierraclub.org/issues/greatlakes/greatlakesprote
ction.html>.
63
"A Citizen's Guide to Protecting the Great Lakes." The Great
Lakes Program. Sierra Club, n.d. Web. 11 July 2012.
<http://michigan.sierraclub.org/pdfs/2008-06-activisttoolkit.pdf>.
64
"List of Facilites: Wayne County, MI." TRI Search Results: 2010.
The Right-to-Know Network, n.d. Web. 10 July 2012.
<http://www.rtknet.org/db/tri/tri.php?database=tri>.
65
Kueppers, Alfred, and Melissa Akin. "Russia's Severstal Backs
Keystone XL Pipeline."Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 29 Mar. 2012.
Web. 14 June 2012.
<http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/29/us-mining-summitseverstal-idUSBRE82S0ZL20120329>.
9