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Superconductivity at nanoscale Superconductivity is the result of the formation of a quantum condensate of paired electrons (Cooper pairs). In small particles, the allowed energy levels are quantized and for sufficiently small particle sizes the mean energy level spacing becomes bigger than the superconducting energy gap. It is generally believed that superconductivity is suppressed at this point (the Anderson Criterion) Q: Is superconductivity important for nano-devices? In which way superconductivity manifests itself at nanoscale? Superconductivity in Nanosystems 2 Tunneling in superconductors Generally, Superconductivity in Nanosystems 3 At the S-N interface, S S N N No single-electron tunneling possible until I Δ Superconductivity in Nanosystems V 4 Then, how the charge is transferred between the superconductor and normal metal? In a a normal metal ε Hole branch Fermi level p Electron-hole representation Hole-like excitation Superconductivity in Nanosystems 5 In a superconductor, An electron can be reflected as a hole with opposite group velocity. In this way the charge 2e is transferred – Andreev reflection Superconductivity in Nanosystems 6 Reflected Transmitted Incident An electron (red) meeting the interface between a normal conductor (N) and a superconductor (S) produces a Cooper pair in the superconductor and a retroreflected hole (green) in the normal conductor. Vertical arrows indicate the spin band occupied by each particle. Superconductivity in Nanosystems 7 In the presence of the tunneling barrier the Andreev reflection contains an extra tunneling amplitude. However, at exponentially. the single-particle tunneling is suppressed Andreev reflection is a way to bring Cooper pairs to a superconductor from a normal conductor in a coherent way. For a perfect (non-reflecting) interface the probability of Andreev reflection is 1. In general case both reflection channels – normal and Andreev – have finite probabilities. Superconductivity in Nanosystems e e Cooper pair h 8 Normal Reflection in an N/S Phase Boundary between semi-infinite N and S Layers Total Andreev Reflection in an N/S Phase Boundary between semiinfinite N and S Layers Superconductivity in Nanosystems 9 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 10 Parity effect How much we pay to transfer N electrons to the box? Coulomb energy: We have taken into account that the electron charge is discrete. Superconductivity in Nanosystems 11 We have arrived at the usual diagram for Coulomb blockade – at some values of the gate voltage the electron transfer is free of energy cost! Superconductivity in Nanosystems 12 What happens in a superconductor? Energy depends on the parity of the electron number! Parity effect: Superconductivity in Nanosystems 13 The ground state energy for odd n is Δ above the minimum energy for even n Superconductivity in Nanosystems 14 Experiment (Tuominen et al., 1992, Lafarge et al., 1993) Coulomb blockade of Andreev reflection The total number of electrons at the grain is about 109. However, the parity of such big number can be measured. Superconductivity in Nanosystems 15 Stability diagram of Cooper pair box By Hergenrother et al., 1993 SET Superconductivity in small systems manifests itself through energy scales of current-voltage curves Superconductivity in Nanosystems 16 Crossover from 2e periodicity to e periodicity can be observed in external magnetic field suppressing superconductivity Observed in S’-S-S’ systems, where the physics of Coulomb blockade is similar Superconductivity in Nanosystems 17 How one can convey Cooper pairs between superconductors? Superconductivity in Nanosystems 18 Stationary Josephson effect S I V S Weak link – two superconductors divided by a thin layer of insulator or normal conductor What is the resistance of the junction? For small currents, the junction is a superconductor! Reason – order parameters overlap in the weak link B. Josephson Superconductivity in Nanosystems 19 Amplitude S S Since superconductivity is the equilibrium state, the overlap leads to the change in the Gibbs free energy. This energy difference is sensitive to the phase difference of the order parameter (the order parameter is complex). We will show that it leads to the persistent current through the junction – the Josephson effect. Superconductivity in Nanosystems 20 To calculate the current let us introduce an auxiliary small magnetic field with vector potential δA which penetrates the junction. Then Superconductivity in Nanosystems 21 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 22 Josephson interferometer (after intergration) Denote: Most sensitive magnetometer - SQUID Superconductivity in Nanosystems 23 Josephson junctions in magnetic field y 1 Narrow junction –> H= const 2 x Penetrated regions Therefore Superconductivity in Nanosystems 24 In a wide junction the magnetic field created by the Josephson current becomes important. Then H and A become dependent on z From the Maxwell equation Ferrel-Prange equation Josephson penetration length Josephson vortices Distribution of current in narrow and wide contacts (fluxons) Superconductivity in Nanosystems 25 Non-stationary Josephson effect Due to the gauge invariance the electric potential in a superconductor can enter only in combination Thus, the phase acquires the additional factor Here θ is the phase difference while V is voltage across the junction. Superconductivity in Nanosystems 26 Thus, is the voltage V is kept constant, then where is the Josephson frequency This equation allows to relate voltage and frequency, which is crucial for metrology. Superconductivity in Nanosystems 27 Dynamics of a Josephson junction: I-V curve A particle with In a washboard potential Superconductivity in Nanosystems 28 Macroscopic quantum tunneling A macroscopic Josephson junction can escape from its ground state via quantum tunneling – like the α-decay in nuclear physics. Quantum effects were observed through the shape of an I-V curve Superconductivity in Nanosystems 29 Josephson junction in an a. c. field Important application – detection of electromagnetic signals Suppose that one modulates the voltage as Then Superconductivity in Nanosystems 30 Then one can easily show that at a time-independent step appears in the I-V-curve, its amplitude being Shapira steps Superconductivity in Nanosystems 31 Applications Superconductivity in Nanosystems 32 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 33 Main Applications •Metrology, Volt standard •High frequency applications •Magnetometers, SQUIDs •Amplifiers, SQUIDs •Imaging, MRI, SQUIDs Superconductivity in Nanosystems 34 Medicine, biophysics and chemistry •Biomagnetism •Biophysics: - Diagnostics by magnetic tagging of antibodies -Special frequency characteristics, no rinsing •MRI (Magetic Resonance Imaging) - Low frequency, low noise amplifiers, sc solenoids •NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) -Low frequency, small fields, sc solenoids •NQR (Nuclear Quadropole Resonance) - Low frequency, low noise amplifiers, sc solenoids Superconductivity in Nanosystems 35 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 36 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 37 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 38 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 39 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 40 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 41 Superconductivity in Nanosystems 42 Summary • Andreev reflection allows coherent transformation of normal quasiparticles to Cooper pairs. • Cooper pairs can be transferred through tunneling barriers via Josephson effect. • Coulomb blockade phenomena manifest themselves as specific parity effect in superconductor grains. • Manipulation Cooper pairs allow devices of a new type, e. g., serving as building blocks for quantum computation Superconductivity in Nanosystems 43