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Unit 4.2
EXPANSION IN THE 18TH
CENTURY
I. The Agricultural Revolution
(17th and 18th centuries)
A. State of agriculture in 1700
1. Standard of living for
peasants and artisans was
about the same as in the
Middle Ages
2. 80% of Western Europeans
were farmers; higher
percentage in Eastern Europe
3. Low agricultural output
a. Medieval open-field
system was prevalent
b. Failed harvests occurred
once or twice a decade
resulting in famines
c. People were malnourished
and susceptible to illness
d. Science was essentially a
branch of theology and as
of yet had no application to
agriculture
4. Open field system
a. Common lands were open and
strips of land for agriculture
were not divided by fences or
hedges.
b. Open fields were farmed as a
community.
c. Exhaustion of soil was a
common problem
d. 1/3 to ½ of lands lay fallow
on any given year for the soil
to recover
The Open Field System
e. Villages maintained open
meadows for hay and natural
pasture
f. Peasants were often taxed
heavily
g. Peasants in eastern Europe
were far worse off
5. 18th century: England,
Netherlands and France became
leaders for increased
agriculture, industry and trade
resulting in population growth
B. Features of the Agricultural
Revolution
1. Increased food production:
increased crop and animal yields
fed more people.
2. New methods of cultivation:
crops were now grown on
reclaimed wastelands and
uncultivated common lands
3. Selective breeding of livestock:
led to better cultivation due to
healthier animals
C. Science and technology was
applied to agriculture
1. Low Countries led the way
a. Population growth meant
increased production was
necessary
b. By mid-17th century, the
Dutch enclosed fields,
rotated crops, heavily
fertilized, and planted wide
varieties of crops
-- A free and capitalistic
society provided
incentives
c. Drainage
-- Much of Holland had been
marshlands or under sea
waters
-- Dutch became world
leaders in reclaiming
wetlands through drainage
-- Cornelius Vermuyden:
most famous of Dutch
engineers in drainage
-- Drainage later used
extensively in southern
England
2. England
a. By 1870 crop yields had tripled
since 1700 with only a 14%
increase in people working the
land.
b. Crop rotation pioneered by
Viscount Charles Townshend
• Applied Dutch techniques of
crop rotation using nitrogen-rich
crops: turnips, peas, beans,
clover, potatoes
o Nicknamed “Turnip
Townsend”
• Drained much land in England
• Enriched soil and provided food
for livestock
o Manure was used for fertilizer
c. Increased food for livestock meant
mass slaughter of animals was no
longer needed before winter
d. By 1740, new agricultural
techniques had become popular
among much of the English
aristocracy
Viscount Charles
Townshend (1674-1738)
brought Dutch
agricultural techniques to
England
e. Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
• Good example of how the
empiricism of the scientific
revolution was applied to
agriculture
• His seed drill (1701) allowed
for sowing of crops in a straight
row rather than
scattering it by hand
• Used horses for
plowing rather than
slower oxen
Jethro Tull: seed drill
The seed drill was later developed on a much larger
scale to seed multiple rows simultaneously.
d. Robert Bakewell (1725-1795)
pioneered selective breeding of
livestock
• Larger and healthier animals
resulted
• More meat, wool, milk, leather,
soap and candle tallow
• More manure
available for
fertilizer
D. New foods: the Columbian
Exchange resulted in a revolution
in diet for Europeans
1. New foods from the New World
became increasingly available in
the 17th and 18th century
2. Potatoes and corn became staple
crops: highly nutritious and easy
to grow
,
E. Enclosure movement in England
1. First enclosure began in 16th
century
a. Landowners sought to increase
profits from wool production
by enclosing fields for raising
sheep
b. Differed from 18th century
enclosures that were geared
towards agriculture
2. Intensified in the 18th century
a. End to the open-field system
• Landowners consolidated
their scattered holdings into
compact fields that were
fenced
• Common pasture lands
were also enclosed
Arial View of Enclosure
b. Resulted in the
commercialization of
agriculture
• Large landowners
prospered and invested in
technology (machinery,
breeding, cultivation
methods
• Increase in number of large
and medium-sized farms
The Transition from Pre-Enclosure to Enclosure
Typical English
Community
BEFORE
enclosure acts
Typical English
Community
AFTER
enclosure acts
Key
Barron’s Land
Rich Farmer’s
Land
2nd Rich Farmer’s
land
Common Land
Small Farmers’
lands
Appleby, England: Before and After Enclosure
Appleby c. 1550
Appleby c. 1800
• Parliament passed over 300
enclosure acts in the late-18th and
early-19th centuries that
benefited large landowners
• 1815, Corn Laws passed to
benefit landowners
3. Enclosure’s impact on the
peasantry
a. Many were forced off lands that
had once been common
b. Many moved to towns or cities
looking for work
• Many found work in factories
or joined workhouses
(poorhouses)
c. Many became impoverished
farm laborers on large farms
d. Some were freed up to pursue
other economic opportunities,
such as the cottage industry
e. Women had no way to raise
animals on common lands for
extra money
4. Impact on women
a. Women before Enclosure had
been an indispensable part of a
household’s economic survival.
b. Enclosure forced women (and
men) off the land.
c. After enclosure opportunities
were much more limited.
d. Daughters were pushed out of
the household sooner.
e. Young women increasingly
went to towns or cities for work
in domestic industries or
prostitution.
f. Some families managed to
survive in the countryside by
supplementing their income via
the cottage industry (mostly for
spinning and weaving).
• Women played an important
role spinning and weaving.
5. A strict hierarchical society
emerged
a. A few large landowners (gentry)
dominated the economy and
politics.
b. A few strong, prosperous tenant
farmers rented land.
c. Some small, independent
peasant farmers owned land.
d. A large mass of landless
peasants worked as wage
workers on farms or as
cottagers.
6. Struggles between landlords and
peasants occurred
• Game laws were passed on
behalf of landowners whereby
any animals on owners’ vast
lands could not be hunted for
food
o Peasants who were without
food would risk severe
punishment if they were
caught hunting for food on an
owner’s land
7. Historical debate over the enclosure
movement
a. Traditional view
• Enclosures pushed thousands
of peasants out the countryside
or resulted in abject poverty for
those who remained.
• Theory put forth by the
socialist Karl Marx in the 19th
century
b. Resent research
• Negative effects exaggerated
• Many remained as prosperous
tenant farmers, small
landowners or wage earners.
• As much as 50% percent of
England’s farmland was
already enclosed by 1750.
• 1700: ratio of two landless
laborers for every selfsufficient farmer; ratio not
significantly larger by 1750
• Mutual agreements occurred
8. Enclosure did not spread to western
Europe
a. France did not have national
enclosure policy and local
peasants resisted it after 1760
b. Eastern Europe did not see
fundamental agricultural
changes until the 19th century
D. Impact of the Agricultural
Revolution
1. Population explosion in the 18th
century
2. Enclosure fundamentally altered
rural society
a. Common lands enclosed
b. Widespread migration to
towns and cities
c. Women adversely affected
3. Cottage industry emerged
4. Lower food prices = more
money for consumer goods
II. Population explosion
A. Limits on population growth
prior to 1700
-- Famine, disease, warfare
B. Causes for growth after 1700
1. Agricultural Revolution
2. New crops: potatoes and corn
3. Improved transportation
4. Better diets led to stronger
immune systems
5. Plague disappeared after 1720
6. Improved sanitation
7. 18th century wars were less
destructive
8. Medical advances NOT a cause
C. Population growth reached a
plateau between 1650 and 1750 but
took off after 1750
D. Between 1700 and 1800, European
pop. increased from 120 million to
about 190 million
III. Proto-Industrialization: the Cottage
Industry (“Putting-out system”)
A. Rural industry became a major
part of Europe’s growing economy
1. Rural population was eager to
supplement its income
2. Merchant-capitalists in cities
were eager to draw on cheap
labor in the countryside
3. Thus early industrialism was
“put out” into the countryside
4. Manufacturing with hand tools
in peasant cottages came to
challenge urban craft industry
B. Cottage Industry
1. Merchant-capitalists provided
raw materials to rural families
who produced products or semifinished products and sent them
back to the merchant for payment.
2. Merchants sold the products for
profit.
3. Wool cloth was most important.
4. The Cottage Industry was
essentially a family enterprise
a. Work of 4 or 5 spinners needed to
keep one weaver steadily
employed
b. Husband and wife constantly
tried to find more thread and
spinners
-- “Spinsters”
c. Sometimes
families
subcontracted
work to others
A typical cottage industry home with the father weaving
(right) while his wife and daughter spin thread.
5. Problems with the Cottage Industry
a. Constant disputes between
cottagers and merchants over
weights of materials and quality
of cloth
b. Rural labor was unorganized and
usually difficult for merchants to
control
c. Merchant desire for more
efficient production led to the rise
of factories and the industrial
revolution
C. Results
1. Thousands of poor rural families
were able to supplement their
incomes.
2. Unregulated production in the
countryside resulted in
experimentation and
diversification of goods.
-- Textiles, knives, forks,
housewares, buttons, gloves,
clocks, and musical instruments
D. Cottage industry flourished first in
England
1. Spinning and weaving of wool
cloth was most important
2. In 1500, ½ of England’s textiles
were produced in the countryside
3. By 1700, the percentage was
higher
4. “Putting out” system later spread
to Continental countries (e.g.
France and Germany)
E. Proto-industrial technology
1. 1733, John Kay: flying shuttle
enabled a weaver to throw the
shuttle back and forth on a loom
with one hand
flying shuttle video clip
b. 1764, James Hargreaves invented
the spinning jenny which
mechanized the spinning wheel so
that eight spools of thread could
be spun simultaneously
Later, improvements were made to the spinning
jenny that enabled the number of threads spun
on a single machine to be increased to eighty.
IV. Mercantilism and the Atlantic
Economy
A. European maritime expansion in
the 18th century
1. World trade became
fundamental to the European
economy.
a. Sugar was most important;
also tobacco, cotton, and
indigo
b. The slave trade was
enormous.
2. Spain and Portugal revitalized
their empires.
3. Britain, France, and
Netherlands benefited the most.
4. Britain had by far the largest
emigration to the New World.
B. Characteristics of mercantilism
1. Main goal: economic selfsufficiency
2. A country or empire sought to
create a favorable balance of
trade by exporting more than it
imported.
-- Tariffs (customs duties) were
placed on imports
3. Bullionism: countries sought to
build up large reserves of gold
and silver and prevent the
export of these precious metals
4. Colonies were acquired to
provide raw materials (and
markets) for the mother
country.
5. States granted monopolies to
large companies (e.g. British
East India Co., Dutch East India
Co.)
6. States encouraged development
of domestic industries so that a
country would not have to buy
a finished product from a rival
country.
C. Great Britain
1. Became the world’s leading
maritime power in the 18th
century
a. The Bank of England (1694)
provided capital for economic
development
b. The Act of Union (1707)
unified England and
Scotland; the Scots sought the
benefits of trade within the
English empire.
2. British mercantilism differed
from France in that gov’t
economic regulations often
served the private interest of
individuals and public needs of
the state.
a. In contrast, authoritarian
states like France sought an
economic system that
primarily benefited the state.
-- For example, the intendant
system was extended
throughout the French
empire.
b. Navigation Acts passed by
Parliament to increase military
power and private wealth
 First act passed in 1651 to
reduce Dutch domination of
the Atlantic trade
 Required most goods imported
from Europe into Britain be
carried on British-owned ships
or on ships of the country
producing that specific good
 Gave merchants and ship
owners a virtual monopoly on
trade with the colonies.
3. Triangular Trade
a. Revolved around the West
Indies (Caribbean) and
included North America and
Africa.
The Triangular Trade
b. Triangular trade: classical model
c. Triangular Trade: Atlantic Slave Trade
D. Dutch Republic
1. First half of the 17th century saw
the Netherlands as the world’s
dominant maritime power:
“Golden Age of the Netherlands”
a. The middle class (burghers)
dominated politics and the
economy.
b. Gov’t was decentralized and
didn’t impede the economy
c. Religious toleration enabled
foreign merchants to live there
without persecution.
2. Three Anglo-Dutch Wars between
1652 and 1674 damaged Dutch
shipping and commerce
a. New Amsterdam seized by
England in 1664; renamed
“New York”
b. By late-17th century, Dutch were
falling behind England in
shipping, trade, and colonies
c. England and Netherlands
became allies against expansion
of Louis XIV in late-17th and
early-18th centuries
3. Wars of Louis XIV further
weakened Dutch trade in the
Atlantic
4. Netherlands switched its focus to
banking rather than trade and
managed to survive intact
a. First country to perfect the use
of paper currency
b. Stock market in Amsterdam
was the most important in
Europe
c. A central bank was created.
E. The Slave Trade
1. Dramatic growth in the Atlantic
trade was largely due to the
growth of slave labor.
2. About 10 million Africans were
transported to the New World in
the 17th and 18th centuries.
a. Half of all slaves were carried
on British ships; 25% French
b. Most slaves captured by rival
African tribes who traded
slaves for European goods
c. Between 20% to 1/3 died en
route
d. Most slaves sent to Brazil or the
West Indies to work sugar
plantations
e. As many as 400,000 sent to
British North American
colonies
3. Slave trade dwindled by the 1780s
F. The “Bubbles”
1. Both Britain and France faced
enormous national debts due to
numerous wars.
2. The South Sea Bubble, 1720
a. 1719, British gov’t gave the
South Sea Company rights to
take over the national debt
b. A speculative frenzy drove
stock prices higher.
c. The bubble burst in 1720
resulting in the first large-scale
financial crash.
3. The Mississippi Bubble, 1720
a. Mississippi Co. granted a
monopoly by the French gov’t
on trade with French Louisiana
in North America
b. 1719, the company took over
France’s nat’l debt in exchange
for company shares of stock
c. The bubble burst in 1720 and
the Mississippi Co. was ruined
d. Nat’l debt in France remained
staggering and played a role in
the French Revolution 70 years
later
G. Colonial wars
1. Background
a. Between 1689 and 1783 Britain
and France were the two main
adversaries in the colonial
wars for empire.
b. Spain and the Netherlands
were in relative decline.
c. In effect, these wars were
world wars as they were
fought in Europe, at sea, and
in North America.
The “2nd Hundred Years War”
(1689-1815)
France vs. England
• Wars of Louis XIV
– War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697)
– War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713)
• War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
• Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
• American Revolution (1775-1783)
• War of the First Coalition (1792-1797)
• Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)
2. War of Spanish Succession
(1701-13)
a. Cause: Bourbons and Louis
XIV sought to control the
thrones of France and Spain
threatening Britain’s North
American empire and
Europe’s balance of power
b. Peace of Utrecht (1713)
• France lost northeastern
lands in New France to
Britain
• Britain gained the asiento
(slave trade) from Spain
• Spain allowed one British
ship of goods per year
through Panama
3. War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739)
between Britain and Spain
merged into the War of Austrian
Secession
4. War of the Austrian Succession
(1740-1748)
a. Involved battles between
England and France in North
America and India
b. Spain fought effectively to
keep its empire intact
c. Treaty of Aix-laChapelle
(1748) kept the status quo
5. Seven Years’ War (1756-63);
(French and Indian War, 1754-1763)
a. Biggest world war of 18th century
b. Began in the Ohio Valley
c. French forces and American
Indian allies fought British and
American colonial forces for
control of North America.
d. William Pitt changed British
war strategy by focusing largely
on North America, not Europe
e. British navy victorious
f. Spanish support for France failed
g. Treaty of Paris, 1763
• Most important peace treaty
since Westphalia in 1648
• France was removed from
North America
• France accepted British
domination of India
• Spain ceded Florida to Britain in
return for Cuba and Philippines
h. Britain thus became the world’s
dominant colonial power.
1750
Map of territorial claims by 1750 in North America before the French and Indian War, that is
part of the greater world-wide conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). –
possessions of Britain (pink), France (blue), and Spain (orange,
Territorial changes following the French and Indian War:
land held by the British before 1763 is shown in red, land
gained by Britain in 1763 is shown in pink
6. The American Revolution
(1775-1783)
a. To weaken Britain’s empire,
France gave significant
financial and military support
to the U.S. in its successful war
for independence.
b. The 13 American colonies had
been Britain’s most valuable
colonies.
H. Colonial Latin America
1. Spain
a. In the 18th century, Spain’s
colonies remained an
important part of the Atlantic
economy (e.g. silver mining)
b. Recovered under Philip V
(Louis XIV’s grandson)
c. Creole elite challenged Spanish
authority in Latin America
d. Mestizos represented about
1/3 of the population
e. Slavery in Cuba & Puerto Rico
2. Portuguese Brazil
a. Sugar plantations in Brazil
required massive slavery.
b. By the early 19th century, half
of Brazil’s population was of
African descent.
c. Portuguese, Indian and
African populations in Brazil
intermixed socially more than
in the Spanish empire,
resulting in a multi-color
population.
V. Life in the 18th Century
A. Marriage and the family prior
to the 17th century
1. Nuclear family most common
in pre-industrial Europe.
2. Average age of marriage higher
3. Some areas required legal
permission or approval of local
lord or landowner for marriage
4. Many people never married
5. Children
a. Rate of out-of-wedlock births
was low
b. Premarital sex limited to
those already thinking about
marriage
c. Number of children for family
• If parents lived to age 45,
average number of children
was about 6
• High infant mortality
• 50% survival rate into
adulthood considered good
B. New Patterns of Marriage and
Legitimacy after 1750
1. Growth of cottage industry resulted
in more people marrying for love.
 Prior to 18th century: economic
reasons
2. Explosion of births was caused by
increasing illegitimacy: 1750-1850
3. Women in cities and factories had
limited economic independence
C. Changes in attitudes toward
children
1. Child care and nursing
a. Poor women breastfed their
children for several years.
b. Aristocratic and bourgeoisie
women seldom breastfed.
 Wet-nurses were hired
2. Infanticide was rampant due to
severe poverty.
-- Foundling hospitals founded to
care for abandoned children
3. Child rearing
a. Children were treated with
indifference and strict
physical discipline.
-- Caused by high mortality
rates
b. “Spare the rod and spoil the
child”—Daniel Dafoe
c. Enlightenment and
humanitarianism emphasized
better treatment of children
D. Work away from home
1. Many young people worked
within their families until they
could start their own
2. Increasingly, many boys worked
away from home
3. Large numbers of girls also
worked away from home at an
early age
a. Less opportunities than males
b. Domestic work most common
-- Prostitution and petty
thievery sometimes occurred
E. Education
1. Beginnings of formal education
took root in Protestant countries
2. Prussia established compulsory
education in 1717
3. The Enlightenment reinforced
education
4. Literacy increased dramatically
F. Increased life-expectancy occurred
1. Average life span of Europeans
increased from 25 years to 35
years in the 18th century
2. Development of public health
techniques was important in the
last half of the 18th century
3. Better diet due to the
Agricultural Revolution and
Columbian Exchange improved
health
4. Medical improvements
a. Bubonic plague disappeared
by 1700
b. Conquest of small pox was the
greatest medical triumph of the
18th century
-- Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
created the foundation for
immunology with
his vaccine for
small pox
c. Humanitarianism
led to hospital reform
G. Religious reform continued in the
18th century
1. Pietism and Methodism provided
challenge to established churches
2. “Pietism” in Germany caused its
Protestant revival
3. John Wesley (1703-1791) founded
Methodism
Wesley believed
anyone who earnestly
sought salvation might
be saved.
VI. The Arts in the 18th century
A. Visual arts
1. Rococo (mid-18th century
France)
a. Identified with the court of
Louis XV
b. Works often focused on
playful scenes of the
aristocracy and bourgeoisie
Antoine Watteau (1684-1721)
Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1721
Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732-1806)
The Swing, 1767
2. Neo-Classicism (late-18th
century France)
a. Characteristics
• Return to the artistic style of
ancient Rome, Greek ideals,
and the Renaissance
• Simplicity, balance,
symmetry, restraint
b. Jacques-Louis David
(1748-1825)
• Death of Socrates (1787)
• David painted numerous
works glorifying the French
Revolution
• After 1800, David developed
his “Empire style” that, in
large part, glorified
Napoleon’s regime.
c. Neoclassical architecture:
Arc de Triomphe
Though planning
began in 1806, the
Arc de Triomphe
was not fully
completed until the
mid-1830s. It stands
at the western end
of the Champs
Èlysèes.