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Chapter 2 Understanding Colonialism
Definitions
Colonialism: “the establishment of domination of a geographically extended political unit, most
often inhabited by people of a different race and culture, where this domination is political and
economic and the colony exists subordinated to and dependent on the mother country” (Blauner
in Wolpe, 1975).
Imperialism: “the latest stage of colonialism/ the relationships between metropolitan countries
and underdeveloped countries” (Bell, 1980).
Perceptions of the non-European world – aligned with the sets of ideologies present at each
times: Enlightenment leading to a notion of ‘exotic cultural equals’, romantism giving rise to a
view of ‘noble savages’, later ‘uncivilised savages to be controlled and improved’.
Waves of Colonialism
Long waves: feudalism, mercantilism and industrial capitalism, determine rise and fall of
colonialism.
Short waves: Kondratieff, 50 years, characterised by phases of growth and stagnation (economic
restructuring).
Key Idea: Post colonialism ‘the effects of the process of colonisation on cultures and societies’
‘Subaltern’ (Spivak): studies of the lives of the colonised
‘Orientalism’ (Said): studying the perpetuation of the dichotomies
Bhabha: on hybridity (end product of the cultural encounter), mimicry (adoption of aspects of
other culture), ambivalence (assumption of both superiority and insecurity).
Phases of Colonialism:
Mercantile Colonialism – a commodity exchange in Asia and Africa, 16-17th century.
Plantation systems that were set up in the Caribbean’s led to developing immense slave trade
between West Africa and the Americas, where crops were grown for Europe.
In Asia explorers were eager to trade for luxury goods with higher or lower developed societies,
yet little settlement and organisation. Acceleration in scale (intensification of trading links)
eventually led to an increased presence by the 18th century. Feeding the Industrial Revolution,
capitalism by the new class of entrepreneurs rose as a world system and demanded new ways to
expand production and profits, by finding new markets and by expanding cheap sources of
commodities (the drive for profit and prestige).
Industrial Colonialism – territorial acquisition to get hold on developing markets and produce
cheap materials and crops overseas, 18-19th century.
The rise of science brought a superior feeling to the Europeans, with subordinate positioning of
other cultures as a consequence: annexation and provision of administrative systems to follow
economic interest. Spatial expression of exploitation depended on nature of the commodity, local
customs and the metropolitan power involved. Economic expression of exploitation can be seen
as executed twice, by controlling crop production (limited to two or three products) and then
bringing expensive value added European products back on the colonised markets.
Between 1980 and 1920 an enormous restructuring of urban systems was observed. These
colonial cities, being both centres of productions and of littler commercial activity through small
consumer goods manufacture, were merely controlled by non Europeans. Then, colonial political
and economic power was centred in the cities also.
Late Colonialism
After 1920, the idea of trusteeship largely changed the ethos of colonialism, with a serious
consideration of fairer representation for indigenous interests and needs. During the crisis,
colonisers and colonised ties grew even closer, for now migration to the colonies became a trend.
The inter war years then increased the representation of the colonies in the media and
demonstration of luxury, leading to European shaped urban planning. Then, WWII destroyed the
European invincibility and decolonisation started. France and Britain had suffered, USSR and
USA were the new superpowers, the educated elite of the colonised mobilised the masses for
freedom, the Atlantic Charter demanded the first decolonisation and lastly, the increased
mobilisation took away the need to govern a territory in order to move capital and resources
there. Decolonisation took place in some cases with violence, yet independence eventually spread
everywhere, leaving the countries to deal with their development.
Legacies of Colonialism
Demographic effects: due to top down hierarchic provision of healthcare and modern medical
technology, fertility and life expectancy rose for which reason population growth due to
colonialism was substantive. Also, mixing of populations occurred.
Education: reading and writing was promoted by missionaries. Small elites went to school (set up
by colonial powers) and were even educated in the colonising countries. Rural facilities were
rudimentary.
Infrastructure: many transportation systems in the form of railroad and roads stem from the
colonial age, at the time functioning as connection points between urban areas and ports.
Administrative systems: very much elitist orientated
Economic activities: colonialism caused regional inequalities, dropped commodity prices,
continued links with colonial powers (reinforcing)
Neo-Colonialism – continued exercised economic and political control over the economies and
societies of the underdeveloped world
NIDL – New International Division of Labour: low cost labour intensive parts of the
manufacturing process are relocated to the developing world. Stages: 1) production of primary
commodities 2) shift of industry 3) shift of fragmentation of manufacturing process by TNCs,
giving rise to RDL Regional Division of Labour.
NIEO – New International Economic Order: justification for TNC investment in the developing
world for the sake of development, as modernisation strategies failing led to concern in relation
to trade reform, monetary reform, debt relief, technology transfer and regional cooperation.
[Optional: Key Thinker Rhodes, Box 2.1 on Sub-Saharan Africa, Box 2.2 on The scramble for
Africa, Box 2.3 on The 19th Century Logic of Colonialism, Box 2.4 on Styles of Colonialism in
Africa]
Chapter #3: Theories and strategies of development
There has been much debate and controversy about development, with many changing views as
to its definition, and the strategies by means of which it may be pursued.
 Development theories: logical propositions which explain how development has occurred
in the past and how it should occur in the future. There are two types of theories
Normative and Positive.
1. Normative: they generalize about what should be the case in an ideal world
2. Positive: it deals with what actually has been the case (in reality)
 Development strategies: the practical paths to development in order to stimulate positive
change.
 Developmental ideologies: are a set of goals that reflect, social, economical, political,
cultural, ethnical, moral and religious influences.
Theories and ideologies of development tend to stack up as opposed to fade away; therefore
development is evolutionary rather than revolutionary.
There are 4 major approaches to the examination of development theory developed by Potter and
Lloyd Evans:
1. The classical- traditional approach
2. The historical- empirical approach
3. The radical-political, economy-dependency approach
4. Alternative and bottom-up (people-center) approach.
(1914) the classical- traditional approach:
Strongly based on the ideas of (neo-classical economics) Adam Smith and David Ricardo
The general belief of this approach is that economic development is equated with the growth of
world trade and the law of comparative advantage.
It also stresses the importance of liberating world trade as the essential path to growth and
development.
This approach regards developing countries as being characterized by a dualistic structure.
Dualism exists between what is seen as a traditional, indigenous, underdeveloped sector on the
one hand, and on the other a modern developed and westernized.
Alfred Hirschman argued in favor of the traditional approach. He believed that polarization
should be viewed as an investable characteristic of the early stages of economic development;
which represents an unbalanced economic growth strategy, where by investments is concentrated
in a few key sectors of the economy. The growth of these sectors will create demand for other
sectors. The development on the core would lead to the trickle down effect. In order to the trickle
down effect to emerge there must be a big push: concentration of investments in key sectors of
the economy.
Hirschman believes that the governments should not intervene to reduce inequalities, letting the
market decide is what he thinks is the best for the economy.
Francois Perroux: believed that the growth of poles would lead to industrial complexes as the
basis for regional development. This would create a multiplier effect: a set of expanding
industries. Development would spread from core to other areas.
Linear and rational path to development: Within the classical traditional approach there is the
modernization theory which states that developing nations can develop by imitating the
economies and political systems of the western countries. According to Hudson, development can
be achieved by the spread of entrepreneurial innovations. A.k.a Eurocentric development
thinking
The top-down paradigm (1950-1970): advocates the establishment of strong-urban industrial
areas as the basis of self-sustained growth and hopes that this economic growth will trigger other
economic sectors and geographical areas. Modernization will spread from urban to rural areas.
Rostow’s Stage Model of Economic Growth: basically looks at urban-industrial areas as
engines of growth and development.
His model consists of 5 stages: check page 91 to see the graph.
1. The traditional society
2. Preconditions to the take-off phase
3. take-off
4. The drive to maturity
5. The age of mass consumption.
It is highly engaged in the capitalist system.
The traditional society:
The economy is dominated by subsistence activity
where output is consumed by producers rather than
traded. Any trade is carried out by barter where goods
are exchanged directly for other goods. Agriculture is
the most important industry and production is labour
intensive using only limited quantities of capital. Resource allocation is determined very much by
traditional methods of production.
Preconditions for “take-off”:
1. Significant increase of surpluses in agriculture
2. Adequate infrastructure
3. Rise of an entrepreneurial class and for this to happen you need:
-trade and capital accumulation
-Urban centers with non-agricultural economic activities
-functional specialization, division of labour.
Take off stage:
1. Increase productivity
2. Increase savings
3. Leading sectors will produce self-sustained growth (industries)
Maturity stage:
1. Spread of technology and investment to other economic sectors
2. The economy is diversifying into new areas.
3. The economy is producing a wide range of goods and services and there is less
reliance on imports.
High Mass Consumption
1. The economy is geared towards mass consumption. The consumer durable industries
flourish. The service sector becomes increasingly dominant.
The central argument was that developing countries need to industrialize in order to develop.
Industry can expand if financed by foreign capital this became to be known as Industrialization
by invitation.
There are 4 western development strategies:
1. Liberal model: Free markets, implemented by Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs)
enforced by IMF, USAID and WB. Now a day SAPs are call Poverty reduction strategies (PRSs)
2. Keynesianism: free-markets should be regulated by the state in order t promote growth in
capitalist systems.
3. State capitalist strategies: it reinforces industrialization based on agrarian economies in order
to promote nationalism.
4. The soviet model: 5 year mandatory development plans inspired by Stalin. Modernisation is
the goal, to achieve it resources from agriculture need to be allocated for industrialization. The
state replaced the market mechanism.
 The most recent strategies are:
1. Growth center approach
2. Rural centre planning
3. Structural adjustment policies.
The historical- empirical approach
Based on empirical observation of development in colonies and grounds its theory on the
historical realities of developing nations.
In contrast to Hirshman, Gunnar Myrdal thought that by maintaining the capitalist system would
only alter the regional, personal income and welfare inequalities. He developed the theory of
cumulative causation: once differential growth has occurred, internal and external economies of
scale will serve to continue the pattern. This will make the trade, capital movements and the
population of migrants to focus on the key growth points of the economy.
The core-periphery model by John Friedmann:
There are 4 stages of the model.
1st stage: independent local centers with no hierarchy represent characteristic of the pre-colonial
period and it is associated with a series of isolated self-sufficient local economies. There is no
surplus production to be concentrated in space and even and essentially stable pattern of
settlement and socio-economic development is the result.
2nd stage: single strong centre that was established by a colonial force and where growth is
envisaged to occur rapidly and there is a surplus. The centre feeds on the periphery and gives rise
to a group of urban elites.
3rd stage: can be describes as a national centre with strong peripheral sub-centres which
developed other functions and they developed their own autonomous economic development, this
process is referred as Polarization reversal.
4th stage: can be described as Organized complexity a system of cities and regions that function
interdependently and are spatially integrated
*The principal idea of the centre-periphery framework is that, early on, factors of production will
be displaced from the periphery to the centre and that in the 2nd and 3rd stages, the system tends
towards equilibrium and according to Friedmann’s model the economic development will lead to
a unification of regional incomes and welfare differentials. However in reality there are always
inequalities and disequilibrium.
The mercantile model by Vance:
*I don’t think we should study this for the exam because we never went throw it in class,
but it appears in the chapter so here it is
 A model of colonial settlement evolution that’s based on colonial historical factors. There
are 5 stages:
st
1 stage represents the initial search of mercantilism.
2nd stage: tests the productivity and the harvest of natural storage; however no permanent
settlement is established in the colony.
3rd stage: the planting of settlers who produce staples and who consume the manufactures of the
home country occurs. There is a settlement system.
4th stage: is characterized by the introduction of internal trade and manufacture in the colony.
There is a rapid grow of manufacturing in the homeland to supply the overseas and home
markets.
5th stage: sees the establishment of a mercantile settlement patterns.
Plantopolis and uneven development:
This is the model that was developed to explain the development in plantation economies and its
composed out of 2 stages.
1st stage: the plantations formed self-contained bases for the settlement pattern (only one main
town was required for trade and services and political control functions)
2nd stage: small, marginal farming communities were established
3rd stage: the Caribbean has witness a highly polarized pattern of development
The radical-political, economy-dependency approach
This theory aroused from the idea of Indigenous-development thinking: is the production of ideas
that relate to the conditions that are encountered in the 3rd world rather than ideas that are
emanating from European experience.
Paul Baran saw that the key to development is disengagement from the capitalist economic
system as it misuses the economic surplus in immoral consumption.
A.G Frank “the development of underdevelopment” thought that the condition of developing
countries is not the outcome of inertia, misfortune, climatic conditions or whatever but rather a
reflection of the manner of their incorporation into the global capitalist system. The more
satellites are associated with the metropolis, the more they are held back and not the other way
around.
 Critiques of dependency theory: it gives to much focus on one economic factor
(capitalism) and it deals with class structure. It also suggests that countries can only
advance their lots by delinking from the global economy, whereas the capitalist system is
becoming more global and interdependent.
Modes of production: the basic argument is that the capitalist modes of production exist
alongside non-capitalist and pre-capitalist modes of production. The capitalist system replaces the
non-capitalist system.
Alternative and bottom-up (people-center) approach.
Development should meet the basic need of the people and at the same time development had to
be ecologically sensitive. It basically used the Top down’ vs. ‘Bottom up approach that would
reinforce rural and community based development with the participation of the local people and
with the help of appropriate technologies it also aimed to create gender awareness and used the
rights based approaches.
Chapter 4 Globalisation, development and underdevelopment
Defining Globalisation
Schech & Haggis define globalisation as the intensification of global interconnectedness, a
process that they see as associated with the spread of capitalism as a production and market
system. Globalisation has been around for centuries but last twenty years or so rate increased
dramatically.
Globalisation and development: 'for and against'/'solution or problem'?
3 aspects to current processes of global change:
1) The world is 'shrinking' (shorter travel times)
2) Faster than ever communication channels (tv, phone, internet etc.)
3) Ascendancy of global corporations led to availability of standardised & globalised
products
3 strands of globalisation (Allen 1995):
1) Economic: 'borderless' world
2) Cultural: Convergence of cultural styles. (Also Westernization, Mcdonaldization etc.)
3) Political: Erosion of role and powers of nation state
2 generalised views concerning globalisation:
1. Globalisation as development:
◦ dates from 60's modernisation school; Westernization as the way forward
2. Globalisation and marginalisation:
◦ Globalisation results in: greater flexibility, permeability, openness, hybridity,
plurality and difference between places and cultures.
◦ Fragmentation and localisation are key correlates of globalisation & post
modernity
Global transformations: a shrinking world or a more unequal world?
The world has shrunk: faster travel times and communication times
This convergence is far from homogeneous, therefore the space-time divergence is relative.
'Third world' not benefitting as much
Globalisation and the information society: the digital divide and an unequal world
Many argue new techniques of information processing offer poor nations new opportunities.
However, still, there is a massive global inequity in access to telephones & the internet for
example.
Even according to the pro-globalists there is a real risk that poor countries and poor people will
be marginalised and that the existing educational divide will compound with a growing digital
divide.
Economic aspects of globalisation: industrialisation, TNCs, world cities and global shifts.
Former colonies focussed their development on industrialisation as they believed that to catch up
with the West they had to become as much like them as possible. Policies were focussed on 'ISI':
Import substitution industrialisation.
Other newly independent nations followed the policy of I-by-I: industrialisation by invitation.
Foreign countries set up factories in often free-trade zones (FZTs) or export-processing zones
(EPZs) were they produce and then export those products back to their industrialized home
country.
Often though rates of industrialisation have lacked behind on the rates of urbanisation.
'the global shift' : economic activity (such as manufacturing) is increasingly internationalised or
globalised. Sometimes regarded as the last phase of the New International Division of Labour.
Again though important take away message; this process is highly diversified; some countries
benefit a lot and are well connected in the global network whereas others are not.
Transnational Corporations (TNCs) represents the most important single force creating global
shifts and production.
Growth within the contemporary global system is increasingly linked to the locational decisions
of multinational firms and government organisations, and with clustered forms of development
and change.
The basic idea of the concept of world cities is that certain cities dominate world affairs.
Developing countries facing spatial inequality face 2 policy alternatives;
1. allow urban centres to adopt innovation before the previous innovation has spread through
the nation
2. Hold the adaption of the innovation until the previous innovation has fully spread.
Again in short: globalisation is leading to increasing differences between regions and places.
Economic change and global divergence
Dispersion of manufacturing industries to low-labour-cost locations and the increasing control of
trade investment by TNCs.
The increasing global division of labour and the enhanced salience of TNCs are leading to greater
heterogeneity or divergence between nations with respect to their patterns of production, capital
accumulation and ownership.
Global convergence: perspectives on cultural globalisation
Rapid assimilation of North American and European tastes and consumption patterns. Influence
of mass media likely to be critical in this respect. However, suggestions of homogeneity look
fragile when subjected to closer scrutiny.
Global convergence & divergence; patterns of hierarchic and non-hierarchic change
Consumption convergence: Western consumption spreading in a hierarchical manner through the
global system (from metropolitan centres all the way down to regional primate cities etc.) but
impact of these trends highly specific to locality (no beef in McDonalds in Hindi India)
In contrast, aspects of production and ownership are becoming more unevenly spread;
concentrated in specific locations.
Political aspects of globalisation: anti-globalisation & anti-capitalist movements
Gross oversimplification to think in terms of enhanced globalisation and the unfolding of the neoliberal wold order as giving rise to a more equal and uniform world. Globalisation is also
witnessing the erosion of the former role and power of the nation state.
Anti-globalisation movement since 1990s resisted to the negative consequences of globalisation.
'Anti-globalists' consists of very diverse interest, lobby and protest groups. Antiglobalisation
movement can be seen as part of a wider anti-capitalist movement. Many protests at WTO
summits where TNCs where given more freedom. Protesters call for fair globalisation.
Tobin-type taxes: global taxation on financial speculation to dampen down volatility in financial
markets and provide funds for poverty alleviation.
Tourism is quintessentially linked to globalisation and the phenomenon of time-space
compression. Many developing nations have adopted programs to promote the growth of tourism
as part of their development programs. Often however, most hotels and such are under foreign
ownership. (In the book interesting case on Barbados, however not really relevant for exam.)
Conclusion
Basic sameness in respect of global culture is clearly a distortion.
1. Srong resistance often shown by local and national cultures to especially North American
influences.
2. Local differences may be explored and exploited where ever possible.
3. Also South to North influence (reggae music etc.)
Final conclusion: uneven and unequal development are still characteristic of the global capitalist
system.