Download 1 - Corwith-Wesley-LuVerne High School

HAP Course Outline
1
The Human Body: An Orientation ...................................................................................... 1
2
Basic Chemistry .................................................................................................................. 2
3
Cells and Tissues................................................................................................................. 3
4
Skin and Body Membranes ................................................................................................. 5
5
The Skeletal System ............................................................................................................ 6
6
The Muscular System ......................................................................................................... 7
7
The Nervous System ........................................................................................................... 8
8
Special Senses ..................................................................................................................... 9
9
The Endocrine System ...................................................................................................... 15
10
Blood ................................................................................................................................. 17
11
The Cardiovascular System .............................................................................................. 18
12
The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses ..................................................................... 19
13
Respiratory System ........................................................................................................... 20
14
The Digestive System and Body Metabolism ................................................................... 25
15
The Urinary System .......................................................................................................... 26
16
The Reproduction System ................................................................................................. 30
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1 The Human Body: An Orientation
1.1 An Overview of Anatomy & Physiology
A Anatomy
B Physiology
1) Relationship between anatomy & physiology
1.2 Levels of Structural Organization
A From atoms to organisms
B Organ system overview
1 Integumentary system
2 Skeletal system
3 Muscular system
4 Nervous system
5 Endocrine system
6 Cardio-vascular system
7 Lymphatic system
8 Respiratory system
9 Digestive system
10 Urinary system
11 Reproduction system
1.3 Maintaining Life
A Necessary life functions
1 Maintaining boundaries
2 Movement
3 Responsiveness
4 Digestion
5 Metabolism
6 Excretion
7 Reproduction
8 Growth
B Survival needs
1.4 Homeostasis
A Homeostatic control mechanisms
B Homeostatic imbalance
1.5 The Language of Anatomy
A Anatomical positions & directional terms
B Regional terms
1 Anterior body landmarks
2 Posterior body landmarks
C Body planes & sections
D Body cavities
1 Dorsal body cavity
2 Ventral body cavity
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2 Basic Chemistry
2.1 Concepts of Matter & Energy
A Matter
B Energy
1 Forms of energy
2 Energy form conversions
2.2 Composition of Matter
A Elements & atoms
B Atomic structure
1 Planetary & orbital models of an atom
C Identifying elements
1 Atomic number
2 Atomic mass number
3 Atomic weight & isotopes
2.3 Molecules & Compounds
2.4 Chemical Bonds & Chemical Reactions
A Bond formation
1 Role of electrons
2 Types of chemical bonds
B Patterns of chemical reactions
1 Synthesis reactions
2 Decomposition reactions
3 Exchange reactions
2.5 Biochemistry: The Chemical Composition of Living Matter
A Inorganic compounds
1 Water
2 Salts
3 Acids & bases
B Organic compounds
1 Carbohydrates
2 Lipids
3 Proteins
4 Nucleic acids
5 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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3 Cells and Tissues
3.1 Part 1: Cells
A Overview of the cellular basis of life
B Anatomy of a generalized cell
1 The nucleus
a Nuclear membrane
b Nucleoli
c Chromatin
2 The plasma membrane
a Specializations of the plasma membrane
3 The cytoplasm
a Cytoplasmic organelles
C Cell physiology
1 Membrane transport
a Passive transport processes
i Diffusion
ii Filtration
b Active transport processes
2 Cell division
a Preparations: DNA replication
b Events of division
3 Protein synthesis
a Genes: The blueprint for protein structure
b The role of RNA
c Transcription
d Translation
3.2 Part 2: Body Tissues
A Epithelial Tissue
1 Special characteristics of epithelium
2 Classification of epithelium
a Simple epithelia
b Stratified epithelia
c Glandular epithelium
B Connective tissue
1 Common characteristics of connective tissue
2 Types of connective tissue
a Bone
b Cartilage
c Dense connective tissue
d Loose connective tissue
e Blood
C Muscle tissue
1 Types of muscle tissue
a Skeletal muscle
i Voluntary
ii Striated
iii Multinucleate
b Cardiac muscle
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i Involuntary
ii Striated
iii Uninucleate
iv Gap junctions provide rapid electrical impulses across heart
c Smooth muscle
i Involuntary
ii Non-striated
iii Uninucleate
iv Slow, slow contractions (peristalsis)
D Nervous tissue (neurons)
1 Irritability
2 Conductivity
3 Long cytoplasm extensions
E Tissue repair (Wound healing)
1 Regeneration
a Replacement of destroyed tissue by same type of tissue
b Small, clean wounds
2 Fibrosis
a Capillaries become permeable
b Fluid rich in clotting proteins move to wound
c Forms a clot
i Stops blood flow
ii Protect area from bacteria etc.
d Granulation tissue forms pink tissue with many new capillaries
e Phagocytes clean up debris
f Surface epithelium begins to regenerate
g Forms a scar
F Developmental aspects of cells & tissue
1 Most cells continue to divide until puberty (except neurons)
2 At puberty many cells such as cardiac & nerve cells become amitotic ( can’t do mitosis)
3 Endocrine system reduces function & less oil is produced, skin dries out
4 Bones become more porous & weaken & repair more slowly
5 Some cells begin to divide wildly forming a neoplasm which may form a cancerous
tumor
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4 Skin and Body Membranes
4.1 Classification of Body Membranes
A Epithelial membranes
1 Cutaneous membrane
2 Mucous membranes
3 Serous membranes
B Connective tissues membranes
4.2 Integumentary System (Skin)
A Basic skin functions
B Structure of the skin
1 Epidermis
2 Dermis
C Skin color
D Appendages of the skin
1 Cutaneous glands
2 Hairs & hair follicles
3 Nails
E Homeostatic imbalances of skin
1 Infections & allergies
2 Burns
3 Skin cancer
4.3 Developmental Aspects of Skin & Body Membranes
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5 The Skeletal System
5.1 Bones: An Overview
A Functions of the bones
B Classification of bones
C Structure of bones
1 Gross anatomy
2 Microscopic anatomy
D Bone formation, growth & remodeling
E Bone fractures
5.2 Axial Skeleton
A Skull
1 Cranium
2 Facial bones
3 The hyoid bone
4 Fetal skull
B Vertebral column (Spine)
1 Cervical vertebrae
2 Thoracic vertebrae
3 Lumbar vertebrae
4 Sacrum
5 Coccyx
C Bony thorax
1 Sternum
2 Ribs
5.3 Appendicular Skeleton
A Bones of the shoulder girdle
1 Clavicle
2 Scapula
B Bones of the upper limbs
1 Arm: humerus
2 Forearm
a Radius: right side of right hand or outside (lateral)
b Ulna: left side of right hand or inside (medial)
3 Hand
C Bones of the pelvic girdle
D Bones of the lower limbs
1 Thigh
2 Leg
3 Foot
5.4 Joints
A Fibrous joints
B Cartilaginous joints
C Synovial joints
D Inflammatory disorders of joints
5.5 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton
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6 The Muscular System
6.1 Overview of Muscle Tissues
A Muscle Types
1 Skeletal Muscle
2 Smooth Muscle
3 Cardiac Muscle
B Muscle Function
1 Producing Movement
2 Maintaining Posture
3 Stabilizing Joints
4 Generating Heat
6.2 Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
6.3 Skeletal Muscle Activity
A Stimulation & Contraction of Single Muscle Cells
1 The nerve stimulus & action potential
2 Mechanism of muscle contraction: The sliding filament theory
B Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole
1 Graded responses
2 Providing energy for muscle contraction
3 Muscle fatigue & oxygen debt
4 Types of muscle contractions
a Isotonic
b Isometric
5 Muscle tone
6 Effect of exercise on muscle
6.4 Muscle Movements, Types & Names
A Types of Body Movements
B Types of Muscles
C Naming Skeletal Muscles
6.5 Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
A Head Muscles
1 Facial muscles
2 Chewing muscles
B Trunk & Neck Muscles
1 Anterior muscles
2 Posterior muscles
C Muscles of the Upper Limb
1 Muscles of the humerus that act on the forearm
D Muscles of the Lower Limb
1 Muscles causing movement at the hip joint
2 Muscles causing movement at the knee joint
3 Muscles causing movement at the ankle & foot
6.6 Developmental Aspects of Muscular System
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7 The Nervous System
7.1
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8 Special Senses
8.1 The Eye & Vision
A Anatomy of eye
1 External Structures
a Sphere ~ 2.5 cm, only anterior 1/6 visible
b Anterior protected by eyelid
c Eyelashes project from eyelid
d Meibomian (mi-bo’me-an) glands (modified sebaceous glands) lubricate eye
e Ciliary glands (modified sweat glands) lie between eyelashes
f Conjunctiva: membrane lines eyelid & part of outer layer of eyeball
i Ends at edge of corneal epithelium
ii Secretes mucus to lubricate & moisten eyeball
iii Conjunctivitis: reddened & irritated. Pinkeye is infection form caused by bacteria
g Lacrimal apparatus
i Lacrimal gland
01 Located above lateral end of eye
02 Release dilute salt solution (tears) through many small ducts
03 Contains antibodies & lysosome
04 Washes foreign material from eye & prevents disease
05 Emotional tears function not known
ii Lacrimal canals: tears flush medially across eyes into canals
iii Lacrimal sac: tears empty here
iv Nasolacrimal duct: then flow here & into nasal cavity
h Muscles of eye movement
i Lateral rectus: moves eye laterally
ii Medial rectus: moves eye medially
iii Superior rectus: elevates or rolls eye superiorly
iv Inferior rectus: depresses or rolls eye inferiorly
v Inferior oblique: elevates & turns eye laterally
vi Superior oblique: depresses & turns eye laterally
2 Internal structures
a Eyeball is hollow sphere
i Tunics of eyeball
01 Sclera
a Outermost, thick, protective, white connective tissue
b White of the eye
c Cornea: central anterior portion is transparent window
 Well supplied w/ nerve endings (mostly pain)
 Most exposed part of eye
 Has no blood, can be transplanted w/o rejection
02 Choroid
a Middle coat, blood rich
b Dark pigment prevents light from scattering inside eye
c Anteriorly modified to form 2 muscles
 Ciliary body: attaches to lens
 Iris: pigmented muscle w/ round pupil
 Circular & radial smooth muscle
 Acts as diaphragm to adjust light entrance
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03 Retina
a Innermost tunic
b Sensory, delicate, white
c Extends anteriorly to ciliary body
d Photoreceptors convert light to electrical signals & transmitted to optic nerve to
optic cortex
 Rods
 Most dense on edge of retina
 Gray tones in dim light
 Causes night blindness
 Cones
 Allow detail in color under bright light
 Dense in center
 Fovea centralis: contains only cones, greatest visual acuity
 3 types: Blue, Green & Red (red & green)
 Intermediate colors come from >1 type being stimulated
 Interpretation in brain, not retina
 Color blindness
 Lack of 1 or more types cause
 Red-green most common
 Almost exclusively in males
 Blind spot (optic disk) at optic nerve exit
04 Lens
a Flexible biconvex crystal-like structure
b Avascular
c Held by suspensory ligaments attached to ciliary body
d Perfectly transparent when young & jelly-like
e Cataracts: aging makes it hard & opaque
f Divides eye into anterior & posterior
 Aqueous humor
 Clear watery fluid anterior to lens
 Similar to blood plasma
 Secreted by choroid
 Maintains intraocular pressure
 Sends nutrients to lens & cornea
 Reabsorbed by canal of Schlemm
 Glaucoma: increase pressure in aqueous humor
 Vitreous humor: gel-like substance; keeps eyeball from collapsing
B Pathway of Light Through the Eye & Light Refraction
1 Refraction: change of speed &/or direction of light as it passes through different medium
2 Refracted through cornea, lens, aqueous & vitreous humors,
3 Cornea & humors refraction constant
4 Lens changes: more it bulges (more convex) more light bends
a Distance over 20’ lens flat, light comes in parallel
b Accommodation: ability to focus close up
c Forms “real image” reversed left to right & inverted
d If lens too fat or thin light not focused on retina
i Myopic eye (nearsighted)
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01 Lens too much bulge or eye too long
02 Focus in front of retina
ii Hyperopic eye (farsighted)
01 Usually eye too short or lens too flat
02 Focus behind retina
03 Ciliary muscle continually contracting trying to focus on close items, leading to eye
strain
C Visual Fields & Pathways to Prain
1 Axons carry impulses from retina on optic nerve
2 Optic chiasma: (crossover)
a Fibers from medial side of eye cross over to opposite side of brain
3 Optic tracts
a Carry fibers from lateral side of that eye & medial side of opposite eye
4 Signal moves to occipital lobe for interpretation & sight
5 Binocular vision: causes slightly different view within each eye & 3D
D Eye Reflexes
1 Internal muscles controlled by autonomic nervous system
a Control ciliary muscle: lens control
b Radial & circular muscles: Iris control
2 External muscles
a Control eye movement
b Convergence: ability to move eyes both medially for close vision
3 Photopupillary reflex: Eyes quickly exposed to bright light, pupils constrict
4 Accommodation photopupillary reflex: pupils constrict for acute vision under low light &
close up
5 Reading requires continual work by both sets of muscles, eye strain
a Look up occasionally to relax muscles
8.2 The Ear: Hearing & Balance
A Anatomy of Ear
1 Outer ear
a Pinna (auricle) directs sound into ear canal in animals
b External auditory canal
i Formed in temporal bone
ii Ceruminous glands secrete cerumne (earwax)
c Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
2 Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
a Air filled cavity in temporal bone
b Lateral side is eardrum
c Auditory tube (eustachian tube)
d Ossicles
i Malleus (hammer)
ii Incus (anvil)
iii Stapes (stirrup)
e Oval window vibrates fluid in inner ear
3 Inner ear
a Osseous (bony labyrinth) mass of bony chambers w/in temporal bone
i Cochlea (snail like structure)
ii Vestibule: located between cochlea & semicircular canals
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iii Semicircular canals
b Bony labyrinth filled w/ perilymph: plasma like fluid
c Membranous labyrinth is suspended in perilymph: contains thick fluid endolymph
B Mechanism of hearing
1 In cochlea
a Organ of Corti contains hearing receptors (hair cells)
b Sound is amplified through middle ear
c Vibrations set fluids in motion
d High pitch stimulate hairs close to oval window
e Low pitch stimulate hairs further in
f Hairs transfer signals to cochlear nerve to auditory cortex
C Mechanism of equilibrium
1 Functions of the vestibular apparatus
a Static equilibrium
i Contains maculae: report position due to pull of gravity. Tell us which way is down
ii Otoliths (tiny Ca stones) roll around due to gravity activating hairs
iii Send signal to vestibular nerve
b Dynamic equilibrium in semicircular canals
i Respond to angular or rotary movements
ii Oriented in 3 planes to detect any motion
iii Receptor regions called crista ampullaries
iv Inertia of fluid depress hairs
v Hairs covered by gelatinous cupula
vi Sends signal to vestibular nerve
D Hearing & equilibrium deficits
1 Deafness is any hearing loss
2 Conductive deafness
a Interference with conduction of sound vibrations
b Buildup of earwax, damage to tympanic membrane, fusion of ossicles ( 3 bones)
c Can be helped by hearing aids
3 Sensorineural deafness
a Degeneration or damage to receptor cells in organ of Corti, cochlear nerve, neurons to
auditory cortex
4 Equilibrium problems: nausea, dizziness, balance
a Impulses from vestibular apparatus disagree with vision
8.3 Chemical Senses: taste & smell
A Olfactory receptors & sense of smell
1 Olfactory receptors
a Located in small area in roof of each nasal cavity
b Sharp curve causes air to move past this area (especially while sniffing)
c Olfactory receptor cells
i Neurons equipped with sensory olfactory hairs
ii Bathed in mucus that carries dissolved chemicals
d Send signal to olfactory cortex
e Tied with emotional-visceral part of brain, produces long lasting emotional ties to
smells.
i Grandma’s cookies
ii Baby to mothers breast
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2 Very sensitive, very small amount of stimulus will cause reaction
3 Loss of smell often caused by a zinc deficiency
B Taste buds & sense of smell
1 Taste buds
a > 10,000 mostly on tongue
b Some on soft palate, inside of cheeks, pharynx & epiglottis
c 3 types of papillae: small peg-like projections
i Sharp filiform papillae: (have no taste buds)
ii Mushroom shaped fungiform papillae
01 Most numerous
02 Scattered all over tongue
03 Most at tip & sides
iii Rounded circumvallate papillae:
01 Larger &least numerous
02 Form “V” in back of tongue
2 Taste buds located on sides of papillae
a Have taste or gustatory cells
b Gustatory hairs respond to stimuli
c Send signal to brain
3 4 basic tastes
a Sweet
i Sugars, saccharine, AA’s
ii Respond to hydroxyl groups
b Sour
i Hydrogen ions
ii Acid foods: citrus, tomatoes
c Bitter
i Respond to alkaloids
ii Many poisons & spoiled food
iii Body tends to avoid
iv At back of tongue
d Salty: respond to metal ions
e Taste affected by smell, temperature & texture of food
C Developmental aspects of special senses
1 Part of nervous system
2 Formed early in embryonic stage
3 Functional at birth
4 Congenital eye problems relatively uncommon
a Strabismus (crossed eyes)
i Unequal pull of external muscles
ii Use exercise to strengthen muscle
iii Surgery maybe required
b Maternal infections
i Rubella (measles) in early pregnancy cause blindness or cataracts
ii Gonorrhea: baby’s eyes infected during delivery
5 Only vision not fully functional at birth
a 5 months can focus on close articles (w/in reach) & follow moving objects Visual acuity
poor (20/200)
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b 5 years color vision well developed: visual acuity better (20/30)
c Presbyopia (pres”be-o’ pe-ah) at age 40
i Decreased elasticity of lens
ii Can’t focus close up, need bifocals
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9 The Endocrine System
9.1
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I.
II.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONE FUNCTION - AN OVERVIEW (pp.
266-269)
A.
Chemistry of Hormones
B.
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
C.
Control of Hormone Release
1.
Hormonal Stimuli
2.
Humoral Stimuli
3.
Neural Stimuli
THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS (pp. 269-285)
A.
Pituitary Gland (pp. 269-274)
1.
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Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
a.
Growth Hormone (GH)
b.
Prolactin (PRL)
c.
Thyrotropic Hormone (TH)
d.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
e.
Gonadotropic Hormones
i.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
ii.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
iii.
Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone (ICSH)
2.
Pituitary-Hypothalamus Relationship
3.
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
a.
Oxytocin
b.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
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B.
Thyroid Gland (pp. 274-276)
1.
Thyroid Hormone
2.
Calcitonin
C.
Parathyroid Glands (pp. 276-277)
D.
Adrenal Glands (pp. 277-280)
1.
2.
E.
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
a.
Mineralocorticoids
b.
Glucocorticoids
c.
Sex Hormones
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
a.
Epinephrine
b.
Norepinephrine
Pancreatic Islets (pp. 280-282)
1.
Insulin
2.
Glucagon
F.
Pineal Gland (p. 282)
G.
Thymus (p. 282)
H.
Gonads (pp. 284-285)
1.
2.
Hormones of the Ovaries
a.
Estrogens
b.
Progesterone
Hormones of the Testes
a.
III.
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS (p. 285)
A.
IV.
Androgens
Placenta (p. 285)
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (p. 285-288)
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10 Blood
10.1 Composition & Functions of Blood
A Physical characteristics & volume
B Plasma
C Formed elements
1 Erythrocytes
2 Leukocytes
3 Platelets
D Hematopoiesis (Blood cell formation)
10.2 Hemostasis
A Normal process
B Disorders of hemostasis
1 Undesirable clotting
2 Bleeding disorders
10.3 Blood Groups & Transfusions
A Human blood groups
B Blood typing
10.4 Developmental Aspects of Blood
10.5
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11 The Cardiovascular System
11.1 Cardiovascular System: The Heart
A Anatomy of the heart
1 Location & size
a Size of your fist
b Located in bony thorax
c Apex points to left hip
d Posterior-superior aspect (base) where great vessels emerge
2 Coverings & wall
a Pericardium: double sac of serous membrane surrounding heart
i Visceral pericardium (epicardium) tightly hugs external surface of heart
ii Parietal pericardium
01 Fibrous layer that protects heart
02 Anchors to diaphragm & sternum
03 Serous fluid between layers for lubrication
b Myocardium
i Thick bundles of cardiac muscle
c Endocardium
i Thin, glistening sheet of endothelium that lines the heart chambers
3 Chambers & associated great vessels
a Right atrium
i Receives blood from body at low pressure
ii Superior vena cava from head & upper body
iii Inferior vena cava from lower body
b Right ventricle
i Pumps out at high pressure through pulmonary trunk
ii Splits into L & R pulmonary arteries
c Left atrium
i Receive from lung via 4 pulmonary veins
ii Pulmonary circulation
d Left ventricle
i High pressure out through aorta
ii Returns to right atrium
iii Systemic circulation
4 Valves
a AV (artioventricular) valves
i Valve between atrium & ventricle
ii Left AV: bicuspid or mitral valve
iii Right AV: tricuspid valve
iv Cords (chordae tendineae) anchor valve cups to ventricle walls to prevent them from
flopping backward
v Open during heart relaxation
vi Closed when ventricles contract
b Semilunar valves
i Guard base of main arteries
ii Pulmonary semilunar valve
iii Aortic semilunar valve
iv Each has 3 cups
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v Closed during heart relaxation
vi Open during ventricle contraction
5 Cardiac circulation
a Coronary arteries branch from base of aorta
b Encircle heart in artioventricular groove at junction of atria & ventricle
c Nourish & oxygenate myocardium
d Many cardiac veins drain myocardium into coronary sinus
e Coronary sinus empties into right atrium
f Angina pectoris: pain cause by inadequate blood to heart
g Results in myocardial infarction (heart attack)
B Physiology of the heart
1 Conduction system of the heart
2 Cardiac cycle & heart sounds
3 Cardiac output
11.2 Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels
A Microscopic anatomy of blood vessels
B Gross anatomy of blood vessels
1 Major arteries of the systemic circulation
2 Major veins of the systemic circulation
3 Special circulations
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C Physiology of circulation
1 Arterial pulse
2 Blood pressure
3 Capillary action
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11.3 Developmental Aspects of the Cardiovascular System
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12 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
12.1
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13 Respiratory System
13.1 Functional anatomy of respiratory system
A Nose anatomy
1 Only externally visible part
2 external nares (nostrils)
3 nasal cavity
a separated by nasal septum
b 3 lobes called conchae: increase surface area & make turbulence to trap foreign material
4 respiratory mucosa
a rich in veins to warm air
b sticky mucus traps bacteria & debris, moistens air
5 ciliated cells move mucus back toward throat (pharynx)
6 palate
a anterior hard
b posterior soft
7 paranasal sinuses
a lighten skull
b act as resonance chambers
B Pharynx: muscular passageway (throat)
1 nasopharynx: air enters superior (top) from nasal passages
2 oropharynx: food & air pass here
3 laryngopharynx: food & air pass
a food channeled to esophagus posteriorly
C Larynx (voice box)
1 8 rigid hyaline cartilages
2 thyroid cartilage is largest (Adam’s apple)
3 epiglottis: protects superior opening of larynx
a larynx pulled up
b epiglottis tips to form lid
c cough reflex
4 vocal folds (true vocal cords): pair of mucous membranes for speech
5 glottis: slit-like passageway between vocal folds
D Trachea (windpipe)
1 Approx 10-12 cm long
2 Rigid “C” shaped hyaline cartilage
a Solid anterior portion gives support & keeps it open
b Open posterior side allows for expansion of esophagus
3 Lined with ciliated mucosa
a beat opposite direction of air passage
b push debris up to be swallowed or expelled
4 Heimlich maneuver
E Primary bronchi
1 Formed by division of trachea
2 Attaches to lung at hilus (depressed area where vessels enter & leave an organ)
3 Right side is wider, shorter & straighter than left
F Lungs
1 Outer structure
a apex: top narrow portion under clavicle
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b
c
d
e
base: broad, rests on diaphragm
left: 2-lobes
right: 3-lobes
Surface covered with double membrane layer
i visceral pleura: surface closest to lung surface
ii parietal pleura: outer layer
iii filled with pleural fluid
2 Bronchi
a Conducting zone structures
i branch into secondary & tertiary etc bronchioles after entering lungs
ii forms respiratory tree
iii terminal bronchioles lead to respiratory zone
b Respiratory zone structures
i respiratory bronchioles
ii alveoli
iii alveolar ducts
iv alveolar sacs
3 Respiratory membrane
a single layer of epithelial cells
b covered with web of capillaries
c air-blood barrier: air flows past membrane with diffusion into the blood
d alveolar pores connect neighboring sacs with alternative route of air diffusion
e macrophages pickup bacteria, carbon 7 debris
13.2 Respiratory Physiology
A Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
1 Inspiration (air flow into lungs)
a Works according to gas laws
b external intercostals muscles contract & lift rib cage
c dome shaped diaphragm contracts- lowers diaphragm & allows lungs to drop & expand.
d volume increases & pressure drops – air rushes into fill vacuum
2 Expiration (air flow out of lungs)
a diaphragm relaxes & bulges back up squeezing lungs
b internal intercostals contract & brings ribs & sternum back in.
c Volume decreases & pressure increases, air rushes out
d usually a passive process: exceptions below
i asthma
ii chronic bronchitis
iii pneumonia
B Respiratory volumes & capacities affected by person’s size, sex, age physical condition
1 tidal volume (TV)
a amount of air moved in or out during normal breathing
b ~ 500 ml
2 inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
a amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over & above TV
b ~ 2100 – 3200 ml
3 expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
a amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after TV
b ~ 1200 ml
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4 residual volume
a amount of air that remains after strenuous expiration
b ~1200 ml
c allows gas exchange between breaths
5 Vital capacity (VC)
a total amount of exchangeable air
b VC = TV + IRV + ERV
c ~4800 ml
6 Dead space volume
a air that remains in the conducting zone passageways
b ~150 ml
7 Functional volume
a air that actually reaches the respiratory zone (alveoli)
b ~350 ml
8 Respiratory sounds
a bronchial sounds occur as air rushes through the large passageways (trachea & bronchi)
b vesicular breathing sounds occur as air fills the alveoli. (soft or muffled)
c changes in sounds
i rales: a rasping sound
ii wheezing: whistling sound
C External respiration, respiratory gas transport & internal respiration
1 External respiration
a actual exchange of gases between alveoli & blood
b concentration of O2 always higher in alveoli than blood
c concentration of CO2 always higher in pulmonary capillaries than alveoli
2 respiratory gas transport
a Oxygen absorbed 2 ways
i Most as oxyhemoglobin HbO2 : O2 attaches to hemoglobin in RBC’s
ii small amount diffuses to plasma
b CO2 also 2 ways
i 20-30% carried inside RBC’s
ii Most as HCO3- bicarbonate ion
iii Combines with H+ to form Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
iv H2CO3 splits to form H2O & CO2
v CO2 diffuses to alveoli from blood
c internal respiration
3 gas exchange process that occurs systemic capillaries & tissue cells
a opposite of process in lungs
b CO2 combines with H2O to form Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
c Quickly releases HCO3- bicarbonate ions which diffuse into plasma
d O2 released by hemoglobin & diffuses into cells
D Control of respiration
1 Neural regulation by muscles, brain & nerves
a phrenic & intercostal nerves
b medulla
i sets basic rhythm of breathing
ii has self-exciting inspiratory center
c pons
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i smoothes out basic rhythm of inspiration & expiration
ii maintains normal rate of 12-15/min (eupnea) (youp-knee-ah)
d bronchioles & alveoli have stretch receptors that respond to over inflation
i respiration stops
ii medulla tells muscles to contract more readily
2 Factors affecting respiratory rate & depth
a Increase body temperature increases respiration
b Volition (Conscious control)
i Voluntary control during talking, singing, etc. (controlled by cortex)
ii If O2 levels or pH fall too low automatic control takes over
c Emotional factors
d Chemical factors
i Increase CO2 levels & decrease pH actually same thing due to increase in carbonic
acid
ii Act directly on medulla centers of brain
iii O2 levels detected by chemoreceptor in aortic arch & carotid body (carotid artery)
iv High CO2 levels is normal stimulus controlling respiration
v Only extremely low O2 levels will trigger respiration
01 Breathing disorders, e.g. emphysema, fail to respond to high CO2 levels
02 Give them low levels of O2
vi Hypoventilation
01 Extremely slow & shallow breathing
02 Carbonic acid levels increase, pH drops
03 Acidosis
vii Hyperventilation
01 Fast, deep breathing
02 Carbonic acid levels decrease, pH rises
03 Alkalosis
13.3 Respiratory disorders
A Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Chronic bronchitis & Emphysema
1 Symptoms & causes
a Smoking history
b Dyspnea (disp’-ne-ah) difficult or labored breathing
c Coughing & frequent pulmonary infections
d Most are
i hypoxic: inadequate O2 levels in body tissues
ii retain CO2
iii have respiratory acidosis
iv respiratory failure
2 Emphysema
a Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break
b Fibrosis in lungs occurs
c Lungs become less elastic
d Airways collapse during expiration
e Extreme difficulty exhaling
f Retain air in lungs
g Develop barrel chest
3 Chronic bronchitis
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a Mucosa of lower respiratory passages become severely inflamed
b Produce excess mucus
c Pooled mucus inhibits ventilation & gas exchange
d Hypoxia & CO2 retention occurs
e Often cyanotic
B Lung cancer
1 Squamous cell carcinoma
a 30-32% of cases
b epithelium of larger bronchi
c form hollow masses that bleed
2 Adenocarcinoma
a 33-35% of cases
b originates in peripheral areas as solitary nodules
c develop from bronchial glands & alveolar cells
3 Small cell carcinoma (oat cell carcinoma)
a 20-25%
b lymphocyte-like cells in primary bronchi
c grow aggressively in cords or small grape-like clusters
4 Most effective treatment is removal of lung
13.4 Developmental aspects
A As fetus lungs filled with fluid
B At birth alveoli begin to fill with air
C Surfactant, a fatty molecule, lowers surface tension of water film in lining of alveoli
D Prevents collapse of alveoli
E Not present in large enough quantities in premature babies
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14 The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
14.1
A
1
a
i
01
a

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15 The Urinary System
15.1 Kidneys
A Main functions
1 Disposing of wastes & excess ions
2 Regulate blood volume & chemical makeup
a Produce rennin to help regulate blood pressure
b Produce erythropoietin to stimulate RBC production
B Location & structure
1 Superior lumbar region (T12-L3), under liver
2 5” x 2.5” x 1”
3 Hilus: medial indentation where ureters, renal blood vessels & nerves enter
4 Renal capsule: fibrous membrane that encloses each kidney
5 Adipose capsule: fatty masses surrounds kidney & holds it in place
6 Cut lengthwise into 3 regions
a Renal cortex: outer region, light color
b Renal medulla: deep in cortex, dark-reddish-brown
i Medullary pyramids: many triangular sections separated by renal columns
c Renal pelvis:
i Flat basin like cavity continuous with ureter leaving hilus
ii Calyces: extensions of pelvis form collection sites for urine passing into ureter
7 Blood supply
a ~1/4 blood passes through each minute
b Renal artery to each kidney
c At hilus it divides into segmental arteries
d Inside pelvis divides into lobar arteries & then into interlobar arteries to arcuate
arteries to interlobular arteries which branch into feed the cortex.
e Venous blood flows through interlobular veins to arcuate veins to interlobar veins to
renal vein.
C Nephrons & urine formation
1 Nephrons: structural & functional unit of kidney & form urine, formed by 2 structures
a Glomerulus: a knot of capillaries
b Renal tubule: closed end surrounds glomerulus called Bowman’s capsule.
c Cortical nephrons most numerous lie in cortex with a few juxtamedullary nephrons
located outside cortex.
d 2 collecting beds
i Glomerulus capillary bed
01 Fed by afferent arteriole & drained by efferent arteriole. Only capillary bed in body
fed & drained by arterioles
02 Specialized in filtration under high pressure
03 Forces fluid & solutes (smaller than protein) out of blood into glomerular capsule.
04 Most of this filtrate is reclaimed by renal tubular cells.
ii Peritubular capillary bed
01 Arises from efferent arterioles of glomerular capsule
02 Low pressure vessels for absorption of water & solutes instead of filtration
03 Peritubular capillaries drain into interlobular veins & leave cortex
2 Urine formation
a Filtration
i Non-selective, passive process
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ii Filtrate is blood plasma w/o proteins (proteins & RBC’s too large to pass through
filtration membrane)
iii Depends on normal blood pressure levels. If glomerular pressure too low filtration
stops
b Reabsorption
i Reclaims water, glucose AA’s & ions from filtrate
ii Tubular reabsorption occurs mostly in proximal tubule w/ some in distal tubule
iii Some passive transport (water by osmosis & HCO3- & some NaCl)
iv Most by active transport.
v Very selective membrane carriers move needed substances back across membrane:
glucose, AA’s
vi No or few carriers for urea, creatinine or uric acid thus removed in urine
vii Some ions absorbed in order to maintain proper blood pH
c Secretion
i Tubular secretion is reabsorption in reverse
ii Some H+, K+, creatinine & poisons move blood of Peritubular capillaries into tubular
cells.
iii Helps to maintain blood pH
D Control of blood composition by the kidneys
1 Blood composition depends on: diet, cellular metabolism & urine output
2 Urine is what remains after nutrients & water reabsorbed & wastes retained.
3 Kidneys have 4 functions
a Excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes
i Urea formed by liver when AA’s are used as energy source
ii Uric acid released by nucleic acid metabolism
iii Creatinine from creatine metabolism in muscle tissue
iv These not reabsorbed & collect in urine
b Maintaining water & electrolyte balance of blood
i Water in 3 locations (fluid compartments)
01 Intracellular fluid (within the cells)
02 Extracellular fluid (ECF’s)
a Interstitial fluid
b Plasma
c Cerebrospinal fluid, serous fluids, humors of eye, lymph & others
ii Na+, K+ Ca2+ concentrations
01 Control water movement between compartments
02 Muscle 7 nerve function
03 Blood pressure & volume
iii Water intake from fluids & food
iv Losses from perspiration, lungs & stool
v Most loss from urine
vi Reabsorption of water & electrolytes controlled by hormones Fig 15.8
01 Loss in blood volume causes low blood pressure
02 Decrease in filtrate formed
03 Hypothalamus irritated by less water & more solutes
04 Causes nerve impulses sent to posterior pituitary which release antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
05 Causes collection ducts in kidneys to reabsorb more water, less urine formed
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Aldosterone regulates Na+ in ECF which helps regulate other ions
Na+ causes osmotic water movement
80% Na+ reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubules
W/ high levels of Aldosterone more Na+& Cl- are reabsorbed into blood & K+ are
released to maintain balance
10 Water moves into blood, follows salt, pressure rises
11 Renin-angiotensin mechanism in juxtaglomerular apparatus also responds to low
pressure to release rennin
12 Renin causes release of angiotensin II which causes vessels to produce Aldosterone
c Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
i Alkalosis pH > 7.45 & Acidosis pH < 7.35
ii Most H+ come from cellular metabolism
iii CO2 causes carbonic acid to form in blood
iv NH3 cause ph to rise
v Blood buffers help regulate pH
vi Kidneys do most of work
d Blood buffers
i Buffer are weak acids (H2CO3) or weak bases (HCO3- & NH3)
ii Bicarbonate, phosphate & protein buffer systems
iii Bicarbonate buffer system
01 Carbonic acid H2CO3 & sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3
02 As pH gets lower H2CO3 stays intact but NaHCO3 release HCO3- ions which
combine with H+
e Respiratory system controls
i Eliminate CO2

ii CO2  H 2 O  H 2 CO3  H   HCO3
iii Normally H+ ions don’t accumulate because CO2 stays at fairly constant level
iv If pH drops, breathing rate & depth increase to remove more CO2 & H+
v If pH rises breathing slows
f Renal mechanisms
i Buffers work temporarily to maintain pH
ii Kidneys eliminate bicarbonate ions
iii Conserve (reabsorb) & generate new bicarbonate ions
iv Urine pH varies from 4.5 - 8.0 depending on how much bicarbonate & H+ are retained
E Characteristics of urine
1 Normal yellow due to urochrome, pigment from destruction of hemoglobin
2 Color will change with addition of more solutes
3 It’s sterile & aromatic when formed
4 As it stands bacteria act on solutes causing ammonia smell
5 pH usually ~ 6.0 but large amounts of protein & whole wheat make it acid
6 Vegetables make it become basic
7 Specific gravity of healthy urine is 1.001 – 1.035
a Low S.G. means dilute urine excess fluid
b High S.G means too many solutes, inadequate fluid intake, fever, kidney inflammation
(pyelonephritis)
15.2 Ureters, Urinary Bladder & Urethra
A Ureters
1 Slender tubes ~ 12” lead from hilus to posterior of bladder
06
07
08
09
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2 Urine moves by peristalsis
3 Check valves in ureters prevent back flow of urine once in bladder
B Urinary bladder
1 Smooth, collapsible muscular sac for temporary storage of urine
2 Ureters & urethra enter & leave at bottom of bladder, form trigone (infections tend to
happen here)
3 Wall consists of 3 layers of smooth muscle
4 When empty collapses, can stretch to hold ~ 500 ml
C Urethra
1 Thin walled tube that carries urine to outside by peristalsis
2 Internal urethral sphincter: involuntary sphincter that keeps urethra closed
3 External urethral sphincter: skeletal muscle (voluntary)
4 In females ~ 3-4 cm (1.5”) & external orifice is anterior to vaginal opening
5 In males ~ 20 cm (8”) exits through tip of penis
D Micturition (voiding)
1 Emptying the bladder
2 W/ about 200 ml of urine stretch receptors transmit impulses to spinal cord
3 Causes bladder to contract & forces urine past internal urethral sphincter & you have urge
to go. This urge will pass
4 After 200 – 300 ml more micturition urge resumes
5 You will eventually go willingly or not
6 Incontinence: inability to control external urethral sphincter
7 Urinary retention: primarily in older men due to enlargement of prostate
15.3 Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System
A In embryo first tubule forms & then degenerates
B Same with second set
C Third set develops into kidneys
D Starts working by 3rd month of fetal life (fetal kidneys do not need to do much)
E Daytime voluntary control of external urethral sphincter at about 18 months
F Nighttime control by age 4 years
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16 The Reproduction System
16.1 Reproductive system
A Gonads manufacture gametes (sperm) & ova (eggs)
B Deliver to female reproductive tract
C Provide protective environment for development of embryo & fetus
D Secrete sex hormones
E Accessory reproductive organs
16.2 Anatomy of the male reproductive system
A Testes
1 Fibrous connective tissue: tunica albuginea surrounds each testis
2 Septa divide testis into many lobules
3 Each lobule contains 1-4 tightly coiled seminiferous tubules (sperm producing sites)
4 Empty sperm into another set of tubules the rete testis
5 Sperm travels next to 1st part of duct system: the epididymis which hugs external
posterior surface of testis
6 Interstitial cells produce testosterone
B Duct system
1 Epididymis:
a Coiled tube ~20’ long
b Head receives immature sperm is on top of testis
c Body & tail lie posterior & lateral on testis
d Immature & nearly non-motile sperm stored temporarily
e Sperm travel through epididymis about 20 days & become motile & fertile
f Ejaculation moves it on to ductus deferens
2 Ductus deferens (vas deferens)
a Enclosed in spermatic cord
b ~18” long
c Runs upward through inguinal canal into pelvic cavity over superior aspect (top) of
bladder
d Empties into ejaculatory duct
i Passes through prostate gland
ii Merges with urethra
e Main function is to propel live sperm from epididymis to urethra
f At ejaculation smooth muscle
g Spermatic cord also contains
i Testicular arteries from abdominal aorta
ii Testicular veins form net that absorbs heat from arterial blood & cooling it
iii Several nerves also present: source of pain
h Vasectomy: cutting of the part of ductus deferens lies in scrotum (sperm still produce
but can’t get out)
3 Urethra
a Extends from base of bladder to tip of penis
b 3 regions
i Prostatic urethra surrounded by prostate gland
ii Membranous urethra: from prostate to base of penis
iii Spongy (penile) urethra runs length of penis
c Serves for both urine & sperm at different times
C Accessory glands & semen
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1 Seminal vesicles (paired)
a Located at base of bladder produce about 60% of volume of semen
b Yellowish viscous fluid contains: fructose, ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), amino acids &
prostaglandins (a lipid in cell membranes)
c Sperm & seminal fluid enter ejaculatory duct together
2 Prostate gland
a About size of a walnut & surrounds urethra
b Secretes milky alkaline fluid that activates sperm (~20% of semen volume)
c Enters urethra through several small ducts
d Can be palpated by digital examination
e At old age, enlargement squeezes urethra preventing urination
3 Bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands)
a Small, pea sized inferior (below) prostate
b Produces thick clear mucus which drains into spongy (penile) urethra
c Release prior to ejaculation to neutralize traces of acidic urine & act as lubricant
4 Semen
a Milky white sticky mixture of sperm suspended in mixture of secretions from seminal
vesicles, prostate gland & bulbourethral gland.
b Transport medium, provides nutrients, contains chemicals that protect & aid sperm
(Sperm contain little cytoplasm or nutrients)
c pH = 7.2 – 7.6 neutralizes acid vagina (pH = 3.5 – 4)
d Sperm sluggish at pH < 6
e Dilution of sperm: 2-5 mL/ejaculation with 50 –130 million sperm/mL semen
f Seminal plasma: antibacterial properties, produced in seminal vesicles
g Prostaglandins decrease viscosity of mucus guarding cervix to allow easier entrance to
uterus
D External genitalia
1 Scrotum
a Divided sac that hangs outside abdominal cavity
b Provides for lower temperature ~ 34ºC needed for sperm production
c When cold wrinkles & pulls testes closer to body to maintain temperature
2 Penis
a Copulatory organ designed to deliver sperm to female
b Attached root, skin covered free shaft & ends with Glans penis: enlarged end
c Prepuce (prē’ pyoos) or foreskin: loose skin at end removed at circumcision
d Spongy urethra surrounds 3 types of erectile tissue a spongy tissue
e Vascular spaces fill with blood causing an erection, veins close restricting blood release
16.3 Male reproductive functions
A Spermatogenesis (sperm production)
1 Begins at puberty goes throughout life
2 Sperm formation occurs in seminiferous tubules of testis
3 Starts with primitive stem cells called spermatogonia on periphery of each tubule
4 Continues mitotic divisions until puberty producing more spermatogonia cells
5 At puberty each mitotic division forms 2 types of spermatogonium
6 Type A remain & continue to produce more spermatogonia
7 Type B become a primary spermatocyte undergo meiosis I
8 Forming 2 smaller haploid cells called secondary spermatocyte
9 Then progress to meiosis II to produce spermatids
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10 Spermiogenisis
a Process taking 64-72 days
b Streamlining of spermatids
c Lose most cytoplasm & forms
i Head: genetic area covered by helmet like acrosome
ii Midpiece: metabolic area
iii Tail: locomotion area (it takes 1-2 hours to reach fallopian tubes)
B Testosterone production
1 Produced in interstitial cells
2 Release of anterior pituitary hormones cause testosterone to be produced
3 Secondary sex characteristics
a Deepening voice due to larger larynx
b Increased hair growth
c Enlargement of skeletal muscle
d Increased heaviness of skeleton due to thickening of bones
16.4 Anatomy of the female reproductive system
A Ovaries
1 Paired almond sized & shaped w/ many saclike structures called ovarian follicles
2 Each follicle consists of immature egg, oocyte surrounded by follicle cells
3 As follicle matures develops fluid filled antrum
4 Follicle now called vesicular or Graafian follicles & is mature
5 Vesicular follicle ruptures& egg is ejected, called ovulation
6 Forms a corpus luteum which eventually degenerates w/I ovary
7 Ovaries suspended by ligaments attached to pelvis
B Duct system
1 Uterine (Fallopian ) tubes
a Initial part of duct system
b ~ 10 cm (4”) long extends medially to superior of uterus
c Not continuous like male, does not connect to ovary
d Distal end has finger-like projections called fimbriae which partially surround the ovary
e As oocyte released waving fimbriae create fluid currents that guide egg to uterine tubes
f Carried to uterus by peristalsis & beating cilia
g Takes 3-4 days, but stay alive only 24 hr
h Sperm must swim up to oocyte
i Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID): infections that move up uterine tubes & out into
peritoneal cavity
2 Uterus
a Between bladder & rectum, suspended in the pelvis by broad, round & uterosacral
ligaments
b Hollow organ to receive, retain & nourish fertilized egg
c Body: major portion
d Fundus: superior rounded end where uterine tubes enter
e Cervix: inferior end which protrudes into vagina
f Walls are 3 layered
i Endometrium: inner layer where embryo attaches
ii Myometrium: bulky middle layer, smooth muscle
iii Epimetrium: outermost layer
3 Vagina (Birth canal)
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a ~ 3-4” long between bladder & rectum
b Flexible, allows stretching during intercourse or child birth
c Vaginal orifice protected by hymen: thin fold of mucosa
C External genitalia (Vulva)
1 Mons pubis: fatty rounded area overlying the pubic bone, covered w/ pubic hair
2 Labia majora: 2 elongated hair covered folds extending to near anus
3 Labia minora: 2 delicate hair free folds interior of labia majora; form flaps around vaginal
orifice from near clitoris to bottom of vestibule
4 Vestibule: region enclosed by labia majora
5 Perineum: area between anterior end of labial folds & anus & laterally to the ischial
tuberosities
6 Clitoris
a Small erectile tissue at anterior of vestibule
b Analogous to penis
c Covered by prepuce or hood
d Usually ~2cm long & 0.5cm in diameter long but can be much longer
7 Perineum
a Diamond shaped area between anterior of labial folds & back to anus
b Can tear during childbirth
16.5 Female reproductive functions & cycles
A Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
1 Males produces gametes throughout life after puberty
2 Females begin at puberty & end at menopause (~50)
3 Total number of eggs determined at birth
4 Oogenesis: process of female gametes
5 Oogonia, female stem cells form in fetus & multiply rapidly
6 Oogonia daughter cells push into ovary connective tissue to form primary follicles
7 Produce ~ 700,000 by birth (lifetime supply)
8 At puberty, anterior pituitary releases follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates
primary follicles to grow each month & begins ovarian cycle (Release lifetime total ~500
ova)
a 1st meiotic division creates 2 dissimilar cells (secondary oocyte & polar body)
b LH luteinizing hormone from anterior pituitary starts process
c Follicle accumulates fluid & protrudes from surface of ovary
d After ~14 days ovulation occurs (can cause pain as ovary stretches & breaks)
e Other mature follicles not released deteriorate
f Ruptured follicle forms corpus luteum
g If secondary oocyte is penetrated by sperm it undergoes 2nd meiotic division to produce
another polar body & Ovum nucleus (n) to form (2n) embryo
B Menstrual cycle
1 Only receptive to implantation ~ 7 days after ovulation
2 Menstrual or uterine cycle are cyclic changes of the endometrium of uterus
3 Changes in estrogen & progesterone levels controlled by anterior pituitary gonadotropic
hormones (both cycle ~ every 28 days)
a FSH follicle stimulating hormone
b LH luteinizing hormone
4 Day 1-5: Menses
a Thick endometriumal lining sloughs off
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b Bleeding for 3-5 days & tissue pass (~50-150mL)
5 Days 6-14: Proliferative stage
a Stimulated by rising estrogen levels by growing follicles
b Endometrium is repaired
c Blood supply to endometrium replenished & becomes velvety
d Ovulation occurs at end due to increase in LH
6 Days 15-28: Secretory stage
a Blood supply to endometrium increases more
b Progesterone causes endometrium glands to increase in size secrete nutrients to sustain
embryo
c If fertilization occurs embryos release hormone similar to LH causing the corpus luteum
to continue to secrete hormones.
d W/O fertilization corpus luteum degenerates & LH levels decline & uterine blood
vessels spasm & close.
e Endometrium cells die & menses soon begins
C Hormone Production by the Ovaries
1 Ovaries become active at puberty & produce ova & ovarian hormones
2 Follicle cells produce estrogens causing secondary sex characteristics
a Enlargement of fallopian (uterine) tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitals
b Development of breasts
c appearance of axillary & pubic hair
d Increased fat deposited mainly in breasts & hips
e Widening & lightening of pelvis
f Onset on menses
3 Progesterone: produced in corpus luteum
a As long as LH is present progesterone is produced
b Causes uterus to continue to secrete nutrients
c Helps maintain pregnancy & prepare breasts for nursing
16.6 Mammary Glands
A Present in both male & female
B Stimulation by estrogen & others at puberty to grow in size
C Are modified sweat glands
D Skin covered breast anterior to pectoral muscles between 1st & 6th rib
E Pigmented area is areola surrounding nipple
F Internally consists of 15-25 lobes radiating from nipple.
G Within each lobe are smaller lobules containing alveolar glands which produce milk
H Milk is passed onto lactiferous ducts which open to outside at nipple
I Mammography: X-ray of breast to detect cancer
16.7 Survey of Pregnancy & Embryonic Development
A Accomplishing Fertilization
1 Oocyte viable for 12-24 hours after leaving ovary
2 Sperm viable for 12-48 hours after ejaculation (up to a max of 72 hours)
3 Intercourse needs to take place no more than 72 before or 24 after ovulation
4 At 24 hours oocyte is ~1/3 way down fallopian tube
5 Sperm in vagina at time ovulation are attracted by homing chemicals to oocyte
6 Trip takes 1-2 hours (swimming up tube)
7 100’s of sperm reach oocyte & releases hormone to breakdown corona radiata (covering
of oocyte)
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8 1 sperm comes in later & penetrates the membrane & head if sperm is drawn into oocyte
9 Oocyte completes meiosis II forming an ovum & polar body
10 Zygote (1st cell) forms moment DNA from male & female actually bind
B Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development
1 Cleavage: 1st few mitotic divisions of zygote increasing cell number but decreasing size
2 Embryo: zygote after several cell divisions
3 At ~ 3 days after ovulation reaches uterus as 16-cell ball
4 Blastocyst: ~100 cells floating in uterus because endometrium not ready.
5 Releases hormone to prevent uterus from sloughing endometrium
6 By 14 days embryo is embedded into endometrium & covered over by mucosa
7 Blastocyst develops chorionic villi which combine with mother’s tissue to form placenta
(functional by 3rd week)
8 Fetus surrounded by fluid-filled sac called amnion
9 Attached to placenta by umbilical cord
10 By 3rd month placenta becomes endocrine organ & corpus luteum stops functioning
11 By 9th week embryo called fetus
C Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother
1 Pregnancy
a Anatomical changes
i Uterus starts ~ fist sized
ii Pushes higher & fills abdominal cavity
iii Pushes up into thoracic cavity
iv Causes back aches, indigestion constipation
v Hormone relaxin causes pelvic ligaments to relax & widen
b Physiological changes
i Gastrointestinal system
01 Morning sickness caused by unbalanced estrogen & progesterone levels
02 Heartburn common due to crowding of stomach
ii Urinary system
01 Kidneys need to dispose of additional wastes
02 Uterus compresses bladder
iii Respiratory system
01 Nasal mucosa responds to estrogen & become swollen & congested
02 Develop difficulty in breathing
iv Cardiovascular system
01 Total body water rises & blood volume increases 25-40%
02 Blood pressure & pulse increase
03 Venous blood flow reduced in pelvic area because of pressure of uterus on vein
2 Childbirth (parturition)
a Initiation of labor
b Stages of labor
i Dilation Stage
ii Expulsion Stage
iii Placental Stage
16.8 Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System
A Sex determined by XX or XY chromosome
B Gonads begin to form at 8 weeks
C Presence or absence of testosterone determine development
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1 Genetic XY w/o testosterone
a develops female external genitalia
b testis would not function properly
2 Genetic XX exposed to testosterone
a develops ovaries
b penis
c empty scrotum
3 pseudohermaphrodite: accessory structures don’t match gonads
4 hermaphrodite: posses both ovarian & testicular tissue (these are rare)
D Testis found in abdomen & descend to scrotum ! 1 month before birth
E Puberty
1 begins age 10-15
2 production of testosterone (males) & estrogen (females) begins
3 enlargement of penis, scrotum, hair growth, maturation of sperm, wet dreams
4 females budding of breasts, menstrual cycle
16.9 Orgasm: 4 stages
A Excitement
1 Muscle tension
2 Increase heart rate
3 Rise in blood pressure
4 Genital fill with blood
5 Nipples get hard
B Plateau
1 Fluid released in vagina
2 Tightening of scrotum
3 Secretion from Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland
4 Clitoris becomes very sensitive
5 Reach brink of orgasm (non-reversible at this point)
C Orgasm
1 Involuntary muscle contractions
2 Blood pressure increases
3 Male ejaculation
a Emission
i seminal fluid & prostate fluids accumulates in ejaculatory duct
b Expulsion
i Urinary bladder closes
ii Smooth muscle in urethra, penis & prostate contract & propel semen
4 Female no ejaculation
a Uterus & vaginal have muscle rhythmic contractions
D Resolution
1 Body returns to normal
2 Males have refractory stage from few minutes to several hours. No orgasm possible
during this time.
3 Female can have multiple orgasms
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