Download Closure Question #2: Do you think it was right for the Allies to try

Years of Crisis and World
War II
AP Unit #14
Chapters 31-32
Albert Einstein / Theory of Relativity
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Albert Einstein – German-born physicist regarded as the greatest
scientist of the 20th century. Einstein offered startling new ideas on
space, time, energy, and matter. Einstein proposed the theory of
relativity, arguing that while the speed of light is constant, other
things that seem constant, such as space and time, are not. Space
and time can change when measured relative to an object moving
near the speed of light – about 186,000 miles per second.
The prewar physics revolution begun by Albert Einstein continued in the 1920s and 1930s. In fact, Ernest
Rutherford, one of the physicists who showed that the atom could be split, called the 1920s the “heroic age
of physics.” The unfolding new physics undermined the classical physics of Newton. Newtonian physics had
made people believe that all phenomena could be completely defined and predicted. In 1927 German
physicist Werner Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle shook this belief. Physicists new that atoms were made
up of smaller parts. The unpredictable behavior of these subatomic particles is the basis for the uncertainty
principle. Heisenberg’s theory essentially suggests that all physical laws are based on uncertainty. The
theory’s emphasis on randomness challenged Newtonian physics and, in a way, represented a new
worldview. Thus, the principle of uncertainty fit in well with the other uncertainties of the interwar years.
By 1920, shorter workdays gave rise to mass culture. Huge movie palaces were built, and radio brought the
world into people’s homes. Magazines helped spread trends. Today’s mass culture often focuses more on
private entertainment. People watch movies and television on tiny portable screens and listen to music
through earbuds. Cultural trends spread over the internet. American mass culture is exported around the
world, where it is often embraced, but it has also provoked negative responses.
Closure Question #1: Why do you think
writers and artists began exploring the
unconscious? (At least 1 sentence)
Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud – Austrian psychologist who theorized that much
human behavior is driven not by rational thought but by
unconscious desires, but to live in society people learn to suppress
their desires. The tension between outward behavior and the
subconscious leads to mental and physical illness.
During the Victorian Age of the late 1800s and early 1900s, women had been expected to center their lives
on the home and family. The New Woman of the 1920s was more liberated. She wore dresses with shorter
hemlines, put on more makeup, danced to the latest crazes, and generally assumed that she had the same
political and social rights as any man. Popular magazines, sociological studies, novels, and movies all echoed
the rejection of Victorian morality. There was only a germ of truth in the various observations. The Victorian
code of separate spheres for men and women was disappearing but not as rapidly or as completely as some
indicated. The flapper was undoubtedly more publicized than imitated. Still, the image of the flapper
underscores an important aspect of the decade. Not all women aspired to be flappers, but many wanted
more control over their lives – and got it.
The great fight for suffrage had been won with the passage of the 19th Amendment. What was the next step?
Some groups, such as the NAWSA, called on women to work in reform movements, run for office, or fight for
laws to protect women and children in the workplace. Some women had success in public life. In 1925, Nellie
Taylor Ross of Wyoming and Miriam Ferguson of Texas became the first women elected as their state’s
governor. The NWP took a more militant view, demanding complete economic, social and political equality
with men. Their primary goal was the passage of an Equal Rights Amendment. Most women, though,
believed that a new constitutional amendment was premature.
Closure Question #2: What impact did technological
advances in transportation and communication have on
Western culture between the wars? (At least 1 sentence)
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A series of inventions in the late 1800s had led the way for a revolution in
mass communications. Especially important was Marconi’s discovery of
wireless radio waves. A musical concert transmitted in June 1920 had a
major impact on radio broadcasting. Broadcasting facilities were built in the
United States, Europe, and Japan during 1921 and 1922. At the same time,
the mass production of radios began. In 1926 there were 2.2 million radios
in Great Britain. By the end of the 1930s, there were 9 million.
Although motion pictures had first emerged in the 1890s, full-length
features did not appear until shortly before World War I. The Italian film
Quo Vadis and the American film Birth of a Nation made it apparent that
cinema was an important new form of mass entertainment. By 1939, about
40% of adults in the more developed countries were attending a movie once
a week. Of course, radio and the movies could be used for political
purposes. Radio offered great opportunities for reaching the masses. This
became obvious when it was discovered that Adolf Hitler’s fiery speeches
made just as great an impact on people when heard over the radio as they
did in person. The Nazi regime encouraged radio listening by using
manufacturers to produce inexpensive radios.
Existentialism
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Belief that there is no universal meaning to life. Each person
creates his or her own meaning in life through choices made and
actions taken. In the aftermath of WWI existentialism gained
followers, influenced by thinkers such as Jean Paul Sartre.
The interest in the unconscious also appeared in new literary techniques. “Stream of consciousness” was a
technique used by writers to show the innermost thoughts of each character. The most famous example is
the novel Ulysses, published by James Joyce. The novels of German writer Herman Hesse reflect the
influence of both Freud’s psychology and Asian religions. His works often focus on the spiritual loneliness of
modern human beings in a mechanized urban society. Hesse’s novels had a great impact on German youth in
the 1920s. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1946. After World War I, the assembly line and mass
production took hold in industry. More consumer goods were available, and more people could buy them
because they had more income or credit. By 1920, the 8-hour work day had been established for many
workers. Gradually, it became the norm.
This new work pattern meant more free time for the leisure activities that had emerged by 1900. Professional
sporting events were an important part of mass leisure. Travel was another favorite activity. Trains, buses,
and cars made trips to beaches or holiday resorts popular and affordable. Mass leisure offered new ways for
totalitarian states to control the people. The Nazi regime, for example, adopted a program called Kraft durch
Freude (“Strength through Joy”). The program offered a variety of leisure activities to fill the free time of the
working class. These activities included concerts, operas, films, guided tours, and sporting events. In 1922,
T.S. Eliot, an American poet living in England wrote that Western society had lost its spiritual values. He
described the postwar world as a barren “wasteland”, drained of hope and faith. In 1921, the Irish poet
William Butler Yeats conveyed a sense of dark times ahead in the poem “The Second Coming”: “Things fall
apart; the centre cannot hold; / Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.”
Friedrich Nietzsche / Surrealism
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Friedrich Nietzsche – German existentialist philosopher who believed that
Western ideas such as reason, democracy, and progress had stifled
people’s creativity and actions. Nietzsche urged a return to the ancient
heoric values of pride, assertiveness, and strength. Dictators such as Adolf
Hitler and Benito Mussolini built of Nietzsche’s ideas in establishing
Totalitarian, Militaristic governments.
Surrealism – Artistic movement of the early 20th century which attempted
to portray the unconscious – fantasies, dreams, and nightmares – to show
the greater reality that exists beyond the world of physical appearances.
Four years of devastating war had left many Europeans with a profound sense of despair. The Great Depression and
the growth of violent fascist movements only added to the despair created by the war. Many people began looking at
themselves differently; their future seemed uncertain. With political, economic, and social uncertainties came
intellectual uncertainties. These were evident in the artistic, intellectual, and scientific achievements of the years
following World War I.
After 1918, artistic trends mainly reflected developments made before the war. Abstract art, for example, became
even more popular. In addition, a prewar fascination with the absurd and the unconscious content of the mind
seemed even more appropriate in light of the nightmare landscapes of the World War I battlefronts. “The world does
not make sense, so why should art?” was a common remark. This sentiment gave rise to both the Dada movement
and surrealism. The dadaists were artists who were obsessed with the idea that life has no purpose. They were
revolted by what they saw as the insanity of life and tried to express that feeling in their art. Dada artist Hannah
Hoch, for example, used photomontage (a picture made of a combination of photographs) to comment on women’s
roles in the new mass culture. A more important artistic movement than dadaism was surrealism. By portraying the
unconscious – fantasies, dreams, and even nightmares – the surrealists sought to show the greater reality that exists
beyond the world of physical appearance. One of the world’s foremost surrealist painters was Salvador Dali.
Jazz
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Jazz – Music native to the United States which is based on
improvisation and combines different forms of music,
including African American blues, ragtime, and Europeanbased popular music.
Black Africans had fought in World War I in British and French armies. Many Africans hoped that
independence after the war would be their reward. As one newspaper after the war argued, if
African volunteers who fought on European battlefields were “good enough to fight and die in the
Empire’s cause, they were good enough to have a share in the government of their countries.”
Most European leaders, however, were not ready to give up their colonies. The peace settlement
after World War I was a huge disappointment. Germany was stripped of its African colonies, but
these colonies were awarded to Great Britain and France to be administered as mandates for the
League of Nations. Britain and France now governed a vast portion of Africa.
After World War I, Africans became more active politically. The foreign powers that had
conquered and exploited Africa also introduced Western education. In educating Africans, the
colonial system introduced them to the modern world and gave them visions of a world based on
the ideals of liberty and equality. In Africa itself, the missionary schools taught these ideals to
their pupils. The African students who studied abroad, especially in Britain and the United States,
and the African soldiers who served in World War I learned new ideas about freedom and
nationalism in the West. As more Africans became aware of the enormous gulf between Western
ideals and practices, they decided to seek reform.
Charles Lindbergh
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Charles Lindbergh – The first man to fly solo across the Atlantic
Ocean; Lindbergh made the flight in 33 hours in a single-engine
plane, the Spirit of St. Louis, becoming the greatest American hero
of the 1920s.
Thanks to increased newspaper readership and the rise of radio coverage, every major sport boasted
nationally famous performers. Perhaps the leading sports hero was baseball home-run king Babe Ruth. Others
included Red Grange in football, Jack Dempsey in boxing, Bobby Jones in golf, and Bill Tilden in tennis.
Women athletes, too, gained fame, from tennis player Helen Wills to Gertrude Ederle, the first woman to swim
the English Channel.
Why did athletes reach such heights of popularity? Part of the answer is that the Golden Age of Sports was
also the Golden Age of the Sportswriter. Such journalists as Damon Runyon and Grantland Rice captured the
excitement of sports events in their colorful prose. Turning the finest athletes into seemingly immortal gods,
the sportswriters nicknamed Babe Ruth the Sultan of Swat and dubbed Notre Dame’s football backfield the
Four Horsemen. The other part of the answer is that the decade needed heroes. World War I had shattered
many Americans’ faith in progress, making the world seem cheap and flawed. Athletic heroes reassured
Americans that people were capable of great feats and lofty dreams. If in our heroes we see our idealized
selves, the sports heroes of the 1920s gave Americans a sense of hope.
Even the biggest sports stars could not match the adoration given aviator Charles Lindbergh. In the 1920s,
the airline industry was in its infancy. Flying aces had played a role in WWI, and a few small domestic airlines
carried mail and passengers. But airplanes were still a novel sight to most Americans. The pilot became a new
breed of hero, a romantic daredevil who risked death with every flight.
Closure Question #3: Why did heroes, like Charles Lindbergh, gained increasing
popularity in the years following World War I. (At least 1 sentence)
Closure Assignment #1
Answer the following questions based on what
you have learned from Chapter 31, Section 1:
1. Why do you think writers and artists began
exploring the unconscious? (At least 1
sentence)
2. What impact did technological advances in
transportation and communication have on
Western culture between the wars? (At least 1
sentence)
3. Why did heroes, like Charles Lindbergh, gained
increasing popularity in the years following
World War I. (At least 1 sentence)
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Coalition Government
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A temporary alliance of several political parties made to form a
majority in a national government. Following WWI democracies
were established in European nations, such as Germany and Italy,
which had little experience with representative government. In
these countries, it was almost impossible for one party to win
enough support to govern effectively. Because the parties
disagreed on so many policies, coalitions seldom lasted very long.
The peace settlement at the end of World War I tried to fulfill 19th century dreams of nationalism. It created
new boundaries and new states. From the beginning, however, the settlement left nations unhappy. Border
disputes poisoned relations in eastern Europe for years. Many Germans vowed to revise the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles. Between 1919 and 1924, desire for security led the French government to demand strict
enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles. This tough policy began with the issue of reparations (payments)
that the Germans were supposed to make for the damage they had done in the war. In April 1921, the Allied
Reparations Commission determined that Germany owed 132 billion German marks (33 billion U.S. dollars)
for reparations, payable in annual installments of 2.5 billion marks.
The new German republic made its first payment in 1921. By the following year, however, the German
government faced a financial crisis and announced that it could not pay any more reparations. Outraged,
France sent troops to occupy the Ruhr Valley. France planned to collect reparations by using the Ruhr mines
and factories. The German government adopted a policy of passive resistance to this French occupation.
German workers went on strike. The German government mainly paid their salaries by printing more paper
money. This only added to the inflation (rise in prices) that had already begun in Germany by the end of the
war. The German mark soon became worthless. In 1914, 42 marks equaled 1 U.S. dollar. By November 1,
1923, it took 130 billion marks to equal 1 dollar. By the end of November, the ratio had increased to an
incredible 4.2 trillion marks to 1 dollar.
Closure Question #1: What problems did the
Weimar Republic face? (List at least 2)
Weimar Republic
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Democratic government which ruled Germany from 1918 (the end
of WWI) until 1933, the year in which Adolf Hitler gained control in
Germany.
President Woodrow Wilson claimed that World War I had been fought to make the world safe for democracy.
In 1919 his claim seemed justified. Most European states, both major and minor, had democratic
governments. In a number of states, women could now vote. Male political leaders had rewarded women for
their contributions to the war effort by granting them voting rights. (However, women could not vote until
1944 in France, 1945 in Italy, and 1971 in Switzerland.) In the 1920s, Europe seemed to be returning to the
political trends of the prewar era – parliamentary regimes and the growth of individual liberties. This was not,
however, an easy process. Four years of total war and four years of postwar turmoil made a “return to
normalcy” difficult.
With prosperity came a new European diplomacy. The foreign ministers of Germany and France, Gustav
Stresemann and Astride Briand, fostered a spirit of cooperation. In 1925 they signed the Treaty of Locarno.
Many viewed the Locarno pact as the beginning of a new era of European peace. On the day after the pact
was concluded, headlines in the New York Times read “France and Germany Ban War Forever.” The London
Times declared “Peace at Last.” The new spirit of cooperation grew even stronger when Germany joined the
League of Nations in March 1926. Two years later, the Kellogg-Briand Pact brought even more hope. Sixtythree nations signed this accord and pledged “to renounce war as an instrument of national policy.” Nothing
was said, however, about what would be done if anyone violated the pact.
Imperial Germany ended in 1918 with Germany’s defeat in the war. A German democratic state known as the
Weimar Republic was then created. The Weimar Republic was plagued by serious economic problems.
Germany experienced runaway inflation in 1922 and 1923. With it came serious social problems. Families on
fixed incomes watched their life savings disappear. To make matters worse, after a period of relative
prosperity from 1924 to 1929, Germany was struck by the Great Depression. In 1930, unemployment had
grown to 3 million people by March and to 4.38 million by December. The Depression paved the way for fear
and the rise of extremist parties.
Great Depression
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A period of low economic activity and rising unemployment; From
1929 until the beginning of World War II the United States and
Europe experienced a severe economic depression.
Economic adversity led to political upheaval. Both France and Germany began to seek a way out of the disaster. In August
1924, an international commission produced a new plan for reparations. The Dawes Plan, named after the American banker
who chaired the commission, first reduced reparations. It then coordinated Germany’s annual payments with its ability to pay.
The brief period of prosperity that began in Europe in 1924 ended in an economic collapse that came to be known as the Great
Depression. Two factors played a major role in the start of the Great Depression. First, was a series of downturns in the
economies of individual nations in the second half of the 1920s. Prices for farm products, especially wheat, fell rapidly due to
overproduction. The second factor that triggered the Great Depression was an international financial crisis involving the U.S.
stock market. Much of the European prosperity between 1924 and 1929 was built on U.S. bank loans to Germany. Germany
needed the U.S. loans to pay reparations to France and Great Britain. During the 1920s, the U.S. stock market boomed. By
1928, American investors pulled money out of Germany to invest it in the stock market. Then, in October 1929, the U.S. stock
market crashed. Stock prices plunged.
In a panic, U.S. investors withdrew even more funds from Germany and other European markets. This withdrawal made the
banks of Germany and other European states weak. The well-known Creditanstalt Bank in Vienna collapsed in May 1931. By
then, trade was slowing, industrial production was declining, and unemployment was rising. One effect of the economic crisis
was increased government activity in the economy. Another effect was a renewed interest in Marxist ideas. Marx’s prediction
that capitalism would destroy itself through overproduction seemed to be coming true. Communism thus became more
popular, especially among workers and intellectuals.
Closure Question #2: Explain how the Great Depression weakened Western
democracies. (At least 1 sentence)
Deficit Spending
Franklin D. Roosevelt / New Deal
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Franklin D. Roosevelt – American President from 1932 to 1945;
Roosevelt created the New Deal, a policy of active government
intervention in the economy, in order to help the United States
during the Great Depression.
After Germany, no Western nation was more affected by the Great Depression than the United States. By
1932, U.S. industrial production had fallen almost 50% from its 1929 level. By 1933, there were more than
12 million unemployed. Under these circumstances, Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt won a landslide
victory in the 1932 presidential election. Believing in free enterprise, Roosevelt believed that capitalism had
to be reformed to save it. He pursued a policy of active government intervention in the economy, known as
the New Deal.
The New Deal included an increased program of public works. The Works Progress Administration (WPA),
established in 1935, was a government organization employing about 3 million people at its peak. Workers
built bridges, roads, post offices, and airports. The Roosevelt administration was also responsible for new
social legislation that began the U.S. welfare system. In 1935 the Social Security Act created a system of oldage pensions and unemployment insurance. The New Deal’s reforms may have prevented a social revolution
in the United States. However, it did not solve the unemployment problems. In 1938 American
unemployment still stood at more than 10 million. Only World War II and the growth of weapons industries
brought U.S. workers back to full employment.
Closure Question #3: Explain the intent of the Roosevelt administration’s New Deal. (At
least 1 sentence)
Closure Assignment #2
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2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on what
you have learned from Chapter 31, Section 2:
What problems did the Weimar Republic face?
(List at least 2)
Explain how the Great Depression weakened
Western democracies. (At least 1 sentence)
Explain the intent of the Roosevelt
administration’s New Deal. (At least 1
sentence)
Closure Question #1: Why did a movement like
fascism and leaders like Mussolini come to power
during a period of crisis? (At least 1 sentence)
Benito Mussolini / Fascism
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Benito Mussolini – Founder of the Fascist party in Italy in 1919,
Mussolini became a totalitarian dictator in Italy in 1922, creating a
secret police, outlawing political parties, and eliminating free
press.
Fascism – An ultra-conservative political movement emphasizing
nationalism and racial superiority which swept European countries
in the 1920s and 1930s.
Italian totalitarianism was in many ways a direct result of the war and the peace treaties. Although Italy was
on the winning side, it did not get the land along the Adriatic coast it had hoped to obtain from the division
of Austria-Hungary. Added to this frustration, the postwar economic depression made it difficult for returning
veterans to find jobs, a communist movement was growing, and the government seemed weak and inept.
It was during this period that Benito Mussolini entered the world stage. In 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci
di Combattimento, or Fascist Party, a right-wing organization that trumpeted nationalism and promised to
make Italy great again. Followers of Mussolini, known as Black Shirts, fought in the streets against socialists
and communists. Fearing revolution, in 1922, Italian King Victor Emmanuel III asked Mussolini to form a
government. Calling himself Il Duce, or “the leader”, Mussolini consolidated his control over the government
and the army within a few years. He outlawed political parties, took over the press, created a secret police,
organized youth groups to indoctrinate the young, and suppressed strikes. He opposed liberalism and
socialism. Still, his hold over Italy was never as powerful as Stalin’s grip on the Soviet Union.
Adolf Hitler / Nazism
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Adolf Hitler – Fascist dictator of Germany from 1933 to 1945; A strong
supporter of German nationalism, Hitler published Mein Kampf in 1923,
arguing that Jews and Communists within Germany were to blame for
their defeat in WWI and argued that “superior” nations had a right to
expand their territory and “superior” individuals had a right to lead the
masses.
Nazism – National Socialist German Workers’ Party; Fascist political party
led by Hitler beginning in 1921. After leaving prison, Hitler worked to win
German votes for the Nazis. By 1932 the party had 800,000 members,
making it the largest political party in Germany.
Adolf Hitler was born in Austria on April 20, 1889. Unsuccessful in school, he traveled to Vienna to become an artist but was
rejected by the academy. Here he developed his basic social and political ideas. At the core of Hitler’s ideas was racism,
especially anti-Semitism (hostility towards Jews). Hitler was also an extreme nationalist who understood how political parties
could effectively use propaganda and terror. Hitler served four years on the Western Front during World War I. At the end of
the war, Hitler remained in Germany and decided to enter politics. In 1919 he joined the little known German Workers’ Party,
one of several right-wing extreme nationalist parties in Munich.
By the summer of 1921, Hitler had taken total control of the party. By then the party had been renamed. (Nazi) Within two
years party membership had grown to 55,000 people, with 15,000 in the party militia. The militia was variously known as the
SA, the Storm Troops, or the Brownshirts, after the color of their uniforms. An overconfident Hitler staged an armed uprising
against the government in Munich in November 1923. This uprising, called the Beer Hall Putsch, was quickly crushed, and
Hitler was sentenced to prison. During his brief stay in jail, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, or My Struggle, an account of his
movement and its basic ideas.
Mein Kampf
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Mein Kampf – Book published by Hitler in 1925 in which he
revealed himself as extremely anti-Semitic (prejudiced against
Jews) & expressed his desire for Germany to dominate the world.
The Reichstag was the German parliament under the Weimar Republic; By 1932 Nazi politicians were elected
and gained control of the Reichstag. The Enabling Act was passed on March 23, 1933 by the Reichstag. This
law gave the government the power to ignore the democratic constitution for 4 years while it issued laws to
deal with Germany’s problems. Under this law Hitler, who was appointed Germany’s chancellor in 1932, was
appointed dictator by the parliament itself. While in prison, Hitler realized that the Nazis would have to attain
power by legal means, not by a violent overthrow of the Weimar Republic. Hitler knew that the Nazi Party
would have to be a mass political party that could compete for votes with the other political parties. Once out
of prison, Hitler expanded the Nazi Party in Germany. By 1929, it had a national party organization. Three
years later, it had 800,000 members and had become the largest party in the Reichstag. No doubt,
Germany’s economic difficulties were a crucial factor in the Nazi rise to power. Unemployment had risen
dramatically, growing from 4.35 million in 1931 to about 5.5 million by the winter of 1932. The Great
Depression made extremist parties more attractive.
After 1930, the German government ruled by decree with the support of President Hindenburg. The
Reichstag had little power. More and more, the right-wing elites of Germany – the industrial leaders, landed
aristocrats, military officers, and higher bureaucrats – looked to Hitler for leadership. Under pressure,
Hindenburg agreed to allow Hitler to become chancellor in 1933 and create a new government. Within two
months, Hitler had laid the foundation for the Nazi Party’s complete control over Germany. The crowning step
of Hitler’s “legal seizure” of power came on March 23, 1933 with the Enabling Act. With their new power, the
Nazis quickly brought all institutions under their control. They purged the civil service of Jews and democratic
elements. They set up prison camps called concentration camps for people who opposed them. Trade Unions
were dissolved. All political parties except the Nazis were abolished.
Closure Question #2: How did mass demonstrations and
meetings contribute to the success of the Nazi Party? (At
least 1 sentence)
 Hitler promised a new Germany that appealed to nationalism
and militarism. These appeals struck an emotional chord in his
listeners. After attending one of Hitler’s rallies, a schoolteacher
in Hamburg said, “When the speech was over, there was
roaring enthusiasm and applause… How many look up to him
with touching faith as their helper, their saviour, their deliverer
from unbearable distress.”
 The Nazis used mass demonstrations and spectacles to make
the German people an instrument of Hitler’s policies. These
meetings, especially the Nuremberg party rallies that were held
every September, usually evoked mass enthusiasm and
excitement.
Closure Question #3: Why do you
think Hitler had German children
join Nazi organizations?
Lebensraum
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“Living Space”; In the 1920 and 1930s Hitler declared that
Germany was overcrowded and needed more space. He promised
to get that space by conquering eastern Europe and Russia.
Nazi Germany was the scene of almost constant personal and institutional conflict. Struggle was a basic
feature of relationships within the party and state. Hitler, of course, was the ultimate decision maker and
absolute ruler. The Schutzstaffeln (“Guard Squadrons”) known simply as the SS were an important force for
maintaining order. The SS was originally created as Hitler’s personal bodyguard. Under the direction of
Heinrich Himmler, the SS came to control not only the secret police forces that Himmler had set up, but also
the regular police forces. In the economic sphere, Hitler used public works projects and grants to private
construction firms to put people back to work and end the Depression. A massive rearmament program,
however, was the key to solving the unemployment problem. Unemployment, which had reached more than
5 million people in 1932, dropped to 2.5 million in 1934 and less than 500,000 in 1937. The regime claimed
full credit for solving Germany’s economic woes. The new regime’s part in bringing an end to the Depression
was an important factor in leading many Germans to accept Hitler and the Nazis.
The Nazis totalitarian state also controlled institutions, which included churches, schools, and universities. In
addition, Nazi professional organizations and youth organizations taught Nazi ideals. Women played a crucial
role in the Aryan state as bearers of the children who, the Nazis believed , would bring about the triumph of
the Aryan race. The Nazis believed men were destined to be warriors and political leaders, while women
were meant to be wives and mothers. By preserving this clear distinction, each could best serve to “maintain
the whole community”. Nazi ideas determined employment opportunities for women. Jobs in heavy industry,
the Nazis thought, might hinder women from bearing healthy children. Certain professions, including
university teaching, medicine, and law, were also considered unsuitable for women, especially married
women. The Nazis instead encouraged women to pursue other occupations, such as social work and nursing.
The Nazi regime pushed its campaign against working women with poster slogans such as “Get a hold of
pots and pans and broom and you’ll sooner find a groom!”
Nazi Germany
Closure Assignment #3
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1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on what you
have learned from Chapter 31, Section 3:
Why did a movement like fascism and leaders like
Mussolini come to power during a period of crisis? (At
least 1 sentence)
How did mass demonstrations and meetings
contribute to the success of the Nazi Party? (At least 1
sentence)
Why do you think Hitler had German children join
Nazi organizations?
Appeasement
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Appeasement – Granting concessions to a potential enemy in hope that it
will maintain peace. This policy was used by France and Britain towards
Germany during the 1930s.
By the end of the summer of 1933, only seven months after being appointed chancellor, Hitler had
established the basis for a totalitarian state. When Hindenburg died in 1934, the office of president was
abolished. Hitler became sole ruler of Germany. People took oaths of loyalty to their Fuhrer, or “Leader.”
Hitler wanted to develop a totalitarian state. He had not simply sought power for power’s sake. He had a
larger goal – the development of an Aryan racial state that would dominate Europe and possibly the world for
generations to come. Aryan is a term used to identify people speaking Indo-European languages. The Nazis
misused the term by treating it as a racial designation and identifying the Aryans with the ancient Greeks and
Romans.
Nazis thought the Germans were the true descendants and leaders of the Aryans and would create another
empire like the one ruled by the ancient Romans. The Nazis believed that the world had already seen two
German empires, or Reichs: the Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire of 1871 to 1918. It was Hitler’s
goal to create a Third Reich, the empire of Nazi Germany. To achieve his goal, Hitler needed the active
involvement of the German people. The Nazis pursued the creation of the totalitarian state in a variety of
ways. They employed economic policies, mass spectacles, and organizations – both old and new – to further
Nazi goals. They also freely used terror. Policies toward women and, in particular, toward Jews reflected Nazi
aims. From its beginning, the Nazi Party reflected the strong anti-Semitic beliefs of Adolf Hitler . In Mein
Kampf, Hitler links extreme German nationalism, strong anti-Semitism, and anticommunism together by a
Social Darwinian theory of struggle. This theory emphasizes the rights of superior nations to lebsraum –
“living space – through expansion. It also holds the right of superior races to gain authoritarian leadership
over the masses. Once in power, the Nazis translated anti-Semitic ideas into anti-Semitic policies, including
anti-Jewish boycotts and other measures. A violent phase of anti-Jewish activity began on the night of
November 9, 1938 – Kristallnacht. In a destructive rampage, Nazis burned synagogues and destroyed some
7,000 Jewish businesses. At least 100 Jews were killed. Kristallnacht led to further drastic steps. The
fortunate Jews were the ones who managed to escape from the country.
Axis Powers



Axis Powers – Alliance including Germany, Italy, Japan and several
other nations during World War II.
Europe was at war, just as it had been 21 years earlier. The Axis Powers eventually included Germany, Italy,
Japan and several other nations. The Allies included Britain, France and eventually many other nations,
including the Soviet Union, the United States, and China. But after the Polish campaign, the war entered an
eight-month period of relative quiet, known in Britain as the “phony war.” Things would not remain quiet for
long, however.The next storm erupted with raging fury in the spring of 1940. Germany’s nonaggression pact
with the Soviet Union freed Hitler to send his army west. On April 9, 1940, Germany attacked Denmark and
Norway. The two countries fell almost immediately. On May 10, he sent his blitzkrieg forces into the
Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg. The small nations fell like tumbling dominoes. Hitler seemed
invincible; his army unstoppable.
Hitler next set his sights on France. France had prepared for Germany’s invasion by constructing an
interconnected series of fortresses known as the Maginot Line along its border with Germany. Additionally,
France had stationed its finest armies along its border with Belgium – the route that Germany had used to
attack France in 1914. In between the Maginot Line and Belgium lay the Ardennes, a hilly, forested area that
military experts considered invasion proof. But once again the military experts were wrong. In early May
1940, German tanks rolled through the Ardennes, ripped a hole in the thin French line there, and race north
toward the English Channel. The German plan involved attacking the French and British forces from the front
and the rear and trapping them against the channel. It almost worked. Only a few tactical German mistakes
gave Britain enough time to evacuate its forces from the French port of Dunkirk. Some 338,000 British and
French troops escaped, to Britain. Had they not escaped , it is doubtful if Britain could have remained in the
war.
1936 Olympics – Berlin, Germany
Francisco Franco



Spanish General who, between 1936 and 1939, led the army in
rebellion against the democratic republican government during the
Spanish Civil War. With the support of Italy and Germany, Franco
captured the Spanish capital city of Madrid in 1939 and established
a dictatorship.
In Spain political democracy failed to survive. Although the middle class and intellectuals supported the Second Republic, the
new government began falling apart shortly after it was created in 1931. Rivalries between political parties and personal
rivalries between their leaders tore Spain apart. Spain’s Second Republic lasted only 5 years, three months, and three days.
Francisco Franco rose rapidly within the military ranks. He became Europe’s youngest general. When chaos swept Spain, the
Spanish military forces under Franco’s leadership revolted against the democratic government in 1936. A brutal and bloody civil
war began. The Spanish Civil War Came to an end when Franco’s forces captured Madrid in 1939. In April of that year, Franco
issued a statement: “Today, the Red Army having been disarmed and captured, the National troops have reached their final
military objectives. The war is over – Burgos, April 1, 1939, the Year of Victory – Generalissimo Franco.”
Franco established a dictatorship that favored large landowners, businesspeople, and the Catholic clergy. Because Franco’s
dictatorship favored traditional groups and did not try to control every aspect of people’s lives, it is an example of an
authoritarian rather than a totalitarian regime. Parliamentary systems failed in most eastern European states for several
reasons. These states had little tradition of political democracy. In addition, they were mostly rural and agrarian. Many of the
peasants were illiterate. Large landowners still dominated most of the land, and they feared the peasants. Ethnic conflicts also
threatened these countries. Powerful landowners, the churches, and even some members of the small middle class feared land
reform. They also feared communist upheaval and ethnic conflict. These groups looked to authoritarian governments to
maintain the old system. Only Czechoslovakia, which had a large middle-class, a liberal tradition, and a strong industrial base,
maintained its political democracy.
Isolationism



The belief that political ties to other countries should be avoided.
In the years between WWI and WWII many Americans supported
isolationism, arguing that entry into WWI had been a costly error.
In 1935, Congress passed three Neutrality Acts. These laws banned
loans and the sale of arms to nations at war.
Ethiopia was one of Africa’s three independent nations. The Ethiopians had successfully resisted an Italian
attempt at conquest during the 1890s. To avenge that defeat, Mussolini ordered a massive invasion of
Ethiopia in October 1935. The spears and swords of the Ethiopians were no match for Italian airplanes,
tanks, guns, and poison gas. The Ethiopian emperor, Haile Selassie, urgently appealed to the Leage of
Nations for help. Although the League condemned the attack, its members did nothing. Britain cotninued to
let Italian troops and supplies pass through the British-controlled Suez Canal on their way to Ethiopia. By
giving in to Mussolini in Africa, Britain and France hoped to keep peace in Europe.
Hitler had long pledged to undo the Versailles Treaty. Among its provisions, the treaty limited the size of
Germany’s army. In March 1935, the Fuhrer announced that Germany would not obey these restrictions. The
League issued only a mild condemnation. The League’s failure to stop Germany from rearming convinced
Hitler to take even greater risks. The treaty had forbidden German troops to enter a 30-mile-wide zone on
either side of the Rhine River. Known as the Rhineland, the zone formed a buffer between Germany and
France. It was also an important industrial area. On March7th, 1936, German troops moved into the
Rhineland.
Closure Question #1: Identify the qualities that
the Nazis wanted German art to glorify.


In Germany, Hitler and the Nazis believed that they were creating a new
and genuine German art to glorify heroic Germans. What the Nazis
developed, however, was actually derived from 19th century folk art and
emphasized realistic scenes of everyday life.
In 1934, Adolf Hitler commissioned Leni Riefenstahl to film the 1934 Nazi
party rally in Nuremberg. The resulting film, The Triumph of Will, is
considered one of the greatest documentary films of all time – and a chilling
piece of Nazi propaganda. Riefenstahl later said of the film, “It reflects the
truth that was then, in 1934, history. It is therefore a documentary, not a
propaganda film.” It is true that the film is the record of an actual event that
happened at a specific time. In that respect, it is a documentary. However,
Riefenstahl’s powerful and positive images of Hitler as a kind of savior make
it propaganda. For example, at the beginning of the film, Hitler’s plane
descends from the sky almost like the chariot of a god coming to visit Earth.
Third Reich



The German Empire; On November 5th, 1937, Hitler announced to
his advisers his plans to absorb Austria and Czechoslovakia into the
Reich. This action, known as the Anschluss, was prohibited by the
Treaty of Versailles. However, many Austrians supported unity with
Germany and, in March 1938, Hitler sent his army into Austria and
annexed it.
Hitler next turned to Czechoslovakia. About three million German-speaking people lived in the western border
regions of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland. This heavily fortified area formed the Czechs’ main defense
against Germany. The Anschluss raised pro-Nazi feelings among Sudeten Germans. In September 1938,
Hitler demanded that the Sudetenland be given to Germany. The Czechs refused and asked France for help.
France and Britain were preparing for war when Mussolini proposed a meeting of Germany, France, Britain,
and Italy in Munich, Germany.
The Munich Conference was held on September 29th, 1938. The Czechs were not invited. British prime
minister Neville Chamberlain believed that he could preserve peace by giving in to Hitler’s demands. Britain
and France agreed that Hitler could take the Sudetenland. In exchange, Hitler pledged to respect
Czechoslovakia’s new borders. When Chamberlain returned to London, he told cheering crowds, “I believe it
is peace for our time.” Winston Churchill, then a member of the British Parliament, strongly disagreed. He
opposed the appeasement policy and gloomily warned of its consequences.
Closure Question #2: Why were the methods used by
Himmler’s SS effective in furthering Nazi goals? (At least
1 sentence)


The SS was based on two principles: terror and ideology. Terror
included the instruments of repression and murder – secret police,
criminal police, concentration camps, and later, execution squads
and death camps. (concentration camps where prisoners are killed)
For Himmler, the chief goal of the SS was to further the Aryan
master race.
“We have to know that the enemy during war is not only the enemy in the
military sense, but also the ideological enemy. When I speak of enemies, I
of course mean our natural enemy – Bolshevism led by international Jewry
and Free Masons… Bolshevism is the exact opposite of all which Aryan
people loves, cherishes and values… We are more valuable because our
blood enables us to be more inventive than the others, because we have
better soldiers, better statesmen, a higher culture, a better character. We
have better quality, if I now turn to your area, because the German soldier
is more devoted to his duty, more decent and intelligent than the soldier of
the other people.” –Heinrich Himmler, “Lecture on the Nature and Tasks of
the SS,” January 1937
Munich Conference


Meeting between Neville Chamberlain, the Prime Minister of Great
Britain in the 1930s and Adolf Hitler in 1938. At the conference the
two men signed a pact which gave Germany control of the
Sudetenland, a portion of western Czechoslovakia that was largely
populated by ethnic Germans. Upon his return to London,
Chamberlain proclaimed that he had preserved “peace for our
time.”
Many people expected the conflict over the Sudetenland to lead to a general war. But once again, Britain and
France appeased Germany. At the Munich Conference with Hitler, British prime minister Neville Chamberlain
and French premier Edouard Daladier sacrificed the Sudetenland to preserve the peace. On his return to
London, Chamberlain told a cheering crowd that the Munich Pact, the agreement reached at the conference,
had preserved “peace for our time.” He was wrong. It merely postponed the war for 11 months.
Closure Question #3: List the rights that the Nazi
government took from the Jews. (At least 3)


In September 1935, the Nazis announced new racial laws at the
annual party rally in Nuremberg. These Nuremberg laws defined
who was considered a Jew. They also excluded Jews from German
citizenship, stripped Jews of their civil rights, and forbade
marriages between Jews and German citizens. Jews could neither
teach nor take part in the arts. Eventually, German Jews were also
required to wear yellow Stars of David and to carry identification
cards saying they were Jewish.
Kristallnacht led to further drastic steps. Jews were barred from all
public transportation and all public buildings, including schools and
hospitals. They were prohibited from owning, managing, or working
in any retail store. The Jews were forced to clean up all the debris
and damage due to Kristallnacht. Finally, under the direction of the
SS, Jews were encouraged to “emigrate from Germany.”
Closure Assignment #4

1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on what
you have learned from Chapter 31, Section 4:
Identify the qualities that the Nazis wanted
German art to glorify.
Why were the methods used by Himmler’s SS
effective in furthering Nazi goals? (At least 1
sentence)
List the rights that the Nazi government took
from the Jews. (At least 3)
Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact



Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact – Agreement between
Hitler and Stalin signed on August 23, 1939. The two
nations agreed not to attack each other and to divide
control of Poland between the two. The agreement
enabled the Soviet Union to pursue military expansion
in northeastern. By 1940 the Soviets had annexed
Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, & Finland.
Meanwhile, Hitler continued to believe that the West would not fight over Poland. He now feared, however, that the West and the Soviet
Union might make an alliance. Such an alliance could mean a two-front war for Germany. To prevent this possibility, Hitler made his own
alliance with Stalin. On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact. Because he expected
to fight the Soviet Union anyway, it did not matter to Hitler what he promised.
On September 17th, 1939, Stalin sent Soviet troops to occupy the eastern half of Poland. Stalin then moved to annex countries to the north
of Poland. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia fell without a struggle, but Finland resisted. In November, Stalin sent nearly one million Soviet
troops into Finland. The Soviets expected to win a quick victory, so they were not prepared for winter fighting. This was a crucial mistake.
The Finns were outnumbered and outgunned, but they fiercely defended their country. In the freezing winter weather, soldiers on skis
swiftly attacked Soviet positions. In contrast, the Soviets struggled to make progress through the deep snow. The Soviets suffered heavy
losses, but they finally won through sheer force of numbers. By March 1940, Stalin had forced the Finns to accept surrender terms.
Closure Question #1: Why did Stalin, the leader of communist nation, make a
military agreement with Adolf Hitler, a fascist who openly condemned
communism?
Closure Question #2: Describe the
course of World War II in Europe until
the end of 1940. (At least 3 sentences)
Blitzkrieg



Literally meaning “Lightning War”, the Blitzkrieg was a
relatively new style of warfare used by Germany that
emphasized the use of speed and firepower to
penetrate deep into enemy’s territory. Germany used
this tactic first in invading Poland on September 1,
1939, conquering the entire country in less than one
month.
In 1939, finally, British and French leaders saw the need to take action. They vowed not to let Hitler take over another country without
consequences. Realizing that Hitler’s next move would be against Poland, Britain and France signed an alliance with Poland, guaranteeing aid if
Hitler attacked. Hitler, however, was more concerned about war with the Soviet Union than with Britain and France. Not wanting to fight a war on
two fronts, Germany signed the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression pact with the Soviets on August 23, 1939. The two former rivals publicly promised not
to attack one another. Secretly, they agreed to invade and divide Poland and recognize each other’s territorial ambitions. The public agreement
alone shocked the West and guaranteed a German offensive against Poland.
War came to Europe in the early hours of September 1, 1939, when a massive German blitzkrieg, or sudden attack, hit Poland from three
directions. Blitzkrieg means “lighting war”. It was a relatively new style of warfare that emphasized the use of speed and firepower to penetrate
deep into the enemy’s territory. The newest military technologies made it devastatingly effective. Using a coordinated assault by tanks and planes,
followed by motorized vehicles and infantry, Germany broke through Poland’s defenses and destroyed its air force. The situation became even
more hopeless on September 17th when the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. Although France and Britain declared war against
Germany, they did nothing to help save Poland. By the end of the month, a devastated Poland fell in defeat.
Charles de Gaulle



Closure
Question #2: 
Describe the
course of World
War II in Europe
until the end of
1940. (At least
3 sentences)
French WWII Hero and political leader from 1946 to 1969;
de Gaulle drafted the constitution for the French Fifth
Republic in 1958, increasing his powers as president. He
also oversaw economic growth and led the French military
in development of their first atomic bomb in 1960,
rebuilding France into one of the most powerful countries in
the world.
With the economic aid of the Marshall Plan, the countries of Western Europe recovered relatively
rapidly from the devastation of World War II. Between 1947 and 1950, European countries received
$9.4 billion for new equipment and raw materials. By 150, industrial output in Europe was 30% of
prewar levels. This economic recovery continued well into the 1950s and 1960s. It was a time of
dramatic economic growth and prosperity in Western Europe.
The history of France for nearly a quarter of a century after the war was dominated by one man – the
war hero Charles de Gaulle. In 1946 de Gaulle helped establish a new government, the Fourth
Republic. The government, however, was largely ineffective. In 1958 leaders of the Fourth Republic,
frightened by bitter divisions caused by a crisis in the French colony of Algeria, asked de Gaulle to
form a new government. That year, de Gaulle drafted a new constitution for the Fifth Republic that
greatly enhanced the power of the president.
The French president would now have the right to choose the prime minister, dissolve parliament, and
supervise both defense and foreign policy. French voters overwhelmingly approved the constitution,
and de Gaulle became the first president of the Fifth Republic. As the new president, de Gaulle wanted
France to be a great power once again. To achieve the status of a world power, de Gaulle invested
heavily in nuclear arms. France exploded its first nuclear bomb in 1960.
Closure Question #2: Describe the course of World War II
in Europe until the end of 1940. (At least 3 sentences)
Winston Churchill



Prime Minister of Great Britain during World War II, Churchill
had always warned against Hitler since the early 1930s and
during the Battle of Britain from 1940 to 1941 Churchill was the
lone world leader that stood against Hitler and the Axis forces.
The Miracle of Dunkirk was a proud moment for Britain, but as the new prime minister Winston Churchill
cautioned Parliament, “wars are not won by evacuations.” Although the British army escaped, the Germans
took Paris and forced the French to surrender in the same railway car that the French had used for the
German surrender in 1918. France was then divided into two sections: a larger northern section controlled by
the Germans and known as Occupied France, and a smaller southern section controlled by the Germans and
known as Unoccupied France, or Vichy France, after its capital city. Although Vichy France was officially
neutral, it collaborated with the Nazis.
France had fallen to Hitler in just 35 days. Hitler next turned his fury on Britain. After the evacuation at
Dunkirk, Churchill made it clear that he had no intention of continuing the policy of appeasement. Churchill’s
words stirred his nation as the British readied themselves for battle. Hitler’s plan to invade Britain, codenamed Operation Sea Lion, depended upon Germany’s Luftwaffe, or air force, destroying the British Royal Air
Force and gaining control over the skies above the English Channel. The Battle of Britain, then, was an air
battle fought over the English Channel and Great Britain. It began in July 1940. The British lost nearly 1,000
planes, the Germans more than 1,700. Germany bombed civilian as well as military targets, destroying
houses, factories, and churches and conducted a months-long bombing campaign against London itself,
known as “the blitz.” But the British held on and, sensing failure, Hitler made a tactical decision to postpone
the invasion of Britain indefinitely.
Closure Question #2: Describe the course of World War II
in Europe until the end of 1940. (At least 3 sentences)
Battle of Britain



(July 1940 – June 1941) The German Air Force
(Luftwaffe) bombed civilian and military targets in Great
Britain in preparations for invasion. However, the British
Royal Air Force’s firm resistance combined with the
resilience of the British people led Hitler to abandon
plans for invasion of England, making the battle a British
victory.
Winston Churchill referred to the United States in many of his speeches during the crisis in France
and the Battle of Britain. The fight against Hitler, Churchill implied, was more than simply a
European struggle. Nazi aggression threatened the freedoms and rights cherished by democratic
nations everywhere. The contest was between ideologies as well as nations. President Roosevelt
shared Churchill’s concerns but at the beginning of the war in Europe he understood that the
majority of Americans opposed U.S. intervention. The severe economic crisis of the Great
Depression had served to pin the nation’s attention firmly on domestic affairs throughout the
1930s. In addition, many believed that U.S. involvement in World War I had been a deadly,
expensive mistake. The rise of fascism in Europe made the sacrifices of World War I seem even
more pointless.
In the 1930s, numerous books and articles presented a new theory about why the United States
had become involved in World War I that disturbed many Americans. The theory held that big
business had conspired to enter the war in order to make huge fortunes selling weapons. In
1934, a senate committee chaired by Gerald Nye of South Dakota looked into the question.
Although the Nye Committee discovered little hard evidence, its findings suggested that
“merchants of death” – American bankers and arms manufacturers – had indeed pulled the
United States into World War I. The committee’s findings further reinforced isolationist
sentiments.
Erwin Rommel



(1899-1941) Nicknamed “The Desert Fox”, Rommel is considered one of
the most talented tactical German Generals, but was also known for his
humane treatment of prisoners of war and civilians. He led German
forces in North Africa until 1943, then commanded German forces
against the Allied invasion on D-Day. However, in 1944 Rommel was
accused of being involved in a plot to assassinate Hitler and was
executed.
American soldiers had to fight in many unfamiliar types of terrain. But the Sahara of North Africa – the
world’s largest desert – presented special challenges: In hot, dry weather, sandstorms choked and
blinded troops. In wet weather, mud halted machinery. The high visibility of the desert terrain made it
difficult for troops to move without being seen. Poisonous reptiles, ants, and scorpions added to the
problems. Brilliant tank strategies like Patton and Rommel were able to overcome such challenges. But
the tanks themselves caused other problems, such as kicking up enormous dust clouds that could be
seen for miles.
In the deserts and mountains of North Africa the British had been fighting the Germans and Italians since
1940. Several goals motivated the Allied campaign in North Africa. Stalin had wanted America and Britain
to relieve the Soviet Union by establishing a second front in France. However, FDR and Churchill felt they
needed more time to prepare for an invasion across the English Channel. An invasion of North Africa,
however, required less planning and fewer supplies. In addition, forcing Germany out of North Africa
would pave the way for an invasion of Italy.
Closure Question #3: Why did the United States give more
and more help to the Allies? (At least 1 sentence)
Lend-Lease Act


Lend-Lease Act – Passed by Congress in March 1941, the
act authorized Roosevelt to “sell, transfer title to,
exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any
such government any defense article” whenever he
thought it was “necessary in the interests of the U.S.”
Roosevelt used this Act to exclusively lend supplies to the
Allies, making it an economic declaration of war on the
Axis Powers.
In the election of 1940, Republican nominee Wendell Willkie was critical of FDR’s handling of both
the economy and foreign affairs but not the President’s basic positions on either. Given such little
differences between candidates, American voted overwhelmingly not to change leaders in the
middle of a crisis. Once safely reelected, President Roosevelt increased his support of Britain.
When Britain began to run short on funds to purchase cash-and-carry goods in the United States,
FDR took the opportunity to address Congress. On January 6, 1941, he spoke about “four
freedoms” – freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear –
that were threatened by Nazi and Japanese militarism. Roosevelt believed that the best way to
stay out of the conflict with Germany was to aid Britain. Roosevelt compared America’s situation to
the scenario of a fire in a neighbor’s home. If a neighbor asked to borrow your fire hose to put out
the fire, you would not debate the issue or try to sell the hose. Extending help was both being a
good neighbor and acting to keep the fire from spreading to your own home.
Closure Question #3: Why did the United States give more
and more help to the Allies? (At least 1 sentence)
Atlantic Charter


Atlantic Charter – Secret pact signed
by FDR and Winston Churchill in
August 1941, endorsing national
self-determination and an
international system of “general
security”. The pact signaled the
deepening alliance between the U.S.
and Great Britain.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt denounced the aggressors, but the United States followed a strict
policy of isolationism. Many Americans felt that the United States had been drawn into World War
I due to economic involvement in Europe, and they wanted to prevent a recurrence. Roosevelt
was convinced that the neutrality acts actually encouraged Axis aggression and wanted the acts
repealed. They were gradually relaxed as the United States supplied food, ships, planes, and
weapons to Britain. Hitler realized that an amphibious (land-sea) invasion of Britain could succeed
only if Germany gained control of the air. At the beginning of August 1940, the Luftwaffe – the
German air force – launched a major offensive. German planes bombed British air and naval
bases, harbors, communication centers, and war industries.
How were Napoleon’s invasion of Russia and Hitler’s invasion of the
Soviet Union similar? (At least 1 complete sentence)



With the Balkans firmly in control, Hitler could move ahead with Operation
Barbarossa, his plan to invade the Soviet Union. Early in the morning of
June 22, 1941, the roar of German tanks and aircraft announced the
beginning of the invasion. The Soviet Union was not prepared for the
attack. Although it had the largest army in the world, its troops were
niether well equipped nor well trained. The invasion rolled on week after
week until the Germans had pushed 500 miles inside the Soviet Union. As
the Soviet troops retreated, they burned and destroyed everything in the
enemy’s path. The Russians had used this scorched-earth strategy against
Napoleon.
On September 8, German forces put Leningrad under siege. By early
November, the city was completely cut off from the rest of the Soviet
Union. To force a surrender, Hitler was ready to starve the city’s more than
2.5 million inhabitants. German bombs destroyed warehouses where food
was stored. Desperately hungry people began eating cattle and horse
feed, as well as cots and dogs and, finally, crows and rats. Nearly one
million people died in Leningrad during the winter of 1941-1942. Yet the
city refused to fall.
Impatient with the progress in Leningrad, Hitler looked to Moscow, the
capital and heart of the soviet Union. A Nazi drive on the capital began on
October 2, 1941. By December, the Germans had advanced to the outskirts
of Moscow. Soviet General Georgi Zhukov counterattacked. As
temperatures fell, the Germans, in summer uniforms, retreated. Ignoring
Napoleon’s winter defeat 130 years before, Hitler sent his generals a
stunning order: “No retreat!” German troops dug in about 125 miles west
of Moscow. They held the line against the Soviets until March 1943.
Hitler’s advance on the Soviet Union gained nothing but cost Germans
500,000 lives.
Closure Assignment #5

Answer the following questions based on what you
have learned from Chapter 32, Section 1:
1. Why did Stalin, the leader of communist nation, make
a military agreement with Adolf Hitler, a fascist who
openly condemned communism?
2. Describe the course of World War II in Europe until
the end of 1940. (At least 3 sentences)
3. Why did the United States give more and more help
to the Allies? (At least 1 sentence)
Isoroku Yamamoto



Japanese military leader who
orchestrated the surprise attack
on the US Naval Base at Pearl
Harbor on December 7th, 1941.
Although Japan and the United States had been allies in World War I, conflict over power in Asia and the
Pacific had been brewing between the two nations for decades prior to 1941. Japan, as the area’s
industrial and economic leader, resented any threats to its authority in the region. America’s presence in
Guam and the Philippines and its support of China posed such a threat. Yet Japan relied on trade with the
United States to supply much-needed natural resources. As war broke out in Europe, the Japanese Empire
continued to grow in China and began to move into Indochina. President Roosevelt tried to stop this
expansion, in July of 1940, by placing an embargo on important naval and aviation supplies to Japan, such
as oil, iron ore, fuel, steel, and rubber. After Japan signed the Tripartite Pact in 1940 with Germany and
Italy, FDR instituted a more extensive embargo. The embargo slowed, but did not stop, Japanese
expansion as the Japanese were able to secure the resources they needed within their new possessions.
In 1941, General Hideki Tojo became the Japanese prime minister. Known as “the Razor” for his sharp
mind, he focused intently on military expansion but sought to keep the United States neutral. Throughout
the summer of 1941, Japan and the United States attempted to negotiate an end to their disagreement,
but with little success. Japan was bent on further expansion, and the United States was firmly against it.
Finally, in late November 1941, Cordell Hull, the U.S. Secretary of State, rejected Japan’s latest demands.
Formal diplomatic relations continued for the next week, but Tojo had given up on peace. By the beginning
of December he had made the decision to deliver a decisive first blow against the U.S. As Japanese
diplomats wrangled in the U.S. capital, Japan’s navy sailed for Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the site of the United
States Navy’s main Pacific base. The forces that Tojo sent to from Japan under the command of Vice
Admiral Chuichi Nagumo included 6 aircraft carriers, 360 airplanes, an assortment of battleships and
cruisers, and a number of submarines. Their mission was to eradicate the American naval and air
presence in the Pacific with a surprise attack. Such a blow would prevent Americans from
mounting a strong resistance to Japanese expansion.
Closure Question #1: Was the Japanese attack on Pearl harbor a
success or failure from the Japanese point of view? Explain (At
least 1 sentence)
Pearl Harbor



Main base of the U.S. Navy’s Pacific fleet which, on
December 7th, 1941, was attacked without warning by
the Japanese, leaving 2,500 Americans dead and the
entire fleet out of commission for nearly six months. This
event pulled the U.S. into World War II.
The attackers struck with devastating power, taking the American forces
completely by surprise. The Americans suffered heavy losses: nearly 2,500
people killed, 8 battleships severely damaged, 3 destroyers left unusable, 3
light cruisers damaged, and 160 aircraft destroyed and 128 more damaged.
The U.S. battlefleet was knocked out of commission for nearly six months,
allowing the Japanese to freely access the needed raw materials of their newly
conquered territories, just as they had planned.
Despite these losses, the situation was not as bad as it could have been. The
most important ships – aircraft carriers – were out at sea at the time of the
attack and survived untouched. In addition, seven heavy cruisers were out at
sea and also avoided detection by the Japanese. Of the battleships in Pearl
Harbor, only three – the USS Arizona, the USS Oklahoma, and the USS Utah –
suffered irreparable damage. American submarine bases also survived the
morning, as did important fuel supplies and maintenance facilities. In the final
analysis, Nagumo proved too conservative. He canceled a third wave of
bombers, refused to seek out the aircraft carriers, and turned back toward
home because he feared an American counterstrike. The American Pacific
Fleet survived.
Douglas MacArthur / Bataan Death March



Douglas MacArthur – Commander of the U.S. Army forces
in Asia during WWII; MacArthur’s troops stationed in the
Philipines were defeated by the Japanese in the Spring of
1942, forcing MacArthur to flee to Australia, leaving
75,000 soldiers behind as POWs.
Bataan Death March – The forced 63-mile march of
American and Filipino POWs through the hot Filipino rain
forest in May 1942. 7,000 American and Filipino troops
died during the journey.
With Pearl Harbor smoldering, the Japanese knew they had to move fast to gain important
footholds in Asia and the Pacific. Although Japan’s population was smaller than America’s, the
Japanese did have military advantages, including technologically advanced weapons and a welltrained and highly-motivated military. At the start of the Pacific war the outlook was grim for
America. In December 1941, General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States Army
forces in Asia, struggled to hold the U.S. positions in the Philippines with little support. This task
grew even more daunting when the Japanese destroyed half of the army’s fighter planes in the
region and rapidly took Guam, Wake Island, and Hong Kong. The main land attack came on
December 22. MacArthur positioned his forces to repel the Japanese invasion, but he badly
miscalculated the strength of the enemy and was forced to retreat. U.S. forces fell back from
Manilla to the Bataan Peninsula and a fortification on Corregidor Island, where they dug in for a
long siege. Trapped in Corregidor, Americans suffered, lacking necessary military and medical
supplies and living on half and quarter rations. Although MacArthur was ordered to evacuate to
Australia, the other Americans remained behind. They held out until early May 1942, when 75,000
Allied soldiers surrendered. Japanese troops forced the sick and malnourished prisoners of war, or
POWs, to march 55 miles up the Bataan Peninsula to reach a railway that took them inland where
they were forced march 8 more miles. More than 7,000 American and Filipino troops died during
the grueling march.
Closure Question #2: Do you believe that it was necessary to
imprison Japanese Americans during WWII? (Explain your answer
in at least 1 sentence)
Japanese
Internment Camps



During WWII Japanese Americans living near the west coast
were forced to relocate to internment camps due to fears that
they might help the Japanese if a Japanese invasion of the
west coast took place.
The attack on Pearl Harbor spread fear across America. The federal government began drafting policies
toward immigrants and aliens from the Axis nations. All resident “enemy aliens” were required to register
with the government, submit to fingerprinting, and list their organizational affiliations. Originally laws
made no distinction among nationalities. German, Italian, and Japanese aliens were subject to arrest or
deportation if deemed dangerous to national security. Some 11,000 German immigrants and hundreds of
Italian immigrants were held in camps; others faced curfews or travel restrictions. Federal orders also
forced all three groups to vacate the West Coast temporarily in the winter of 1942. Once public fears
subsided, FDR removed Germans and Italian from the enemy aliens list.
Japanese aliens and Japanese American citizens received no such respite. Believing Japanese Americans
to be inherently disloyal, West Coast leaders pressed FDR to address the “threat”. In February 1942, the
President issued Executive Order 9066, designating certain areas as war zones from which anyone might
be removed for any reason. By September, the government evacuated more than 100,000 Japanese
Americans on the West Coast. Evacuees – including both Issei, Japanese immigrants, and Nisei, nativeborn American citizens of Japanese descent – were forced to sell their property at a loss and allowed to
take only necessary items. Why did Japanese Americans generally face harsher treatment than Italian or
German Americans? Several factors help explain the difference; racism, the smaller numbers of Japanese
Americans, their lack of political clout, and their relative isolation from other Americans. In Hawaii, where
Japanese Americans comprised one third of a multiracial society, they escaped a similar fate.
Battle of Midway



June 4th, 1942; Considered the turning point of the war in the Pacific, the
U.S. Navy, led by Admiral Chester Nimitz, successfully defended the
Midway Island, a key American Naval base in the Central Pacific, from
Japanese attack, sinking 4 Japanese aircraft carriers and ending Japanese
threats to the American west coast.
What Yamamoto did not realize was that Admiral Chester Nimitz knew the Japanese plans.
Navy code breakers had intercepted the Japanese plans. To meet the expected assault, Nimitz
sent his only available aircraft carriers to Midway. The Japanese navy was stretched out across
more than a thousand miles, from the Aleutians to well west of Midway. American forces were
all concentrated near Midway. The Japanese commenced their attack on June 4, 1942. In the most
important naval battle of World War II, the United States dealt Japan a decisive defeat. Torpedo planes and
dive bombers sank 4 Japanese aircraft carriers, along with all 250 aircraft on board and many of Japan’s
most experienced pilots. America lost only one aircraft carrier.
The first American offensive in the Pacific took place in August 1942, with an assault on Guadalcanal in the
Solomon Islands. After three months of intense fighting, the United States Marines drove the Japanese off
the island. Guadalcanal was the first leg in a strategy to approach Japan from both the southwest Pacific and
the central Pacific, using combined U.S. Marine, Navy, and Army forces. The logic behind the dual offensives
was to force Japan to fight a two-front war and to capture bases from which to bomb the Japanese home
islands. In jungles and coral reefs, under torrential monsoons and the blistering sun, fighting for every new
piece of territory. American servicemen began their slow, painful trek toward Japan.
Closure Question #3: How does the Battle of Midway illustrate the importance of
intelligence gathering and espionage in modern warfare? (Explain in at least 1 sentence)
Battle of
Guadalcanal
(October 1942 – February 1943) Location of an
important Japanese airbase in the south Pacific,
US marines and Japanese troops fought for control
of the island for 6 months. After losing more than
24,000 of their 36,000 soldiers, Japan finally
abandoned the island.


Japan treated the countries under its rule as conquered lands. Japanese leaders had
hoped that their lightning strike at American bases would destroy the U.S. fleet in
the Pacific. The Roosevelt administration, they thought, would now accept Japanese
domination of the Pacific. The American people, in the eyes of Japanese leaders,
were soft. Their easy, rich life had made them unable to fight. The Japanese
miscalculated, however. The attack on Pearl Harbor unified American opinion about
becoming involved in the war. Once bitterly divided over participating in the war,
the American people now took up arms.
Beginning in 1943, U.S. forces went on the offensive and advanced across the
Pacific. As the Allied military power drew closer to the main Japanese islands in the
first months of 1945, Harry S. Truman, who had become president after Roosevelt
died in April, had a difficult decision to make. Should he use newly developed
atomic weapons to bring the war to an end? If the United States invaded Japan,
Truman and his advisers had become convinced that American troops would suffer
heavy casualties. At the time, however, only two bombs were available; no one
knew how effective they would be.
Closure Assignment #6

1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on what you have
learned from Chapter 32, Section 2:
Was the Japanese attack on Pearl harbor a success or
failure from the Japanese point of view? Explain (At
least 1 sentence)
Do you believe that it was necessary to imprison
Japanese Americans during WWII? (Explain your
answer in at least 1 sentence)
How does the Battle of Midway illustrate the
importance of intelligence gathering and espionage in
modern warfare? (Explain in at least 1 sentence)
Closure Question #1: How were Hitler’s racial ideas and policies connected to his
concept of extreme nationalism? (At least 1 sentence)
Aryan
“Germanic peoples”; Nazis claimed that Aryans were a
master race, superior to all others, especially Jews.


From the start, the Nazi movement trafficked in hatred and anti-Semitism. Hitler
blamed Jews for all the ills of Germany, from communism to inflation to abstract
painting – and, especially, for the defeat of Germany in World War I. Other
extremists influenced Hitler’s ideas and shared his prejudices. In the 1920s, his was
just another angry voice in the Weimar Republic, advancing simplistic answers for
the nation’s grave economic, political, and social troubles. In 1933, however, Hitler
became chancellor of Germany. Hitler’s persecution of the Jews began as soon as
he came to power. At first, his focus was economic. He urged Germans to boycott
Jewish-owned businesses, and he barred Jews from jobs in civil service, banking,
the stock exchange, law, journalism, and medicine.
The inevitable question about the Holocaust is: Could it have been prevented?
Could the nations in the democratic West – especially Britain, France, and the
United States – have intervened at some point and stopped the slaughter of millions
of innocent people? There are no simple answers to these questions. However,
many people today believe that the West could have done more than it did. Before
the war, the United States (as well as other countries) could have done more if it
had relaxed its immigration policy. It could have accepted more Jewish refugees
and saved the lives of many German and Austrian Jews. However, the State
Department at first made a conscious effort to block Jewish immigration. Later
commentators have blamed this failure to help European Jews on a variety of
factors: anti-Semitism, apathy, preoccupation with the problems of the Great
Depression, and a tendency to underestimate Hitler’s genocidal plans. Once the war
started, news of the mass killings had filtered to the West.
Holocaust




“Sacrifice by fire”; Term chosen by survivors following
WWII to describe the Nazi attempt to kill all Jews under
their control.
From the time he came to power, Adolf Hitler had targeted Jews for persecution.
By the end of the war, the Nazis had murdered 6 million Jews and 5 million other
people they considered inferior. Today, we continue to remember this tragedy and
seek ways to prevent anything like it from every happening again.
On April 15th, 1945, American radio listeners sat stunned as newsman Edward R.
Murrow told of a horror beyond belief. Murrow was reporting about his visit to the
Nazi concentration camp at Buchenwald. He described the emaciated, hollow-eyed
prisoners, the stink which was “beyond all description,” the children with
identification numbers tattooed on their arms, and the hundreds of “bodies stacked
up like cordwood.” Toward the end of his report, Murrow said: “I pray you to
believe what I have said about Buchenwald. I have reported what I saw and heard,
but only part of it. For most of it I have no words. Dead men are plentiful in war,
but the living dead, more than twenty thousand of them in one camp… If I’ve
offended you by this rather mild account of Buchenwald, I’m not in the least sorry.”
–CBS Radio Broadcast, April 15th, 1945
What Edward R. Murrow saw at Buchenwald was just a fragment of the most
horrific chapter in the Nazi era. In 1945, there was no word for it. Today, it is called
the Holocaust. The mass murders of Jews, as well as other “undesirables”, were a
direct result of a racist Nazi ideology that considered Aryans (white gentiles,
especially those of Germanic, Nordic, and Anglo-Saxon blood) superior to other
people.
Kristallnacht



(November 9, 1938) “Night of the Broken Glass”; After a
Jewish refugee was accused of killing a German diplomat
in Paris, Nazi officials ordered attacks on Jews in
Germany, Austria, and the Sudetenland. 1,500
synagogues & 7,500 Jewish owned businesses were
destroyed, more than 200 Jews were killed, and
thousands of Jews were arrested.
Acts of violence against Jews were common. The most serious attack occurred on
November 9th, 1938, and is known as Kristallnacht. Nazi officials ordered attacks on
Jews throughout the Reich. Secret police and military units destroyed more than
1,500 synagogues and 7,500 Jewish-owned businesses, killed more than 200 Jews
and injured more than 600 others. The Nazis arrested thousands of Jews.
Between 1933 and 1937, about 129,000 Jews fled Germany and Nazi-controlled
Austria. They included some of the most notable figures in the scientific and artistic
world, including physicist Albert Einstein. More Jews would have left, but they were
not generally welcomed into other countries. During the Great Depression, with jobs
scarce, the United States and other countries barred their doors to many Jews. In
1939, the ocean liner St. Louis departed Germany for Cuba with more than 900
Jewish refugees on board. Only 22 of the passengers received permission to stay in
Cuba. U.S. officials refused to accept any of the refugees. The ship returned to
Germany. Almost 600 of the Jews aboard the St. Louis died in Nazi concentration
camps.
Closure Question #2: One historian has said that the Holocaust began on “the
day that the Jews started to be treated differently.” Explain what this statement
means and what evidence supports it. (At least 2 sentences)
Ghetto
Segregated Jewish areas; In the aftermath of Kristallnacht, Hitler
ordered Jews in all countries to be moved to ghettos “for their own
protection”, sealing them off with barbed wire and stone walls/


The Nuremberg Laws were named for the city that served as the spiritual center of
Nazism. They denied German citizenship to Jews, banned marriage between Jews
and non-Jews, and segregated Jews at every level of society. Yet even these
measures were not enough for Hitler. He hinted that, in the future, there might be
what he called the “Final Solution to the Jewish question.” In Nazi Germany, Jews
were forced to wear yellow stars with the word Jude (“Jew”). By the time of
Kristallnacht, Hitler’s policy of anti-Semitism had progressed from discrimination to
organized violence – but there was even worse to come. Hitler employed the full
power of the state in his anti-Semitic campaigns. Newspapers printed scandalous
attacks against Jews. Children in schools and the Hitler Youth movement were taught
that Jews were “polluting” German society and culture. Comic books contained vile
caricatures of Jews.
Nazi administration in the conquered lands of the east was especially ruthless. Seen
as the “living space” for German expansion, these lands were populated, Nazis
thought, by racially inferior Slavic peoples. Hitler’s plans for an Aryan racial empire
were so important to him that he and the Nazis began to put their racial program
into effect soon after the conquest of Poland. Himmler’s task was to move the Slavic
peoples out and replace them with Germans. Slavic peoples included Czech, Polish,
Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, and Ukrainian. The resettlement policy was first applied to
the lands of western Poland. Hundreds of thousands of ethinc Germans (German
descendants who had migrated years ago from Germany to different parts of
southern and eastern Europe) were brought into colonize the German provinces in
Poland. By 1942, two million ethnic Germans had been settled in Poland.
Concentration Camp



Prison where members of specially designated groups
were confined. The year he became chancellor (1933),
Hitler opened the first Nazi concentration camp to
imprison political opponents and turn them into “useful
members of society.”
Camp administrators tattooed numbers on the arms of prisoners and dressed them
in vertically striped uniforms with triangular insignias. For example, political
prisoners wore red insignias, homosexuals pink, Jews yellow, and Jehovah’s
Witnesses purple. Inside the walls of the concentration camps, there were no real
restraints on sadistic guards. They tortured and even killed prisoners with no fear of
reprisals from their superiors.
Death by starvation and disease was an everyday occurrence. In addition, doctors
at camps such as Dachau conducted horrible medical experiments that either killed
inmates or left them deformed. Prisoners were made subjects of bogus experiments
on oxygen deprivation, hypothermia, and the effects of altitude. Bodies were
mutilated without anesthesia. Thousands of prisoners died in agonizing pain,
including some 5,000 mentally or physically disabled children.
Closure Question #3: Do you think that the U.S. military should have decided to
bomb railway lines leading to the death camps? Why or Why not? (At least 1
sentence)
“Final Solution” /
Genocide



“Final Solution” – Adolf Hitler’s plan to “cleanse” Europe of the
Jewish race in an efficient and thorough manner. The Holocaust is an
example of a genocide (i.e. The willful annihilation of a racial,
political, or cultural group.)
Since 1933, the Nazis had denied Jews the rights of citizenship
and committed acts of brutality against them. These acts of
persecution were steps toward Hitler’s “Final Solution to the
Jewish question”: nothing short of the systematic extermination
of all Jews living in the regions controlled by the Third Reich. In
1933, the year he became chancellor, Hitler opened the first Nazi
concentration camps, where members of specially designated
groups were confined. The earliest camps included Dachau,
Sachsenhausen, and Buchenwald. Later, Ravensbruck, not far
from Berlin, was opened for female prisoners.
In theory, the camps were designed not to kill prisoners, but to
turn them into “useful members” of the Third Reich. The Nazis
imprisoned political opponents such as labor leaders, socialists,
and communists, as well as anyone – journalists or novelists,
ministers or priests – who spoke out against Hitler. Many Jews as
well as Aryans who had intimate relations with Jews were sent to
camps. Other groups targeted as “undesirable” included Gypsies,
Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, beggars, drunkards,
conscientious objectors, the physically disabled, and people with
mental illness.



Death
Camp/Auschwitz
Nazi concentration camp in which prisoners were systematically
exterminated. Auschwitz in southern Poland was the largest of these
camps. At least 11 million Europeans, including 6 million Jews, were
murdered by the Nazis by 1945.
When Germany invaded Poland and the Soviet Union, the Nazis gained control
of large territories that were home to millions of Jews. Under Nazi rule, Jews in
Warsaw, Lodz, and other Polish cities were forced to live in crowded, walled
ghettos. Nazis also constructed additional concentration camps in Poland and
Eastern Europe. At first, the murder of Jews and other prisoners tended to be
more arbitrary than systematic. But at the Wannsee Conference in January
1942, Nazi leaders made the decision to move toward Hitler’s “Final Solution”.
Reinhard Heydrich, an SS leader known as “the man with an iron heart,”
outlined a plan to exterminate about 11,000,000 Jews. Although the minutes of
the meeting do not use the word “kill”, everyone there understood that killing
was their goal.
Many concentration camps, especially in Poland, were designated as death
camps. The largest death camp was Auschwitz in southern Poland. Others
included Treblinka, Maidenek, Sobibor, Belsec, and Chelmno. Prisoners from
various parts of the Reich were transported by trains to the death camps and
murdered. Nazis forced prisoners into death chambers and pumped in carbon
monoxide or crammed the prisoners into showerlike facilities and released the
insecticide Zyklon B. Some concentration camps that the Nazis converted into
death camps did not have gassing equipment. In these camps, Nazi guards
shot hundreds of thousands of prisoners. Nazi “Action Groups” that followed
the army into Eastern Europe also shot several million Jews and buried them in
ditches. In fully functioning death camps, the bodies of murdered prisoners
were farther desecrated. Human fat was turned into soap; human hair was
woven into wigs, slippers, and mattresses; cash, gold fillings, wedding rings,
and other valuables were stripped off the victims. After the Nazis had taken
what they wanted, they burned the bodies in crematories
Closure Assignment #7

1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on what you have
learned from Chapter 32, Section 3:
How were Hitler’s racial ideas and policies connected
to his concept of extreme nationalism? (At least 1
sentence)
One historian has said that the Holocaust began on
“the day that the Jews started to be treated
differently.” Explain what this statement means and
what evidence supports it. (At least 2 sentences)
Do you think that the U.S. military should have
decided to bomb railway lines leading to the death
camps? Why or Why not? (At least 1 sentence)
Battle of Stalingrad



The True turning point of WWII in
Europe; Breaking their prior treaty,
Germany invaded Russia in 1941 but
was stopped at Stalingrad by the bitter
cold of the Russian winter and the
superior number of Russian soldiers,
surrendering on January 31, 1943.
Germany had attacked Russia in June 1941, sending one army north toward Leningrad, a second east
toward Moscow, and a third south toward Stalingrad. Although Hitler’s forces penetrated deep into
Soviet territory, killing or capturing millions of soldiers and civilians, they did not achieve their main
objective of conquering the Soviet Union. Soviet resistance and a brutal Russia winter stopped the
German advance. In 1942, Hitler narrowed his sights and concentrated his armies in southern Russia.
His goal this time was to control the rich Caucasus oil fields. To achieve this objective, he would have to
capture the city of Stalingrad.
The struggle for Stalingrad was especially ferocious. German troops advanced slowly fighting bitter
block-by-block, house-by-house battles in the bombed-out buildings and rubble. Soviet troops then
counterattacked, trapping the German forces. Yet Hitler refused to allow his army to retreat. Starving,
sick, and suffering from frostbite, the surviving German troops finally surrendered on January 31, 1943.
The battle of Stalingrad was the true turning point of the war in Europe. It ended any realistic plans
Hitler had of dominating Europe. Nazi armies were forced to retreat westward back toward Germany.
Instead, it was the Soviet Union that now went on the offensive.
Closure
Allied Powers/ Yalta Conference
Question #1:
Identify one  Allied Powers – Alliance that originally only included Britain
and France, but eventually several other nations including
possible
consequence the Soviet Union, the United States, and China during WWII.
of the Allied  Yalta Conference - February 1945 meeting of the leaders of
disagreements the three Allied powers: Joseph Stalin (U.S.S.R.), Winston
Churchill (U.K.), and Franklin D. Roosevelt (U.S.A.). The three
at Yalta. (At
agreed that after WWII Eastern European countries, such as
least 1
Poland and Bulgaria, would hold free elections. Stalin never
sentence)
kept this promise, instead keeping Soviet troops in these
countries and establishing communist governments
controlled by the U.S.S.R.

World War II differed from World War I in several ways. One major difference was that it was fought to
the bitter end. In 1918, the Kaiser had surrendered before the Allies could invade Germany. By contrast,
in World War II, Japan and Germany kept fighting long after their defeat was certain. In the last year of
the war, they lost battle after battle, retreated from the lands they had conquered, and saw the slow
destruction of their military forces. Allied bombing devastated their cities and industries. Yet Germany
fought on until Hitler committed suicide, and Japan refused to surrender until after the bombing of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The protracted fight gave the Allies time to make plans for a postwar world.
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta on the Black Sea in February 1945 to discuss final strategy
and crucial questions concerning postwar Germany, Eastern Europe, and Asia. At the Yalta Conference,
the Big Three agreed that Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania would hold free elections. However, Stalin later
reneged on this promise. Roosevelt and Churchill were not in a good position to press Stalin too hard.
The Red Army already occupied much of Eastern Europe, and Roosevelt wanted Soviet help in the war
against Japan. Vague promises were about as much as Stalin would give.


Dwight D.
Eisenhower
(1890-1969) Commander of successful
American invasions in North Africa & Italy;
Eisenhower became Supreme Commander
of all Allied forces in Europe in 1944,
directing the D-Day invasion of Europe.
“Ike” went on to serve as President of the
USA after the war from 1952 to 1960.
As a young man,. Dwight Eisenhower had not been considered a brilliant student at the U.S. Military
Academy at West point. During the 1930s, though, his career rose due to his organizational skills and ability
to work with others. In 1942, Ike was given command of all American forces in Europe – even though more
than 350 other generals had more seniority. In October 1942, the British won a major victory at El Alamein in
Egypt and began to push westward. The next month, Allied troops landed in Morocco and Algeria and began
to move east toward key German positions. An energetic American officer, General Dwight D. Eisenhower –
known as Ike – commanded the Allied invasion of North Africa. In February 1943, German general Erwin
Rommel (known as the Desert Fox) led his Afrika Korps against the Americans at the Kasserine Pass in
Tunisia. Rommel broke through the American lines in an attempt to reach the Allied supply base at Tebessa
in Algeria. Finally, American soldiers stopped the assault. Lack of supplies then forced Rommel to retreat.
D-Day



(June 6, 1944) The first day of the Allied
invasion of western Europe; American, British,
Canadian and Polish troops landed on the
northern coast of France (Normandy),
suffering heavy casualties but eventually
overrunning German defenses and beginning
the push east to Germany.
Six months after the Teheran Conference, the plan to open a second front in France became reality. The massive Allied
invasion of France was given the code name Operation Overlord. Overlord involved the most experienced Allied officers in
Europe. American General Dwight D. Eisenhower again served as Supreme Commander. British General Bernard
Montgomery served as commander of the ground forces, while General Omar Bradley led the United States First Army.
Overlord involved landing 21 American divisions and 26 British, Canadian, and Polish divisions on a 50-mile stretch of
beaches in Normandy. The fleet was the largest ever assembled, comprising more than 4,400 ships and landing crafts. The
plan dictated striking five beaches in Normandy (code-named Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword).
On D-Day the Allies hit Germany in force. More than 11,000 planes prepared the way, attempting to destroy the German
communication and transportation networks and soften Nazi beach defenses. At 6:30 AM, after a rough crossing of the
English Channel, the first troops landed. On four of the beaches, the landings were only lightly opposed and casualties
relatively low. But at Omaha, one of the two beaches assigned to American forces, the German offered stiff opposition. On
the cliffs overlooking the beach, the Germans had dug trenches and built small concrete pillbox structures from which
heavy artillery could be fired. They had the beach covered with a wide variety of deadly guns. They had also heavily mined
the beaches. When the first American soldiers landed, they stepped out of their landing crafts into a rainstorm of bullets,
shells, and death. Some crafts dumped their occupants too far from the beach; soldiers, weighted down by heavy packs,
drowned. One writer called D-Day “the longest day.”
George S. Patton Jr.



(1885-1945) Following Eisenhower’s
advancement to Supreme Commander,
Paton was given command of all US
mechanized units (tanks) in Europe.
Paton combined innovative tank
tactics with single-minded devotion to
duty and victory, earning the nickname
of “Blood and Guts”.
The fighting at the Kasserine Pass taught American leaders valuable lessons. They needed aggressive
officers and troops better trained for desert fighting. To that end, Eisenhower put American forces in
North Africa under the command of George S. Paton Jr. Patton told his junior officers in 1943: “You
usually will know where the front is by the sound of gunfire, and that’s the direction you should
proceed. Now, suppose you lose a hand or an ear is shot off or perhaps a piece of your nose, and you
think you should walk back to get first aid, if I see you, it will be the last… walk you’ll ever take.”
Patton’s forces advanced east with heightened confidence. Simultaneously the British pressed westward
from Egypt, trapping Axis forces in a continually shrinking pocket in Tunisia. Rommel escaped, but his
army did not. In May 1943, German and Italian forces – some 240,000 troops – surrendered.
Battle of the Bulge



(December 1944) The last desperate
counterattack by the German army against the
Allies on the western front; German tanks
barreled through the Ardennes forest, retaking
several towns before being stopped by
American forces at the Belgian town of
Bastogne and pushed back into Germany.
After D-Day, Germany faced a hopeless two-front war. Soviet solders were advancing steadily from the east, forcing German armies out
of Latvia, Romania, Slovakia, and Hungary. Mile by mile, Germany lost the lands it had once dominated and the natural resources it had
once plundered. Allied armies were also on the move in the west. In August 1944, the Allies liberated Paris. Hitler had ordered his
generals to destroy the French capital, but they disobeyed him, leaving the “City of Lights” as beautiful as ever. As Parisians celebrated,
Allied troops kept advancing. As a mood of hopelessness fell over Germany, Rommel and other leading generals plotted to overthrow
Hitler. On July 20, 1944, an officer planted a bomb at Hitler’s headquarters. The explosion killed or wounded 20 people, but Hitler
survived. Rommel took poison to escape being put on trial. Claiming that fate was on his side, Hitler refused to surrender to the
advancing troops. In December 1944, Hitler ordered a counter-attack. With Allied troops strung out between the English Channel and the
Alps, German forces massed near the Ardennes. Hitler’s scenario called for English-speaking German soldiers in U.S. uniforms to cut
telephone lines, change road signs, and spread confusion. German tanks would then secure communication and transportation hubs.
The counterattack, known as the Battle of the Bulge, almost succeeded. The Germans caught the Allies by surprise, created a bulge in the
American line, and captured several key towns. Snowy, cloudy skies prevented the Allies from exploiting their air superiority. But at the
Belgian town of Bastogne American forces held despite frostbite and brutal German assaults. Then, on December 23, the skies cleared
and Allied bombers attacked German positions. After reinforcements arrived, the Allies went back on the offensive, steadily pushing the
Germans out of France. The Battle of the Bulge was a desperate attempt to drive a wedge between American and British forces. Instead,
it crippled Germany by using its reserves and demoralizing its troops. Ultimately, it shortened the time Hitler had left.
V-E Day


A week after Adolf Hitler and his wife
committed suicide in Berlin rather than be
captured, on May 7, 1945, in a little French
schoolhouse that had served as
Eisenhower’s head-quarters, what
remained of the leadership of Nazi
Germany surrendered. The Allied Powers
celebrated V-E (Victory in Europe) Day.
Sadly, FDR did not see the momentous day. He had died a few weeks earlier. It would be up to the new
President, Harry S. Truman, to see the nation through to final victory. By January, the Soviet Army had
reached the Oder River outside Berlin. The Allies also advanced northward in Italy. In April 1945, Mussolini
tried to flee to Switzerland but was captured and executed. By this time, American and British troops had
crossed the Rhine River into Germany. In April, a U.S. army reached the Elbe River, 50 miles west of
Berlin. Allied forces were now in position for an all-out assault against Hitler’s capital. Hitler was by now a
physical wreck; shaken by tremors, paranoid from drugs, and kept alive by mad dreams of a final victory.
He gave orders that no one followed and planned campaigns that no one would ever fight. Finally, on April
30, he and a few of his closest associates committed suicide. His “Thousand Year Reich” had lasted only a
dozen years.
Closure Question #2: How were the final phases of the war in Europe similar to
the final phases of the war in the Pacific? How were they different? (At least 2
sentences)
Kamikaze



“Divine Wind”; Japanese suicidebomber pilots who deliberately
crashed their planes full of jet fuel
into American ships in the Pacific
during the late stages of WWII.
The fight Okinawa in April 1945 was even deadlier than Iwo Jima. Only 340 miles from Japan,
Okinawa contained a vital air base, necessary for the planned invasion of Japan. Taking Okinawa
was the most complex and costly operation in the Pacific campaign, involving half a million troops
and 1,213 warships. U.S. forces finally took Okinawa but at a cost of roughly 50,000 casualties.
From Okinawa and other Pacific bases, American pilots could bomb the Japanese home islands.
Short on pilots and aircraft, low on fuel and ammunition, Japan was virtually defenseless. American
bombers hit factories, military bases, and cities. In a single night in March 1945, B-29 bombers
destroyed 16 square miles of Tokyo. The raid killed over 83,000 Japanese – more than either of
the later atomic bombs – and injured 100,000 more.Advances in technology, as well as the troops
helped determine the outcome of World War II. Allied and Axis scientists labored to make planes
faster, bombs deadlier, and weapons more accurate. The most crucial scientific development was
the atomic bomb.
Island Hopping



U.S. strategy in the Pacific against
Japan; The Navy captured some
Japanese-held islands while ignoring
others in a steady path toward Japan
from 1942 to 1945.
While war still raged in Europe, American forces in the Pacific had been advancing in giant leaps. From
Tarawa and Makin in the Gilbert Islands, American forces jumped ahead to Eniwetok and Kwajalein in
the Marshall Islands. Then, they took another leap to Saipan, Tinian, and Guam in the Mariana Islands.
American forces took each island only after a nearly unbelievable life-and-death struggle. Time and
again, Japanese defenders fought virtually to the last man. Rather than surrender, many Japanese
troops readily killed themselves. At the same time, Japanese kamikaze pilots deliberately crashed their
planes into American ships. By the end of the war, more than 3,000 Japanese pilots had died in
kamikaze missions. There deaths, however, did not prevent General Douglas MacArthur from retaking
the Philippines or the United States Navy from sinking Japanese ships.
One of the fiercest battles in the island-hopping campaign took place in February and March 1945. On
Iwo Jima, a five-mile-long island 650 miles southeast of Tokyo, United States Marines faced a dug-in,
determined enemy. In 36 days of fighting, more than 23,000 marines became casualties. But they took
the island. The famous photograph of six marines (including Native American, Ira Hayes) planting the
American flag on Iwo Jima symbolized the heroic sacrifice of American soldiers.
Battle of Iwo Jima



Battle of Iwo Jima – (February-March,
1945) One of the fiercest battles of the
U.S. island-hopping campaign. In 36 days
of fighting on this 5-mile-long island
23,000 marines became casualties. The
famous photograph of six marines
(including Native American and Arizonan
Ira Hayes) planting the American flag on
Iwo Jima symbolized the heroic sacrifice of
American soldiers.
While war still raged in Europe, American forces in the Pacific had been advancing in giant leaps. From Tarawa
and Makin in the Gilbert Islands, American forces jumped ahead to Eniwetok and Kwajalein in the Marshall
Islands. Then, they took another leap to Saipan, Tinian, and Guam in the Mariana Islands. American forces took
each island only after a nearly unbelievable life-and-death struggle. Time and again, Japanese defenders fought
virtually to the last man. Rather than surrender, many Japanese troops readily killed themselves. At the same
time, Japanese kamikaze pilots deliberately crashed their planes into American ships. By the end of the war,
more than 3,000 Japanese pilots had died in kamikaze missions. There deaths, however, did not prevent General
Douglas MacArthur from retaking the Philippines or the United States Navy from sinking Japanese ships.
One of the fiercest battles in the island-hopping campaign took place in February and March 1945. On Iwo Jima,
a five-mile-long island 650 miles southeast of Tokyo, United States Marines faced a dug-in, determined enemy.
In 36 days of fighting, more than 23,000 marines became casualties. But they took the island. The famous
photograph of six marines (including Native American, Ira Hayes) planting the American flag on Iwo Jima
symbolized the heroic sacrifice of American soldiers.


Manhattan Project / Harry S.
Truman
Harry Truman - (1884-1972)
Vice-President to FDR,
Truman became president following Roosevelt’s death in
April 1945 and served until January 1953. Truman received
Germany’s surrender in May 1945 & Japan’s surrender in
August 1945, and was the first President of the Cold War
era, but he is best known for making the decision to use
the Atomic Bomb against Japan.
Manhattan Project - The atomic bomb began with an idea.
In the early 1930s, scientists learned how to split the
nuclei of certain elements. They also discovered that this
process of nuclear fission released tremendous energy.
They learned more about the nature of the atom, the effect
of a chain reaction, and the military use of uranium. Early
in the war, Albert Einstein signed a letter that alerted
Roosevelt about the need to proceed with atomic
development. In 1942, FDR gave the highest national
priority to the development of an atomic bomb. The
program, code-named the Manhattan Project, cost several
billion dollars & employed tens of thousands of people.
Potsdam Conference



(July 1945) First meeting between the new
U.S. President, Harry Truman, and Joseph
Stalin. The Allies agreed to divide Germany
into 4 zones of occupation, establish new
borders for Poland & support free elections
there, and permit the Soviets to claim
reparations for war damages from their zone
of occupation in Germany.
A dramatically altered Big Three met in the Berlin Suburb of Potsdam. Although Stalin remained in power in the Soviet
Union, Harry S. Truman had become U.S. President upon the death of FDR. After the start of the conference, Clement
Atlee replaced Churchill as prime minister of Britain. While in Potsdam, Truman learned of the successful test of the
atomic bomb. But he was more focused on Europe and the Soviet Union than on Asia. Though in the conference Stalin
reaffirmed his pledge to enter the war against Japan, the Potsdam Conference is remembered for increasing tension
between the Soviets and Americans.
After the war ended in August 1945, plans for the postwar world had to be turned into realities. However, the changes
that took place were not often what the Allies had envisioned at Yalta and Potsdam. World War II altered the political
realities of the world. The borders of Poland, for example, shifted slightly to the west. In time differences between the
Soviet Union and its former Allies led to the division of Germany into two countries: communist East Germany and
noncommunist West Germany. Nearly all the nations of Eastern Europe became communist states under Soviet control.
Other countries experienced profound political changes. In China, a long-standing civil war between Nationalists and
communists resumed. In Japan, General Douglas MacArthur headed an American military occupation and supervised the
writing of a new constitution. It abolished the armed forces except for purposes of defense, gave women the right to
vote, enacted democratic reforms, and established the groundwork for full economic recovery.
Hiroshima / Nagasaki


Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) – Site of the first
atomic-bomb attack. The bomb exploded at 9:14
A.M. By 9:16 A.M. more than 60,000 of Hiroshima’s
344,000 residents were dead or missing. An
estimated total of 140,000 residents were killed by
the blast and the radiation poisoning that followed,
and 69% of the city’s buildings were completely
destroyed.
Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) – Second atomic-bomb
attack site. 35,000 were killed by the blast, with a
total of nearly 75,000 killed by the blast and
radiation. The destruction, coupled with a
declaration of war by the Soviet Union on the same
day, led the Japanese to surrender on August 15th,
officially ending WWII.
V-J Day

Following the bombing of Hiroshima Japanese
leaders debated whether to surrender or continue
to fight for 3 more days. Then, on August 9th, two
events rocked Japan. First, the Soviet Union
declared war against Japan and invaded Manchuria.
Next, the United States dropped a second atomic
bomb on Nagasaki. Debate continued at the highest
levels of Japanese government. Finally, Emperor
Hirohito made the decision to surrender. On August
15, the Allies celebrated V-J (Victory in Japan) Day.
Japan officially surrendered on September 2nd
aboard the USS Missouri. The most costly war in
history was over. As many as 60,000,000 people,
mostly civilians, had died in the conflict.
Closure Question #2: How were the final phases of the war in Europe similar to
the final phases of the war in the Pacific? How were they different? (At least 2
sentences)
Closure Assignment #8

1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on what you have
learned from Chapter 32, Section 4:
Identify one possible consequence of the Allied
disagreements at Yalta. (At least 1 sentence)
How were the final phases of the war in Europe
similar to the final phases of the war in the Pacific?
How were they different? (At least 2 sentences)
Did President Truman make the correct decision in
using the atomic bomb? Why or why not?
Refugees/Nazi Collaborators



Refugees – Survivors of war who either or
no longer welcome in their home country
or whose home country no longer exists;
In the aftermath of World War II millions
of Europeans found themselves homeless
and penniless.
Nazi Collaborators – People who assist the
enemy; During WWII many non-German
Europeans aided the SS in locating and
arresting Jewish Europeans. After the war
collaborators became targets of an antiNazi backlash throughout Europe.
The Nazis were responsible for the deliberate death by shooting, starvation, or overwork of at least nine to ten
million non-Jewish people. The Nazis considered the Roma (sometimes known as Gypsies), like the Jews, to be
an alien race. About 40% of Europe’s one million Roma were killed in the death camps. The leading citizens of
the Slavic peoples – the clergy, intellectuals, civil leaders, judges, and lawyers – were arrested and killed.
Probably an additional four million Poles, Ukrainians, and Belorussians lost their lives as slave laborers. Finally, at
least three or four million Soviet prisoners of war were killed.
Closure Question #1: Why do you think so many Europeans
favored communism after World War II? (At least 1 complete
sentence)
Nuremberg Trials



Trials of Nazis for war crimes in violation of the Geneva
Convention. The trials, which were followed closely by
Americans, highlighted the horrors of the Holocaust.
Though most of the defendants pleaded that they were
only following orders and that Hitler was to blame for
all crimes, virtually all accused were convicted and
sentenced to either death by hanging or long prison
sentences.
In the effort to create a better world, the Allies did not forget to punish the people who had caused so much destruction and death.
During the war, the Axis Powers had repeatedly violated the Geneva Convention. The Allies tried more than a thousand Japanese citizens
for committing atrocities in China, Korea, and Southeast Asia and brutally mistreating prisoners of war. Hundreds were condemned to
death, including Prime Minister Hideki Tojo and the general responsible for the Bataan Death March.
Americans more closely followed the Nuremberg Trials, held in the German town that was the spiritual center of the Nazi movement. The
trials turned a glaring spotlight on the evils of the Third Reich. The first of the Nuremberg Trials involved key leaders of Nazi Germany,
such as Hermann Goring. In the following decades, Allied or Israeli authorities captured and tried such other Nazis as Adolf Eichmann, a
leading architect of the “Final Solution.” The periodic trials kept alive the memory of the Nazi crimes against humanity.
Closure Question #2: Do you think it was right for the Allies to try only Nazi
and Japanese leaders for war crimes? Why or why not? (At least 1 sentence)
Israel



Jewish nation established in Palestine in
1948 with the support of all 3 Allied
Powers; Arab Muslims, who had controlled
the region for nearly 1800 years, were
forced out of the area, sparking conflict in
the region and Muslim resentment towards
the United States.
For most Americans, the enormity of the Nazi crime became real only when soldiers began to liberate the
concentration camps that dotted the map of Germany. When they saw it all – the piles of dead bodies, the
warehouses full of human hair and jewelry, the ashes in crematoriums, the half-dead emaciated survivors
– they realized as never before that evil was more than an abstraction. Hardened by war, accustomed to
the sight and smell of death, the soldiers who liberated the camps were nevertheless unprepared for what
they saw. The liberation of the camps led to an outpouring of American sympathy and sincere longing to
aid the victims. Many survivors found temporary or permanent homes in the United States.
The revelation of the Holocaust also increased demand and support for an independent Jewish homeland.
In 1948, when the Jewish community in Palestine proclaimed the State of Israel, President Truman
immediately recognized the new nation. The United States became perhaps the staunches ally of the new
Jewish state.
Demilitarization/
Democratization

Demilitarization – Disbanding a
nation’s armed forces; As a
condition of their surrender,
Japan agreed to completely
break-up its military, leaving
Japan with only a small police
force while the United States,
under the command of General
Douglas MacArthur, established
military bases throughout the
country.
United Nations


International organization established in
April 1945 which, many hoped, would
succeed where the League of Nations had
failed in preventing warfare and resolving
conflict between nations. The five major
WWII allies – the U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Britain,
France, and China – make up the most
powerful arm of the U.N., the Security
Council.
The United States led the charge for the establishment of the United Nations. In April 1945, delegates from 50
nations met in San Francisco to write the charter for the UN. The Senate overwhelmingly ratified the charter,
and the UN later set up its permanent home in New York City. The United Nations was organized on the basis
of cooperation between the Great Powers, not on the absolute equality of all nations. All member nations sat
on the General Assembly. However, the five major World War II Allies were assigned permanent seats on the
most powerful arm of the UN, the Security Council.
Closure Question #3: Why do you think Americans supported participation in the
UN after WWII when they had opposed participation in the League of Nations after
World War I? (At least 1 sentence)
Closure Assignment #9

1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on what you
have learned from Chapter 32, Section 5:
Why do you think so many Europeans favored
communism after World War II? (At least 1 complete
sentence)
Do you think it was right for the Allies to try only Nazi
and Japanese leaders for war crimes? Why or why
not? (At least 1 sentence)
Why do you think Americans supported participation
in the UN after WWII when they had opposed
participation in the League of Nations after World War
I? (At least 1 sentence)