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A Five Year Species Action Framework:
Making a difference for Scotland’s Species
Photo credits:
Colin Bean/SNH: North American signal crayfish, p64, p65
Ted Benton: Great yellow bumblebee, p7, p40
Niall Benvie: American mink, p10; Black grouse, p18; European beaver, p35; Lesser butterfly
orchid, p55
Pete Cairns: Scottish wildcat, front cover; p11, p28
Laurie Campbell: Black grouse, front cover; Lesser butterfly orchid, front cover; Roe deer, p13,
p74; European beaver, p34; American mink p62
Laurie Campbell/SNH: Red deer, p14; White-tailed eagle, p36; Intermediate wintergreen, p52
David Cantrille: Marsh fritillary butterfly, front cover, p42
David Donnan/SNH: Native oyster, front cover, p10, p76
Lorne Gill/SNH: Hazel gloves, front cover, p60; Rhododendron, p12; Grey squirrel, p26;
Vendace, p30, p31; Red deer, p74; Machair, p41; Marsh fritillary larval web, p45; Bird’s foot
trefoil, p49; Lesser butterfly orchid, p54; Woolly willow, p58, p59; Cairngorms, p53
Bob Gibbons/Natural Image: New Zealand pygmyweed, p5; Small cow-wheat, p15, p56, p57
Bob Gibbons/FLPA: New Zealand pygmyweed, p66
Mark Hamblin: White-tailed eagle, front cover; Hen harrier, p13, p72
Rene Krekels/Foto Natura/Minden pictures: Great crested newt, p16
Iain MacGowan/SNH: Pine hoverfly, p46
Neil McIntyre: Red squirrel, front cover, p6, p26, p78; Capercaillie, p20
Dr Sharon L. Parr- www.burrenlife.com: Hazel gloves, p61
Alan Ross: Water vole, front cover, p32
Dirk Schories: Bird’s nest stonewort, p50, p51
Sue Scott/SNH: Great crested newt, front cover, p22; Freshwater pearl mussel, p38, p39
Jack Sewell/MarLIN: Wireweed, p70
Ian Strachan/SNH: Rhododendron, p68; Lesser butterfly orchid, p14
David Whitaker: Greenland white-fronted goose, front cover, p24; Hen harrier, p4;
Pearl-bordered fritillary, p44, p45
M.Young: Slender scotch burnet moth, p48
A Five Year Species Action Framework:
Making a difference for Scotland’s Species
Foreword by Sarah Boyack
It gives me great pleasure to introduce this
Species Action Framework, developed by
Scottish Natural Heritage to provide a strategic
approach to species management in Scotland.
attention and assistance to some of Scotland’s
most special species to secure their future, while
managing others to minimize their impact on
native biodiversity.
Scotland is home to a wide range of wonderful
plants and animals, and boasts unique habitats
which attract visitors from all over the world.
This diversity of life is key to Scotland’s heritage,
playing a major role in our national identity;
think of the golden eagle, the Kelly pearl, the
thistle. And we need to protect it. We will not
permit the over-exploitation of species which has
led to extinctions in the past. This framework for
action seeks to address such issues, preventing
losses from occurring today and reintroducing
species which were lost yesterday.
Following a public consultation SNH has
produced a list of 32 species for priority action,
ranging from the Scottish wildcat to the marsh
fritillary butterfly to the native oyster. Working in
partnership with other bodies, both statutory and
voluntary, SNH will now focus efforts and
resources towards these target species. There
are real opportunities to undertake additional
new work which will actively benefit these species
– positive gains which are both desirable and
achievable.
The Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004 is
part of The Sustainable Development Strategy
published in December 2005, and further
highlights our commitment to halting the loss of
biodiversity. The priorities for achieving this goal
are detailed in the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy;
one aspect of the Strategy was the statutory
compilation of the Scottish Biodiversity List which
identifies the habitats and species that should be
taken account of in our decision making,
particularly in delivery by public bodies of their
biodiversity duty.
This framework is the next, logical step in the
process and identifies certain species where
targeted management action in Scotland is
required. We need to give an added level of
I thank SNH for developing this Species Action
Framework, which will direct species management and conservation efforts in Scotland for
the next five years, and I look forward to
implementing it together.
It’s our future.
Sarah Boyack MSP
Deputy Minister for Environment
and Rural Development
Contents
Page
Foreword by Sarah Boyack MSP
2
Introduction
5
The consultation process
6
Why do we manage species?
7
When is species management needed and which
species should be the focus of species management efforts?
- the ‘Species Action List’
8
How do we manage species for biodiversity?
14
Species accounts
17
Category 1: Species for conservation action
18
Category 2: Invasive non-native species
62
Category 3: Species for conflict management
72
Category 4: Species for sustainable use
74
Glossary of terms
79
Index to Species accounts
80
Hen harrier
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
Introduction
Biodiversity means the variety of life, and
includes species, habitats and ecosystems.
Scotland has some of the best wild areas and
most iconic species in the whole of Europe. We
have a clear responsibility to look after them.
Scotland's biodiversity is a vital part of our
natural and cultural heritage that enriches and
underpins our lives – the air we breathe, the
water we use and the soil which we grow
our food in, all depend on it. But our actions
have had a profound impact on Scotland's
biodiversity.
The
Millennium
Ecosystem
Assessment has recently catalogued the key
threats to biodiversity worldwide as climate
change, habitat loss and damage, invasive nonnative species, and over-exploitation of species.
In fact, human actions are threatening the
ability of the earth’s ecosystems to sustain us in
future.
Over recent years steps have been taken to
address these threats at global, European,
national and local levels. The UK has signed up
to the Convention on Biological Diversity and to
the EU target to halt the loss of biodiversity by
2010. In Scotland the Nature Conservation
(Scotland) Act 2004 places a duty on all public
bodies to further the conservation of biodiversity,
and the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy sets out
New Zealand pygmyweed
what we need to do over the next 25 years to
conserve and enhance biodiversity. The
importance of Scotland’s biodiversity to our
health, individually and as a nation, is
emphasized in the Strategy, as is its enormous
economic value. We now need to prioritize
actions, focusing on species where we expect
significant gains to overall biodiversity can be
achieved, and thereby benefits to the people of
Scotland, will result.
This document presents a list of species where
we believe new, focused effort and resources
over the next five years by ourselves and our
partners could make the most difference to
biodiversity. However, we will continue to
address the conservation requirements of many
other species not on this list as part our statutory
requirement. Maintaining healthy ecosystems is
the starting point, through sustainable land and
water management. Our network of protected
sites is also vital for many habitats and species,
as is the legislation that protects species from
harm, intentional or otherwise. Landscape, site
and habitat management will continue to be the
focus of much of our efforts but, as we set out in
the pages that follow, biodiversity conservation
sometimes also demands management of
individual species.
5
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
The consultation process
This Framework was produced following the
outcome of a public consultation introduced by
Rhona Brankin, Deputy Minister for Environment
and Rural Development, on 20th March 2006.
A paper produced for the consultation explained
the background to SNH’s species work and
proposed guiding principles for species
management. It asked a series of questions
regarding when species management is
appropriate and which species should be the
focus of action in Scotland. The consultation
sought support for the approach being proposed
and provided an opportunity for people to
contribute to the choice of species to be included
within a ‘Species Action List’ and to highlight
their own contributions to species management.
Approximately 3,560 copies of the consultation
document were distributed and 1,136 copies
downloaded from the SNH web site. The consultation finished on 30th June 2006. We received
a total of 81 responses from organisations and
bodies, and a further 53 from private individuals. A report on the consultation responses can
be downloaded from the SNH web site.
The responses to the Species Action Framework
were encouraging and generated many
interesting ideas as well as general support. A
number of issues and concerns were also
raised and we have addressed them here. These
responses have been, and will continue to be, an
invaluable resource in the further development
of the Framework. This framework document is
based on the structure of the original consultation version, but has been revised to take
into account comments and suggestions raised
during the consultation process. This includes
the species listed on the Species Action List – in
the consultation document, 23 species were
included in the proposed List, however, this has
now been revised and increased to 32 species.
Red squirrel
The first part of this document explains why and
when species management is appropriate and
provides a Species Action List for which focused
effort and resources over the next five years
could make the most difference to biodiversity.
The criteria for identifying species for potential
inclusion on the Species Action List are
presented. It goes on to describe how we
manage species for biodiversity based on five
key principles. Embedded in these guiding
principles and criteria is a policy framework. It is
a framework aimed primarily at species
management for biodiversity conservation,
although parts are relevant to species
management in relation to game or fishery
interests.
The last section of the document includes short
accounts and summary five year implementation
plans for all the species listed on the Species
Action List. Practitioners of land and water
management will be key partners in meeting the
biodiversity conservation objectives outlined in
this Framework for Action.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
Why do we manage species?
Species as components of habitats and ecosystems
The aim of the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy is “to
conserve biodiversity for the health, enjoyment
and well-being of the people of Scotland”.
Habitats and ecosystems contain assemblages
of species, reflecting the character of
their surrounding environment. Within healthy
ecosystems, species populations are not fixed at
particular levels, rather their abundance and
distribution fluctuates and their genetic make-up
alters naturally in response to environmental
change. Healthy and resilient ecosystems (See
Box 1) will maintain not only biodiversity but
also the services on which human life depends.
Against the background of a changing climate
(which could affect the ‘natural range’ of plants
and animals, and those species considered
‘native’ at any given place), SNH’s long-term
aim for Scotland’s species is for thriving and,
where possible, self-sustaining and selfregulating populations of native species,
distributed throughout their natural range.
It follows that biodiversity outcomes are usually
better achieved not by managing individual
species but by improving the habitats and
ecosystems on which they depend. Much action
for biodiversity - in protected areas as well as
the wider countryside and coast, and in
marine areas - is indeed through ‘broader
management’, meaning:
Action promoting healthy systems and sustainable land and water use so that natural
processes can come to the fore.
Great yellow bumblebee
Despite this general ambition for habitats within
which species numbers can regulate themselves,
the fact that habitats and ecosystems have been
extensively modified by people means there are
circumstances where, in our view, it is justified to
focus management on individual species. By
‘species management’ we mean:
Action targeted to modify the population,
behaviour, or habitat of a given species (or the
human activity that influences it) in order to
achieve biodiversity aims.
‘Species’ management and ‘broader’ management are distinguishable from each other
primarily by their objectives (to change the
fortunes of a single species in the former
situation, or an assemblage of species in the
latter). SNH engages in species management
for a variety of reasons, such as seeking to
enhance the status of some species and control
others, or to manage the interactions between
species and people. Species management can
of course be controversial: public attitudes about
individual species may be polarized. We
therefore recognize a responsibility to make the
basis for species management decisions as clear
as possible, and to encourage others to do so
as well.
BOX 1: WHAT IS A HEALTHY AND RESILIENT ECOSYSTEM?
An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals interacting with each other and with their environment.
Resilient ecosystems are those capable of coping with disturbances, like storms, fire and pollution, without
losing their overall structure and ability to function; to organise themselves and to recover from, or adapt
to, change. A healthy ecosystem is one that continues to provide the services that support all life. It is also
one in which species continue to find a niche, recognizing that evolutionary forces may cause some species
to decline or become extinct and new species to evolve or increase.
7
8
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
When is species management needed and
which species should be the focus of species
management efforts? - the ‘Species Action List’
Drawing up a Species Action List
The ‘Species Action List’ on pages 11-13
identifies species for which clear, targeted action
would currently be most helpful. Further
information on these animals, plants and fungi
is given in the species accounts from page 17
onwards. The List was drawn up using the
criteria in Box 2, and takes into account
responses received during the consultation. It will
be used to prioritize work set out in SNH’s
operational plan, although it can be used by
other public bodies to guide their own work
plans. We intend to develop detailed
implementation plans for each species and
make a significant contribution to taking forward
the management measures. Input from a range
of partner bodies will be required if the aims and
objectives for each species are to be met.
There are some species which clearly pass the
criteria but have not been listed (See Box 3).
That is because in many cases we and our
partners are already undertaking significant
work on them or we have existing commitments
to manage them. For example, some species
are currently benefiting from various types of
management schemes which are likely to
continue for the foreseeable future. Other
species may be of particular concern on SSSIs
but we already have obligations to ensure that
the condition of these interests must improve,
and this will be done using mechanisms such as
Land Management Contracts. We have therefore
decided to only list those species where there are
good opportunities to undertake additional new
work, and not the ones to which we and our
partners are already committed. For many of
these species on the List, work has been or is
being done, but we see further and new
opportunities to do more.
Other species are not on the List because we do
not think they satisfy the criteria, at least not at
the moment. Again, this does not automatically
mean that no action will be taken on these
species. For example, some are not on the list
since we still need to undertake research to
inform management action. We will therefore
prioritize species which are not listed for this
reason in the new SNH Five Year Research
Strategy so that, in the future, we will be able to
implement management action more effectively.
Others are not listed since ‘broader management’ is a more appropriate way of enabling
their recovery – many marine species fall within
this category.
Identifying the initial candidates for the Species
Action List is only the first part of the process.
More importantly, new management action will
need to be planned and then implemented on
the ground. We intend to develop detailed
implementation plans in the near future in
collaboration with our partners, although we
have set out some preliminary aims in the
species accounts at the back of this document.
This List represents the initial tranche of species
that we will focus new management efforts on,
but in time this will be reviewed and revised as
aims are met and new priorities arise. Progress
in meeting the implementation aims will be
measured, and appropriate monitoring programmes built into the detailed implementation
plans.
The Species Action List is not meant as an
alternative or replacement for either the list of
Priority Species of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan
(UKBAP) or the Scottish Biodiversity List of the
Scottish Biodiversity Strategy. On the contrary, it
is designed to serve as an important contribution
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
BOX 2:
CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFYING SPECIES FOR MANAGEMENT
Stage 1: Species qualifying for management:
1a. Native species that are critically endangered in Scotland or elsewhere, or demonstrating
significant decline, or for which Scotland is a stronghold (including species that are only found
here, i.e. endemic), and there is a continuing threat to the species in the immediate future.
1b. Formerly native species now extinct in the UK, whose international conservation status could be
improved by reintroduction to Scotland or which could play a significant role in enhancing
ecosystem health and resilience.
2.
Non-native species present in Scotland and assessed as presenting the greatest risk to biodiversity of
high conservation value.
3a. Native species that are threatened and that are the focus of conflicts of interest with stakeholders with
other objectives, and for which coexistence appears most insoluble.
3b. Native species that threaten wider biodiversity aims whether ecosystems, habitats, or other species.
4.
Native species that provide important socio-economic benefits in the wild and whose use impacts
upon biodiversity – this may include exploited species which are a conservation concern or exploited
species which are not a conservation concern but may threaten wider biodiversity interests.
Stage 2: Species that qualify under Stage 1 were then assessed against questions about the
practicality and feasibility of delivering benefits for biodiversity:
5.
Is there sufficient knowledge of the species (ecology, requirements etc.) to inform management action?
(If not then such species should become a research priority).
6.
Is targeted action likely to make a difference? Assessed through three questions:
6a.
Can an effective species management action be identified? Where no effective solution can
be identified the situation may become a research priority. In some cases species management
may realistically not be able to address the reasons for decline of species identified under
Criterion 1a. This assessment should take account of the effectiveness of any management
already undertaken.
6b.
Would the targeted action raise awareness of biodiversity issues more broadly?
6c.
Does the species have a key influence on ecosystem function so that its management would
contribute to wider ecosystem health and resilience?
7.
For species under Criterion 1a, particularly those that are still widespread in Scotland – Would
‘broader management’ improvements to their habitat or ecosystem be more effective in the species’
recovery than action targeted at the individual species? If so, ‘broader management’ is the preferred
approach.
8.
For species under Criterion 1b – Would any reintroduction proposal once developed into a project be
likely to meet the IUCN Guidelines, e.g. sufficient habitat and public support?
9
1 0
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
to both the UK and Scottish biodiversity
processes with which we will ensure there is
careful coordination. Apart from the one species
which is not currently resident in Scotland
(European beaver), all the ‘species for
conservation action’ are also on the Scottish
Biodiversity List and all but four are Priority
Species of the UKBAP. The significance of this
new list is that it focuses on the implementation
of targeted management actions, and this is
reflected by the fact that it does not just identify
species for conservation action, but also other
species where their management can have
significant biodiversity benefits, for example
invasive non-native species.
Native oyster
American mink
BOX 3:
EXAMPLES OF SPECIES MANAGEMENT ACTION ALREADY PLANNED OR UNDERWAY
The Species Action List identifies a range of species where new action is planned over the next five years.
However, SNH and its partners are already carrying out, or are committed to carrying out, a range of
positive management work on species which are not identified on the List. For example:
• Corn bunting and corncrake – Both are species which have suffered from agricultural intensification.
Management schemes and other actions for corncrake are underway and have already led
to a partial recovery. Corn bunting management action has involved, and will involve, the design of
suitable Land Management Contracts.
• New Forest burnet moth – Occurs on a single site within a SSSI where its requirements are being
addressed through a specific management agreement.
• Hedgehog (on Uists) – Introduced to the Uists in 1974 where, as a result, internationally important
populations of breeding birds have suffered from serious predation. The ongoing Uist Wader Project has
engaged in the trapping and humane control of hedgehogs in order to restore the wader populations.
• Barnacle goose – Goose Management Schemes are coordinated through the National Goose Forum
(See Box 5)
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
1
There are four situations where species
management may be appropriate to
achieve biodiversity aims
Invertebrates
• Freshwater pearl mussel
• Great yellow bumblebee
Species conservation - where targeted action
is focused on the needs of a species to increase
its range or population size because it is at risk
in Scotland or internationally, or because it plays
a vital role in achieving healthy ecosystems.
Actions may include specific habitat measures
aimed at the needs of the single species, efforts
to reduce the impact of human activity e.g.
through enactment or enforcement of legislation,
voluntary agreements, or changing human
behaviour through education, or reintroductions
or translocations.
The following species will be the focus of new
action under this heading for the next five years:
• Marsh fritillary butterfly
• Pearl-bordered fritillary butterfly
• Pine hoverfly
• Slender Scotch burnet moth
Plants and fungi
• Bird’s-nest stonewort
• Intermediate wintergreen
• Lesser butterfly orchid
• Small cow-wheat
• Woolly willow
• Hazel gloves fungus
Vertebrates – native species
• Black grouse
• Capercaillie
• Great crested newt
• Greenland white-fronted goose
• Red squirrel
• Scottish wildcat
• Vendace
• Water vole
Vertebrates – formerly native species
• European beaver
• White-tailed eagle
Scottish wildcat
1 1
1 2
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
2
Invasive non-native species - where species
that are not native to a particular area threaten
biodiversity aims (See Box 4).
The most effective form of control is to prevent
the spread of invasive non-native species into
Scotland in the first place - those species which
present a recognised but imminent threat need
to be targeted in particular. The Scottish Working
Group on Invasive Non-Native Species will
provide a lead in coordinating necessary action
for such species. However, the Species Action List
concentrates on species that have already established themselves in Scotland. Actions may
include control of individuals to reduce their
population or limit their spread, or efforts to
modify the human activity contributing to their
spread (through enactment or enforcement of
legislation, voluntary agreements or through
education and promotion of codes of practice).
SNH’s own priorities will relate mainly to the
control of such species where they affect sites,
habitats and species of high nature conservation
importance including genetic as well as ecological threats. The following species will be the
focus of new action under this heading for the
next five years:
Vertebrates
• American mink
• Grey squirrel (with regard to red squirrel
conservation)
BOX 4: WHY ARE SOME NON-NATIVE
SPECIES A THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY?
We value native species (i.e. primarily species
which have arrived since the end of the last ice
age without assistance from humans) as key
parts of our natural and cultural heritage.
People have introduced species to Scotland for
farming, forestry or horticulture for hundreds of
years. These contribute to our economic
prosperity, as well as the attractiveness of our
gardens and diversity of our landscapes. Some
non-native species have arrived accidentally,
e.g. in the ballast of ships.
Most non-native species never establish in the
wild because they are not suited to our
environment. Of those that do, a few become
invasive, taking advantage of the absence of
pests and diseases from their country of origin.
These species can damage the Scottish
environment
through
competition
with,
predation of, or transmission of disease to,
native species. Some also damage economic
interests in agriculture, forestry or fisheries, or
threaten public health. It is costly and probably
impossible to control or eradicate many of them.
So efforts focus on preventing the arrival and
establishment of those non-native species likely
to become damaging. Action is needed to
minimize the impact from any that establish and
cause damage.
A programme of action on these species, which
will link with the Framework, is being taken
forward through the Scottish Working Group on
Invasive Non-Native Species.
Invertebrates
• North American signal crayfish
Plants
• New Zealand pygmyweed
• Rhododendron ponticum and its hybrids
• Sargassum muticum (wireweed)
Rhododendron ponticum
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
3
Conflicts of interest involving native
species - when the behaviour of a species
brings it into conflict with people’s interests or
with the conservation of other species or
habitats. Where socio-economic interests are
involved, solutions need to be found that ensure
the conservation of the species whilst
recognizing these interests. Where a species
impacts on habitats or on other species, the
conservation of both is considered in finding
solutions.
Actions in different cases may include supplementary feeding or scaring to modify the
species’ behaviour, local lethal control to reduce
the species’ impact on other interests, or efforts
aimed at changing the human activity that
leads to the conflict, e.g. through voluntary
agreements, public education or codes of
practice. The particular actions will depend on
the ecological situation and on the conservation
needs of the species involved (which may be
reflected in legal protection).
The following species will be the focus of new
action under this heading for the next five years:
4
Sustainable use of species - where a species
in the wild is a resource of social or economic
benefit (e.g. field sports, fisheries). Use should
be carefully managed, especially if it impacts
upon biodiversity aims by threatening the target
species’ population or affecting the food webs
and ecosystems in which the species plays a
part.
Actions may include efforts to reduce the
impacts of human activity on the species, e.g.
through modifying harvesting methods or
intensity. Alternatively, it may be necessary to
increase management effort on the species if it
is having negative effects on biodiversity aims.
The following species will be the focus of new
action under this heading for the next five years:
Vertebrates
• Native deer (red deer and roe deer)
Invertebrates
• Native oyster
Vertebrates
• Hen harrier
Hen harrier
Roe deer
1 3
1 4
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
How do we manage species for biodiversity?
The following five principles should guide all species management
1. Species management is a shared
responsibility
The overall responsibility to safeguard
biodiversity rests not just with SNH but with all
public bodies, private companies, voluntary
organisations and individuals who need to
look at how they can contribute to the actions
identified for these and other species, by
integrating biodiversity aims into economic,
social and land use policies. The UKBAP and
Scottish Biodiversity Strategy both emphasise
the importance of this partnership approach.
Lesser butterfly orchid
Public attitudes and interests inform acceptable approaches to species management.
Sometimes, of course, coexisting with the
natural world means that we all need to learn
to live with wild species.
2. There are ecological and socioeconomic aspects to species
management decisions
This means, for example:
• Species conservation action should take
into account any socio-economic and environmental costs of management options.
• Decisions on how to deal with invasive
non-native species involve both ecological
and practical considerations. In many situa-
Red deer
tions delay in taking action may make control
impossible.
• Management to address conflicts of
interest involving native species and
people should take into account any risk to
the species’ conservation as well as the risk to
economic or social interests. Similar judgments are needed where a native species
affects other biodiversity interests.
• Management to deliver sustainable use
of species needs to take into account
affected interest groups, as well as wider
ecosystem impacts of patterns of use.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
3. Species management benefits from a
strategic approach
In the same way that it is better to manage
habitats or ecosystems rather than species, so
– when species management is appropriate –
a strategic approach is better than taking
case-by-case decisions. A strategic approach
should consider interactions between species,
and the needs of the species throughout its
range rather than only in a single location.
Management may need a national or
regional rather than just a local approach. It
should take account of broader land and
water management policies, and wider
environmental change. This is particularly
important in light of climate change and its
expected significant effects on many species
across large areas.
4. Species management needs an
adaptive approach
Species management needs to be regularly
reassessed against new research, survey, and
monitoring to ensure the action is most likely
to be effective. Adaptive management
involves learning-by-doing, with responses
reflecting changing circumstances, increasing
knowledge and regular reviews of the
methods used. Species and ecosystems are
complex. We will never know everything
about species and their management, but
lack of complete knowledge should not be
used to delay necessary but difficult action.
5. Management activity should have
regard to animal welfare
Disease, food shortage and predation are
natural processes integral to how ecosystems
work. However, species management actions
should follow accepted best practice in the
welfare of animals and demonstrate a clear
rationale where the welfare of animals may
be affected through management action.
BOX 5:
AN EXAMPLE OF HOW TO APPLY THE
PRINCIPLES: GOOSE MANAGEMENT
FRAMEWORK
1. Species management is a shared
responsibility - Goose policy is coordinated and informed by the National
Goose Forum that includes all relevant
stakeholders, and is delivered in a
partnership between local land managers
and public bodies.
2. There are ecological and socioeconomic
aspects
to
species
management decisions - Decisions on
the national policy framework, and on
when a local goose management scheme
is appropriate, are informed both by
evidence of economic impact and the
implications of different management
options for the conservation status of
goose species in Scotland and elsewhere.
3. Species management benefits from
a strategic approach - A national policy
framework, and international flyway plans,
inform the development of local
management schemes.
4. Species management needs an
adaptive approach - Local management schemes are informed by regular
goose counts. Population viability analyses
of goose populations at Scottish and wider
levels are fed into regular reviews of the
national policy framework.
5. Management should have regard to
animal welfare – where control is
allowed, geese are managed using
humane methods with carefully controlled
shooting only permitted during certain
periods of the year.
Small cow-wheat
1 5
Great crested newt
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
Species accounts
Short accounts are provided here for all the animals, plants and fungi on the Species Action List. Each
account provides some brief background information on the species concerned, plus summarized
objectives and actions for a five year implementation plan. The aims and objectives are designed to tie in
with the management-related Scottish objectives of the most recent UKBAP Species Action Plans, where this
is relevant. We will work with our partners in drawing up more detailed implementation plans for each
species. This could include refining actions, and the aims and objectives, and ensuring they are
measurable.
The accounts use a range of acronyms which are explained below:
BASC
BSBI
BTO
CCW
CEH
DEFRA
DCS
DoENI
EA
FCS
FES
FWAG
GCT
HLF
IUCN
JNCC
LBAP
MoD
NFUS
NE
NTS
OSPAR
RBBP
RSPB
SAC
SAMS
SEERAD
SEPA
SGA
SNH
SOC
SPA
SRPBA
SRSG
SSPCA
SSSI
SWT
UKBAP
WWT
British Association for Shooting and Conservation
Botanical Society of the British Isles
British Trust for Ornithology
Countryside Council for Wales
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology
Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs
Deer Commission for Scotland
Department of Environment Northern Ireland
Environment Agency
Forestry Commission Scotland
Forest Enterprise Scotland
Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group
Game Conservancy Trust
Heritage Lottery Fund
International Union for the Conservation of Nature
Joint Nature Conservation Committee
Local Biodiversity Action Plan
Ministry of Defence
National Farmers Union Scotland
Natural England
National Trust for Scotland
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic
Rare Breeding Birds Panel
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
Special Area of Conservation
Scottish Association for Marine Science
Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs Department
Scottish Environment Protection Agency
Scottish Gamekeepers’ Association
Scottish Natural Heritage
Scottish Ornithologists’ Club
Special Protection Area
Scottish Rural Property & Business Association
Scottish Raptor Study Group
Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Site of Special Scientific Interest
Scottish Wildlife Trust
UK Biodiversity Action Plan
Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Black grouse (blackgame)
Habitat, distribution and abundance
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The male black grouse (black cock) (Tetrao tetrix)
has blue-black plumage, with white wing-bars,
white under the tail, and curled outer tailfeathers; the female (greyhen) has a barred,
dark brown plumage and a whitish wing-bar.
Both sexes have red wattles above the eye.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It satisfies criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework as a species for conservation action.
This species has undergone a rapid decline (over
50%) in the breeding population over the last 25
years. It is in urgent need of further targeted
management action. There has been relevant
ecological research undertaken on the species,
primarily by the GCT and the RSPB. Both
targeted and broader habitat management have
made a difference to population and range
recovery (e.g. the population decline in England
and Wales has halted). It is a UKBAP Priority
Species and is on the Scottish Biodiversity List. Its
legal status is covered by Part 1 of the Wildlife
and Countryside Act 1981, as amended. Black
grouse is protected under the Game Acts
between 11th December and 19th August, but
can be legally shot outside this period.
The UK population is estimated at 5,078 calling
males, with 3,344 displaying males recorded
throughout Scotland. Two thirds of the UK
population is found in Scotland. Black grouse
are largely dependent upon a mosaic of
woodland and scrub and an understorey of
heather and bilberry. This can be provided by
the suitable management of moorland/
woodland edge in Scotland and Wales, and the
moorland/ farmland fringe in northern England.
Black grouse also utilize young conifer
plantations and clear-felled areas with welldeveloped field and shrub layers that include
rushes, cotton-grass, heather and bilberry.
Mature plantations with widely-spaced trees also
support suitable ground vegetation and can be
important for the species.
General ecology
During spring-time black grouse gather at
traditional ‘lek’ sites in the morning where males
display competitively and the females select their
mates. Males take no further breeding role.
Females nest on the ground in dense vegetation
(higher than 40cm) and lay 6 –11 eggs in late
April–early June. The adult diet includes bilberry
and heather but the young depend largely on
invertebrates for their first three weeks, after
which they gradually shift to a herbivorous diet.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The UK population of black grouse has been
declining in range and numbers since the
1900s. Its range declined by 28% between
1968-72 and 1988-9, while the UK population
declined dramatically from an estimated 25,000
lekking males in 1990 to just 6,510 in 1996.
The 2005 survey revealed a continuing UK
decline of 22% since 1995–96. These recent
declines have been mainly in Wales and
England but the bulk of the UK population is still
declining in Scotland. The declines are due to a
number of factors, including:
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
• The loss of important plant food sources,
such as bilberry, heather and birch scrub,
due to over-grazing and agricultural
intensification. These species also support
invertebrate prey items important for chicks,
and provide nest sites. Maturing conifer
plantations shade out the shrub understorey
vegetation utilized by black grouse.
• Collisions with fences put up to exclude
deer in order to prevent over-grazing in
woodlands.
• Drainage and over-grazing of bogs destroy
two important black grouse food sources the flowers of cotton grass, and
invertebrates. Rushes, which provide nesting
cover and sources of insect food, are also
affected adversely.
• Loss of wet flushes and riparian vegetation
in afforested areas may lead to the decline
of food plants and invertebrates.
• Re-seeding traditional hay fields or
enclosed rough grazing destroys important
food plants, e.g. sedges, rushes, sorrel,
buttercups and clover.
• Excessive moorland burning can lead to
the formation of impoverished acidic
grasslands.
• Fragmentation of black grouse habitat can
lead to small populations which are unlikely
to persist.
• Predation, mainly by foxes and crows, may
be a limiting factor in some regions.
• Disturbance of lekking birds has been
identified as a severe problem at some
isolated sites.
Recent action and partners involved
Most of the management measures are based
on research undertaken by the GCT, the RSPB,
and the FCS. Species management action
includes increasing the opportunities for black
grouse to avoid predators through habitat
management, reducing deer grazing, positioning deer fences carefully to prevent
collisions, and conducting reintroduction programmes. Collaborative recovery projects for
black grouse are being developed and
implemented by a range of organisations in
different parts of the UK, including the North
Pennines (RSPB, NE, GCT and MoD), Wales
(RSPB and CCW), Tayside (RSPB, SNH and GCT)
and Dumfries and Galloway (FCS, FWAG, RSPB
and SNH).
Guidelines for conifer forest management have
been produced by the FCS and incorporated
into FCS Forest Design Plans and Native
Woodland Management Plans. GCT is leading
on the production of a habitat management
handbook detailing practical work to encourage
black grouse through habitat improvement.
Current partners include RSPB, SNH, GCT, FCS,
NE, CCW and DEFRA.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain the population of black grouse
(at least to its 1996 level) and work towards
the longer term aim of increasing the
population.
• To restore the range of black grouse to its
1991 extent by 2011 and work towards the
longer term aim of increasing the range.
• To promote recolonization of formerly
occupied areas between currently isolated
populations.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Undertake management measures to
regenerate woodland of appropriate size,
tree spacing, and understorey quality.
• Increase the opportunities for black grouse
to avoid predators, through habitat management.
• Reduce deer grazing and site deer fences
carefully to prevent collision.
• Undertake reintroduction programmes.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Capercaillie
Habitat, distribution and abundance
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is a large
game bird of open mature pinewoods. Males
have a slate-grey plumage, with a blue sheen
over the head, neck and breast, reddish-brown
upper wings with a prominent white shoulder
flash, a bright red eye ring, and long tail.
Females are brown with a dark chestnut-red tail,
which is fan-shaped.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It satisfies criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework as a species for conservation action.
The breeding population has declined
considerably over the past 25 years. Knowledge
of the general ecology of the species is good
(although some further research is needed).
Work which has been undertaken through a LIFE
project has shown that appropriate habitat
management in core areas can lead to an
increase in the population. It is a high profile
species, and a ‘caperwatch’ hide has been set
up at Loch Garten RSPB reserve to allow the
public to view lekking birds. It is a UKBAP Priority
Species and is on the Scottish Biodiversity List. It
is listed on Annex 1 of the EC Birds Directive and
is fully protected under the Wildlife and
Countryside Act 1981, as amended, which also
protects leks.
The global population extends throughout the
forests of mountainous and boreal regions of
Scandinavia, central Europe, northern Asia and
Siberia. Its UK range is localized and centred on
Strathspey, but extends south and west to the
woodlands in Perthshire and around Loch
Lomond as well as northwards into Ross-shire.
The Scottish population is found mainly in native
pinewoods, in particular the old Caledonian
Forest habitat, with dense ground cover of
blaeberry and heather, but will also use
commercial conifer plantations and small
numbers remain in a few upland oak woods in
Tayside.
Capercaillie
require
woodland
containing trees of differing ages as well as
boggy areas providing a good source of insects
for chick feeding, and open areas where the
male birds can ‘lek’. It winters in similar habitats
to those used in summer months, although
dense areas of young trees provide additional
shelter in bad weather.
The European breeding population is large (over
760,000 pairs), with notable populations in
Russia and Scandinavia. A repeat national
survey in 2003/04 indicated that the population
had increased to 1,980 individuals, though the
confidence limits on this estimate are wide. The
most recent population estimate suggests the
population has stabilized in the core areas of
Deeside and Speyside.
General ecology
Adult birds feed on blaeberry from early spring
through to summer, as well as plant buds, pollen
cones, flowers, and seeds, with conifer needles
being eaten primarily in winter. Chicks initially
require invertebrates, particularly caterpillars, to
develop. Males form leks in open areas of
woodland forests in spring.
Females lay
between 5-12 eggs in a nest on the ground.
Incubation takes from 26 to 29 days and chicks
leave the nest very soon after hatching. They
remain with the hen through the summer and
fledge in late August.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The capercaillie probably became extinct in
Britain in the mid-18th century, largely due to the
destruction of native woodland habitat. In 1837,
birds from Sweden were reintroduced into
Perthshire. In the early 1970s there were thought
to be around 20,000. Since then the numbers
have fallen dramatically. Expert opinion is that
the 25-year decrease is over 50%, based on
several data sources. A number of possible
causes of the decline are listed below:
• The principal threat to the capercaillie is
thought to be loss of suitable woodland
habitat, partly due to over-grazing of
blaeberry by sheep and deer.
• Increased predation from crows and foxes,
especially on breeding females.
• Increased adult mortality through collisions
with deer fences.
• An increase in adverse weather conditions
during June when chicks are newly hatched
resulting in reduced breeding success.
• Human disturbance, in part due to forestry
operations and the recreational use of forest
tracks, may also be involved in the species’
decline.
Recent action and partners involved
A successful joint bid for funds from ‘LIFE
Nature’ resulted in a grant of £4.65m for one
LIFE Nature Project ‘Urgent Conservation
Management for Capercaillie in Scotland’. The
five year project began in 2002 with the aim of
improving the breeding success of the
capercaillie in Scotland, thus reversing the recent
decline in numbers and reaching the UKBAP
target of 5,000 individuals by 2010. It has
targeted the populations in core areas
and aims to: improve habitat management,
especially on SPAs (e.g. through thinning forestry
plantations, increasing blaeberry, and providing
additional ground cover); promote legal
predator control of foxes and crows; remove or
mark redundant deer fences; offer advisory work
to estates and land managers; and undertake
research and survey projects. Current work
under the LIFE project has shown that
appropriate habitat management in core areas
can increase population, particularly in key
woodlands.
Further areas of research and management
include:
• Studies on the ecology of capercaillie.
Research into habitat use is ongoing,
especially use of brood habitat, as well as
disturbance studies.
• Trials of new management techniques to
reduce the incidence of fence collisions.
• Development of forest habitat networks to
reduce habitat fragmentation is also being
explored.
‘Caperwatch’ at the Loch Garten Osprey Centre
allows members of the public to watch for
capercaillie from a viewing hide and from CCTV
cameras during April and May, raising
awareness of the conservation status of the
species. Current partners include Highland
Birchwoods, FCS, DCS, RSPB, CEH, FES, LIFE
Nature Fund, Cairngorms National Park
Authority, Loch Lomond and Trossachs National
Park Authority, SRPBA, GCT, and SGA.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To increase the population of capercaillie in
Scotland to 5,000 birds by 2010.
• To stabilize and where possible increase the
range of capercaillie.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Improve habitat management in key
woodlands,
through
reducing
forest
fragmentation,
increasing
areas
of
blaeberry, and managing levels of grazing
in forests.
• Promote forest habitat networks through
management
and
habitat
creation,
especially in marginal areas.
• Promote the legal predator control of foxes
and crows in key areas.
• Undertake research work in relation to the
impact of disturbance, as well as factors
influencing breeding success and habitat use.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Great crested newt
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) is the
largest of the three British newt species with an
adult length range of 90 -170 mm. The adult
male has a jagged crest along his back which
decreases in size outwith the breeding season.
Both sexes are dark in colour with a vivid orange
belly patterned with irregular black spots. The
skin is granular giving the species its alternative
common name of warty newt.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework as a species for conservation action.
Scotland and Britain as a whole is a European
stronghold for this species and there has been
evidence of serious decline across Europe.
Ecological requirements are relatively well
understood, and it responds well to proactive,
specific management. Volunteer conservation
groups can make a significant difference in
creating or restoring great crested newt breeding
ponds and surrounding terrestrial habitat, so
raising awareness of biodiversity issues more
broadly. Such habitat is also beneficial to a wide
range of other species. It is a UKBAP Priority
Species and is on the Scottish Biodiversity List.
The great crested newt is listed on Annexes II
and IV of the EC Habitats Directive. It is
protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981, as amended, and is identified as a
European Protected Species on the Conservation
(Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994, as
amended.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The great crested newt spends the bulk of its life
on land but is dependent on small to medium
sized freshwater ponds to breed. Naturally a
creature of rough grassland, scrub and
woodland, the species has long been associated
with lowland farmland but has also found a
niche in former (and current) mineral workings
and other ‘brownfield’ habitats. Terrestrial life is
typically spent within 250 m of the breeding
ponds but dispersal of up to 1000 m can occur.
It is crucial that these habitat components are
appropriately linked by areas conducive to newt
movement to permit migration between key
areas. Studies have shown that the density of
ponds may be important to the long term
survival of populations and that great crested
2 3
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
newts prosper where several ponds within a
given area are connected by suitable habitat.
Of equal importance is the
fragmentation of terrestrial habitat.
The great crested newt is still quite widespread in
Britain. The Scottish distribution is predominantly
in Dumfries and Galloway, the Borders, across
the central belt and around Inverness. A
1995–96 national survey located 85 ponds in
Scotland with great crested newt populations.
Subsequent work from local surveys and
environmental
assessments
linked
to
development proposals has brought this number
up to around 100. The species may be
numerous locally in parts of lowland England
and Wales but is absent or rare in Cornwall and
Devon. It is absent from Northern Ireland.
Recent action and partners involved
General ecology
They are nocturnal predators on invertebrates,
spending daytime in damp refuges, for example,
under stones and logs. Breeding takes place in
ponds in spring to early summer, governed by
temperature. A female can lay around 300
eggs which are laid singly, attached to
vegetation. Larvae usually develop through their
aquatic stages over a three month period before
adopting the terrestrial habit.
However,
metamorphosis is dependent on temperature
and in cooler climates or nutrient poor (and
hence invertebrate deficient) ponds, larvae can
take much longer than three months to develop.
They take around three years to reach breeding
maturity.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The species has suffered a decline in recent
years with studies in the 1980s indicating a rate
of colony loss of approximately 2% over five
years across Britain. It is estimated that there are
about 18,000 occupied ponds within Britain,
although only about 3,000 of these have been
identified. The British population is amongst the
largest in Europe, where it is threatened in
several countries.
The great crested newt is threatened by loss
of breeding ponds through destruction
or degradation of water quality due to
development or changes in agricultural practice,
but also through natural succession, neglect and
mismanagement. The introduction of fish to
breeding ponds is almost always catastrophic.
loss
and
The main non-statutory bodies involved in great
crested newt conservation are the Herpetological
Conservation Trust (HCT), Froglife, the British
Herpetological Society and Amphibian & Reptile
Groups of the UK (ARG-UK). ARG-UK is an
umbrella body for local ARGs of which several
are constituted in Scotland. The Lothian
Amphibian and Reptile Group, and Clyde
Amphibian and Reptile Group have been active
in survey, monitoring and habitat creation work.
HCT is the coordinating body for the recently
launched National Amphibian and Reptile
Survey Scheme (NARSS) with ARG members
contributing as the main surveyors. SNH is
currently in discussion with these bodies to
promote a coordinated approach to survey and
conservation work in Scotland.
Three SACs have been designated in Scotland
with great crested newt as a qualifying feature.
There have been a number of local pond
creation projects in recent years across the
country.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To increase the number of occupied
recorded breeding ponds from 100 to 150,
and ensure new ponds are created as
components of pond clusters.
• To improve/restore the quality of 20 current
breeding ponds and surrounding habitat to
ensure medium-long term viability for great
crested newt populations.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Identify sites for pond creation and
restoration in conjunction with land owners,
LBAP officers, NGOs and other partners.
• Undertake pond and terrestrial habitat
creation and restoration work, including
translocation of newts where necessary.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Greenland white-fronted goose
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The Greenland white-fronted goose is one of
two subspecies of the greater white-fronted
goose (Anser albifrons) recorded in the UK (the
other being the European white-fronted goose
(A. a. albifrons), which winters in southern
England). It breeds in western Greenland,
migrating during September and October via
staging grounds in Iceland to winter exclusively
in Ireland and western Britain, mainly in the
Hebrides. The present winter range has not
changed markedly over recent decades.
In Scotland, most birds winter along the west
coast, mainly on Islay where about two thirds of
the Scottish population occurs. The remaining
birds winter at 33 regularly used sites, with
Tiree, Coll, Rhunahaorine and Machrihanish
supporting the largest numbers.
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The Greenland white-fronted goose (Anser
albifrons flavirostris) is a medium-sized grey
goose with orange legs and an orange bill;
adults have a large white patch surrounding the
base of the bill and bold black bars on the belly.
Juveniles lack this barring.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The Greenland white-fronted goose qualifies
under criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework as a species for conservation action
because of its significant decline. It also qualifies
under criterion 3a, as being the focus of conflicts
where coexistence is difficult to achieve. Further
management actions have been identified for
the species. Although not on the current UKBAP
species list, it has been proposed for addition in
the 2006 review and is included on the Scottish
Biodiversity List. It is listed on Annex I of the EC
Birds Directive and Schedule 2 of the Wildlife
and Countryside Act 1981, as amended.
The wintering population is traditionally
associated with a landscape characterized by
peatlands and low intensity agricultural land,
often in remote areas. Feeding areas occurred in
bog habitats but in recent years intensively
managed grasslands and stubbles have been
increasingly used. This is especially noticeable in
the important wintering areas of Wexford
(Ireland) and Islay. Traditional feeding habits
may still occur at night in those flocks that have
retained roost sites on bogs.
Two complete censuses of all known Greenland
white-fronted goose wintering haunts in Britain
found a total of 14,287 birds in spring 2006
(7,111 on Islay and 7,085 in the rest of
Scotland). Breeding success has been well
below the average for the last 15 years at 8.6%
young. The trend for poor reproductive performance in recent years continued in 2005. The
global population estimate for spring 2006 of
24,804, was the lowest spring count since 1988.
General ecology
Greenland white-fronted geese arrive on the
Scottish west coast in October, leaving again in
April. During winter, the birds feed mainly on
improved grasslands, eating grass and clover,
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
but also grain, winter wheat and potatoes.
Roosts occur on small inland lochans and some
bog feeding still happens.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
In the 1950s, the population was estimated at
17,500-23,000 but decreased to 14,300 by the
late 1970s. Numbers then increased, reaching a
peak of 35,573 in 1999, since when a
population decrease has been observed.
Preliminary data from the breeding grounds
indicate that overall density of Greenland whitefronted goose pairs has decreased three-fold
since 1999, corresponding to a similar decline
in families returning to Islay over the same time
period. In addition, fewer non-breeding
individuals were seen in west Greenland in 2005
compared to 1999, with a 53% decline in
density, again mirroring the decline seen in
numbers wintering on Islay.
Habitat loss and hunting played a likely role in
declines during the 1960s and 1970s. The
increase in numbers recorded through the1980s
and early 1990s was a result of a reduction in
hunting mortality from the early 1980s. Since
1999, however, continued low production of
young over several years, particularly the last
five years, has failed to replace annual losses for
the population, for example reproductive success
in 2005 was well below the long-term average
since 1960. The driving force behind declines in
productivity are not known with certainty but it
may be related to an expansion of Canada
goose numbers on the breeding grounds
leading to increased competition.
Recent action and partners involved
In 1992/93, local Goose Management Groups
began operating Goose Management Schemes
initiated by SNH in the main wintering areas to
alleviate the conflict arising from wintering geese
grazing on agricultural crops. These schemes
give management payments to farmers in
exchange for providing land suitable for goose
grazing.
The ‘Greenland white-fronted goose study’
assesses the population size and reproductive
success of the subspecies, and identifies
important wintering sites in the UK and Ireland.
This study has enabled international censuses to
be conducted throughout the entire wintering
range each autumn and spring since 1982/83.
Regular winter counts have been made on Islay
since 1965.
In August 2006, the Greenland white-fronted
goose was given full protection in Iceland.
Although hunting in Iceland is not the primary
cause of the decline, the reduction in annual
mortality that will result from the hunting ban
may stem the decline, at least in the short term,
as over 3,000 geese used to be shot on the
Icelandic staging grounds.
Current partners working on this species include
the RSPB, SEERAD, NFUS, Greenland Whitefronted Goose Study Group (GWGSG), National
Parks and Wildlife Service, DoE NI, WWT, and
Goose and Swan Monitoring Programme
(GSMP).
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To halt the decline in the Greenland whitefronted goose population by 2010.
• To maintain and, where possible, enhance
the wintering range of the Greenland whitefronted goose in Scotland.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Contribute to the updating and implementation of a management plan (‘Flyway Plan’)
which covers the range countries of Ireland,
UK, Iceland, and Greenland (this was first
drawn-up in 1992 but never ratified - management, research and monitoring actions
for this sub-species need to be implemented).
• Continue to develop and implement local
goose management schemes.
• Continue the comprehensive census programme across Scotland, and ensure that
results are properly disseminated.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Red squirrel (and grey squirrel, an invasive non-native species)
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is the only
native squirrel species in Britain. It has
characteristic ear tufts and is smaller than the
introduced grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis).
The grey squirrel may sometimes exhibit some
chestnut coloration over the back and limbs, but
this redness is not as uniform as in the red
squirrel.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The red squirrel satisfies criterion 1a of the Species
Action Framework as a species for conservation
action, primarily due to the population decline
recorded over the past 50 years.
Once
widespread across the UK, the species is now
largely restricted to the north of England, Northern
Ireland and Scotland. Scotland currently hosts
about 75% of the estimated UK population. It has
been the subject of extensive and ongoing
research, with clear and targeted management
actions relating to grey squirrel control and
considerable public interest and associated
opportunities for further biodiversity awareness. It
is a Priority Species on the UKBAP and is included
on the Scottish Biodiversity List. The red squirrel is
fully protected under the Wildlife and Countryside
Act 1981, as amended.
The grey squirrel satisfies criterion 2 of the
Species Action Framework as an invasive nonnative species. A native of North America, it was
first introduced into Scotland in the late 19th
century and has since expanded its range to
cover much of southern and central Scotland.
The species can cause damage to timber and
other crops, but it is included on the Species
Action List specifically because it poses a threat
to the native red squirrel population.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The red squirrel is an arboreal species. It is
largely associated with pinewoods but, in the
absence of competition from grey squirrels, can
exist in a more diverse, broadleaf woodland, for
example in the Highlands. The species is
distributed throughout the Palaearctic, through
Europe and Scandinavia to the east coast of
Russia. Populations in northern Italy are currently
at risk due to the recent introduction of the grey
squirrel to the Continent.
Formerly widespread across Scotland, the
species has been lost from an extensive area in
the Central Belt and is found primarily in the
Borders, Dumfries and Galloway, Argyll,
Perthshire, Grampian and Highland. There are
an estimated 160,000 red squirrels currently in
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
the UK of which 121,000 are in Scotland.
General ecology
The red squirrel breeds between January and
September, with an average of three young per
litter. It is a non-territorial species with males
breeding with more than one female. Individuals
may have up to eight dreys concurrently.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The population of red squirrels has not always
been stable and the species is reported to have
become extinct in some parts of Scotland
following large-scale deforestation in the 18th
century. Populations were supplemented by the
introduction of red squirrels from England and
Scandinavia in the early 19th century.
The three main factors threatening the conservation of red squirrels in Scotland are:
• Spread of grey squirrels.
• Habitat fragmentation making some areas
less suitable for red squirrels, increasing
their vulnerability to displacement by grey
squirrels.
• Disease.
Red squirrels in the south of Scotland are
currently under threat from the squirrelpox virus.
Research suggests that this has been introduced
to the country with the grey squirrels which have
an antibody immunity to the disease and show
no outward symptoms of infection.
It is
invariably fatal to red squirrels
Recent action and partners involved
The Scottish Red Squirrel Action Plan 2006-2011
was prepared by a working group, comprising
SNH, FCS and SEERAD, in July 2006. In
addition, Scotland currently has 11 local volunteer groups for red squirrel conservation
(Borders, Dumfries and Galloway, Ayr, Central,
Fife, Perth & Kinross, Grampian, Angus,
Highland, Dundee, and Argyll) who carry out a
considerable amount of work on survey,
education and awareness, and species protection. These local groups, together with SNH,
FCS, NTS, SSPCA, SWT, Forestry and Timber
Association and European Squirrel Initiative,
collaborate as the Scottish Squirrel Group. This
group links with other country groups through
the UK Red Squirrel Group to deliver the UK Red
Squirrel Action Plan.
There are currently four Red Squirrel Conservation Officers employed in Scotland
(Borders, Dumfries and Galloway, Ayr, and
Highland). In addition, there are two Grey
Squirrel Control Officers currently employed to
address the problems of squirrelpox virus spread
in south Scotland. The Scottish Squirrel Survey is
also in its third year, aiming to improve the
monitoring of both red and grey squirrel records
across the country. This is funded by SNH.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain populations of red squirrels
across their current range in Scotland.
• To reduce the threat from grey squirrels.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Identify the priority woodlands for red
squirrel conservation, based on a robust
dataset of its distribution and habitat management objectives.
• Improve woodlands for red squirrels,
through appropriate forest planning and
promotion
of
‘red-squirrel’
friendly
woodland management.
• Monitor the distribution and spread of grey
squirrels.
• Identify natural barriers and pinch-points at
which to implement grey squirrel control
measures.
• Undertake proactive grey squirrel control in
strategic target areas.
• Address the artificial (illegal) introduction of
grey squirrels.
• Continue red squirrel conservation research
(including methods of grey squirrel control,
potential for coexistence between red and
grey squirrels, genetic variation in the
Scottish population and effective data management).
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Scottish wildcat
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994, as amended.
The Scottish wildcat (Felis sylvestris) is the only
native member of the Felidae, the cat family, to
be found in the wild in Britain.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework as a species for conservation action
by virtue of its decline in range and abundance
over the past 100 years. The results of an
ongoing survey will enable suitable management action to be targeted in particular
areas. It is a top predator in the Scottish context,
and a species which is likely to increase the
profile of species management work and
benefits to biodiversity. It is not a UKBAP Priority
Species at present but it is under active
consideration as part of the Priority Species and
Habitats Review. It is included on the Scottish
Biodiversity List. It is also listed on Annex IV of
the EC Habitats Directive. It is protected under
the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, as
amended, and is identified as a European
Protected Species on the Conservation (Natural
In general, the Scottish wildcat prefers to live in
the margins of mountains and moorlands with
rough grazing, often combined with forests and
some crops. However, research suggests that
animals in the east of Scotland prefer marginal
agricultural areas with moorlands, pastureland
and woodlands, whereas animals in the west
favour rough grazing and moorland with limited
pastures. They avoid high mountain areas,
exposed coasts and fertile lowlands with
intensive agriculture.
Formerly distributed across Europe, Asia and
Africa, the species became extinct in Austria and
the Netherlands in the first half of the 20th
century. They are thought to have declined in
the Czech and Slovack Republics and are
confined to three major areas of the former
Soviet Union: the Carpathian Mountains of the
Ukraine, the Kodry region of Moldova and the
Caucasus mountain region between the Black
and Caspian seas.
Elsewhere, in Europe,
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
isolated populations are limited to the Iberian
peninsula, Italy, north-east France-LuxembourgBelgium, north-west Germany, eastern central
Germany and the Balkans.
The current UK status of the Scottish wildcat is
unclear. A questionnaire survey in 1983-87
suggested that the species was restricted to an
area north of the Central Belt. A subsequent
survey based on live-trapping and road
kill/carcass records in the 1990s suggested that
the distribution was limited to the north-east of
Scotland (primarily Perthshire, Angus, Grampian
and the eastern Highlands), with a small
residual population in Argyll and Lochaber.
There are only two density estimates available
for Scotland. These are Glen Tanar, Deeside
with 30 wildcats per 100 km2 and
Ardnamurchan with an estimated 8 wildcats per
100 km2. A 1995 study resulted in an estimate
of 3,500 pre-breeding animals of independent
age (over 5 months old) across Scotland.
considered to be a reflection of increased
numbers, over the following 20 years and the
range has been stable since the 1940s, despite
suggestions that numbers were increasing. The
threats to Scottish wildcat have been identified
as:
• Hybridisation with feral cats.
• Predator control and incidental capture.
• Disease.
• Habitat fragmentation and degradation.
Recent action and partners involved
A recent scientific paper has been published
which provides useful clarification on the field
identification of the Scottish wildcat. SNH has
commissioned a repeat of the Scottish wildcat
survey of the 1980s (to be carried out 20062008).
General ecology
Wildcats have a dispersed, solitary social system
and live alone for most of the year. They
associate only during mating and rearing of
kittens. Wildcats scent-mark to maintain the
exclusivity of their home ranges, which are
larger for males than females. Male ranges will
overlap with females but the ranges of each
gender are exclusive. Females have only one
litter in May and give birth to an average of four
kittens, but they may come into oestrus again if
they lose the litter early.
The diet varies
markedly across the country, with rabbits making
up the majority of prey in the east (up to 70%)
but only a minimal proportion in the west (34%). Animals in the west prey primarily on voles
and mice. Wildcats are active both during
daytime and nightime, although they can be
inactive for 24 hours in winter if the weather is
inclement.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The wildcat began to decline in Britain in the
early 1800s and was lost from England and
Wales by 1862. The decline in Scotland
continued into the 20th century and the range
was confined to the north-east by the 1920s.
There was a small expansion in range,
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To establish, maintain and, where possible,
enhance the current range of Scottish
wildcat in Scotland.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Provide a robust data set from which to
clarify the distribution (and abundance) of
the Scottish wildcat.
• Identify potential wildcat stronghold areas
for conservation action.
• Improve habitat management in potential
wildcat areas to encourage (colonization by)
a sustainable population.
• Reduce the threat from hybridisation with
feral/feral domestic cats.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Vendace
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The vendace (Coregonus albula) is a freshwater
fish which, by virtue of its adipose fin, is typically
salmonid in form but has large scales which give
it a silver appearance.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
Vendace meets criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework, as a species for conservation action.
Vendace is the rarest fish species within the UK.
Much is now known about the ecology and
habitat requirements to inform targeted action
for existing populations and site selection for
new populations. Action for this species could
also raise awareness of other fish conservation
issues and benefit other species in Scotland. It is
a UKBAP Priority Species and is included on the
Scottish Biodiversity List. Vendace is listed on
Annex V of the EC Habitats Directive, and
Schedule 3 of the The Conservation (Natural
Habitats, etc) Regulations 1994, as amended.
Vendace is also fully protected under the Wildlife
and Countryside Act 1981, as amended.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Vendace are typically associated with large,
deep, standing waters which allow access to
relatively cool water with high oxygen levels.
They require a spawning habitat which consists
of clean gravels at depths of less than four
metres. They are rare in the UK but relatively
abundant in some areas of their wider European
range, such as Finland and other parts of
Scandinavia. Only two natural populations now
occur within the UK, the Cumbrian lakes of
Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. It was
formerly present in two Scottish lochs but
became extinct in the 1960s. One new
population has been established within a
Scottish water body, Loch Skene.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
General ecology
Spawning typically takes place from late
November to mid December. The young hatch
out during March or April, depending on water
temperature. Vendace is a shoaling species
which feeds primarily on zooplankton, although
larger fish may also include insect larvae in their
diet.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
Naturally occurring populations of vendace are
now extinct within Scotland and it is likely that
one of the two remaining UK populations, in
Bassenthwaite, has now been lost. Attempts have
been made to establish refuge populations in
two Scottish waters and this has met with partial
success – the Loch Skene population has
become established, but survey information
suggests that an attempt to reintroduce vendace
to Daer Reservoir was not so successful. Plans
are underway to expand this programme to
other Scottish and English sites. Pressures on the
vendace include:
• Illegal introductions of new fish species.
• Eutrophication (nutrient enrichment).
• Loss of suitable spawning substrate through
siltation or invasion by non-native plants
such as New Zealand pygmyweed.
Recent action and partners involved
Action has been limited to those specified within
the UKBAP Action Plan for this species. Primary
amongst these actions has been the
establishment of refuge populations for this
species. Current partners include NE, EA, NTS,
Fish Conservation Centre and the Lake District
National Park Authority. One of the translocation
sites (Daer Reservoir) involved participation by
Scottish Water.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To ensure that practical action is taken to try
to ensure the continued survival of the
species in Loch Skene.
• To establish a self-sustaining population in a
second water in Scotland by 2010 and
further populations at an additional two sites
by 2020.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Take practical action to ensure the continued
survival of the species in Loch Skene.
• Target sites for the establishment of further
refuge populations of vendace.
• Once established, monitor these sites and
take appropriate action to ensure that new
populations are not lost.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Water vole
themselves. This level of protection is under
review and may be extended in future.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The water vole (Arvicola terrestris) is the largest
of the British voles, weighing between 200 and
350g.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The water vole satisfies criterion 1a of the
Species Action Framework as a species for
conservation action. It has suffered a significant
decline, especially in the 1990s. Management
action is needed to address threats from habitat
loss and, in particular, from predation by
American mink, an invasive non-native species.
The water vole is a relatively high profile species
and can be used as a means of highlighting the
damaging effects of invasive non-native species.
Management targeted at water voles, such as
mink eradication projects, benefits the wider
ecosystem in which the vole lives (American mink
is also on the Species Action List and actions
relating to this species cross-link to the water
vole). It is a UKBAP Priority Species and is
included on the Scottish Biodiversity List. The
places of shelter or protection of the water vole
are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside
Act 1981, as amended, but not the animals
In lowland areas, water voles occur in small
slow-flowing or static burns, small backwaters,
canals, ditch systems and overgrown field
drains, and sometimes in intensively-farmed and
urban areas. Such watercourses are typically less
than 3m wide and 1m deep and do not show
extreme fluctuations in water level. Water voles
prefer sites with easily excavated soil and a
steeply sloping bank profile into which they can
burrow. The best sites support a continuous
swathe of tall herbaceous riparian vegetation.
Sites excessively shaded by shrubs or trees
are avoided. In the uplands, water voles are
restricted to narrow moorland burns and barren
peat hags on flat or gently sloping ground.
Areas with a thick layer of peat are preferred.
The species is widely distributed elsewhere in
Britain, but is now very localised due to
numerous local extinctions and largely restricted
to smaller watercourses and headwaters. It is
also widespread in continental Europe where it
commonly occurs underground well away from
open water.
General ecology
Recent studies have demonstrated that Scottish
water voles are genetically distinct from those
further south. The voles that colonized England
and Wales following the last Ice Age originated
from south-east Europe, whereas Scotland’s
voles are descended from migrants from
northern Iberia.
Water voles live in loose colonies within a
‘metapopulation’. Each vole defends a linear
territory of 30-200m during the breeding
season. The males occupy territories that are
roughly twice the size of the females’, often
overlapping those of adjacent females. Both
sexes use their droppings in conjunction with
their scent glands to mark these areas.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The water vole is widely acknowledged to be one
of our most threatened native mammals, having
undergone a dramatic decline, particularly
during the latter part of the 20th century. The
total UK population was reduced by 88% during
the period between 1989 and 1996. Factors
causing loss or decline include habitat degradation and fragmentation, combined with predation by American mink. The decline is correlated
with the spread of mink across the country.
Recent/current action and partners
involved
Water vole conservation relies on:
• Ensuring habitat connectivity exists between
individual colonies.
• Maintenance of abundant
riparian vegetation.
•
herbaceous
Minimizing the opportunity for mink
colonization (including habitat management
to reduce the opportunities for denning by
mink, targeted mink control and rabbit
control).
To date, most action has focussed on targeted
mink control in key areas where viable water
vole populations survive, for example in parts of
north-east Scotland, Fife and the Cairngorms.
Mink control requires on-going support from
local communities and associated positive
habitat management to be successful in the
long-term. In addition, habitat management to
enhance the riparian zone, for example the
provision of stock fencing to encourage lush
herbaceous vegetion and scrub clearance, are
essential to promote habitat connectivity in many
lowland areas.
The following have been provisionally identified
as ‘Priority Areas’ for water voles in Scotland,
which require immediate conservation action:
• The Cairngorms
• Lowland Aberdeenshire – especially the
River Ythan catchment
• The Greater Glasgow Conurbation
Current and potential future partners include the
two National Park Authorities, LBAP groups, the
University of Aberdeen, the District Salmon
Fishery Boards, GCT, BASC, SWT, RSPB and the
NTS.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain the current range of the water
vole (79 occupied 10km squares in Scotland
in 2005).
• To achieve an increase in range by 16 new
occupied 10km squares in Scotland by
2010.
• To improve connectivity between populations
by favourable habitat management (in 95
occupied 10km squares in Scotland) by
2010.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Target key river catchments for habitat
management.
• Employ mink control as a conservation tool
to protect important water vole populations.
• Identify sites which are suitable for reestablishing populations (where natural
recolonization is very unlikely) and undertake translocations where appropriate.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
European beaver
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The European or Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber)
is a large, semi-aquatic rodent. It is extinct in
Britain.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The European beaver meets criterion 1b of the
Species Action Framework as a species for
conservation action. It is listed on Annex IV (and
Annex II) of the EC Habitats Directive. The
Directive requires European Union Member
States to study the desirability of reintroducing
such species where they have become extinct.
The beaver also qualifies for the Species Action
List since we now have a large amount of
ecological information on the species which can
inform management actions. Effective species
management action can be identified, namely
the identification of a suitable site and the
running of a reintroduction project, subject to the
receipt of a licence. The beaver is a charismatic
species which would serve to raise wider
biodiversity issues such as riparian woodland
management, aspen restoration, wetland
biodiversity and dead wood habitat. There are
few species which have such significant
influences on ecosystem function and health. A
developed reintroduction proposal is likely to
meet the IUCN guidelines on reintroductions.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The European beaver inhabits riparian
broadleaved woodland bordering freshwater
standing waters or slow-moving streams. It
occurs from western Europe eastwards to the
Chinese-Mongolian border region. The total
world population is 634,000-732,000 animals
but this is heavily weighted towards eastern
Europe. The species is extinct in Britain.
General ecology
It is totally herbivorous, and will feed on
herbaceous and woody, broadleaved species.
They favour burrows in banks as nesting places,
but may build lodges of piled logs where they
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
are unable to burrow. Beavers sometimes dam
streams to maintain water levels and construct
canals which allow them to travel further away
from the main body of water. The animal is
monogamous and lives in family groups.
The European beaver is a ‘keystone’ species and
its restoration would be beneficial to a wide
range of species and habitats.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
European beaver appears to have once
been widespread throughout Britain, including
Scotland. There are some palaeontological and
archaeological remains which, together with
written historical information, suggest that it was
present here until the early 16th century. Its
extinction is believed to have resulted primarily
from over-hunting, particularly for the valuable
pelts. The reintroduction of beaver to Scotland
would contribute to restoring the species to its
historical range within Europe.
Recent action and partners involved
SNH has undertaken an extremely detailed
research programme into the feasibility of
reintroducing beaver to Scotland, and a full
national consultation. There has been extensive
liaison with specialists based across Europe and
in the UK. A trial reintroduction to Knapdale,
Argyll was planned and proposed by SNH, in
collaboration with the SWT and Mammals Trust
UK, but a licence to proceed was turned down in
2005. However, the preparatory work undertaken for Knapdale will provide a valuable basis for
any new reintroduction project. Future partners
for a new project have yet to be confirmed, but
the level of interest and support to date suggests
that there should good opportunities for the
development of constructive collaborations.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To support at least one reintroduced
European beaver population in the wild.
• To establish associated conservation programmes for relevant riparian woodland/
wetland habitat types and species designed
around the beaver reintroduction.
Types of actions over the next five years
To ensure that any reintroduction will involve the
following:
• The identification of a suitable reintroduction
site.
• The drawing up and submission of a licence
application to undertake a beaver reintroduction.
• The undertaking of a well managed
European beaver reintroduction (subject to
receiving a licence) following IUCN guidelines and involving key partner bodies and
local communities.
• Monitoring of the effect of the beavers on
the local environment, including on land
uses.
• Collaboration with a range of partners in
developing socio-economic benefits arising
from beaver reintroduction, including ecotourism, recreation, education and interpretation opportunities.
• Development of associated conservation
programmes for relevant riparian woodland
and wetland habitat types for species linked
to the beaver reintroduction.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
White-tailed eagle
persecution. The IUCN reintroduction guidelines
have been, and will continue to be, applied. It is
a Scottish Biodiversity List species. It is listed on
Annex I of the EC Birds Directive and is specially
protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981, as amended.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The white-tailed or sea eagle (Haliaeetus
albicilla) is found mainly in coastal areas and is
the UK’s largest bird of prey. Adults have a
conspicuous pale head and neck, a white tail
and yellow beak.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 1b of the Species Action
Framework, as a species for conservation action.
It is a formerly extinct species, whose reintroduction is not yet considered complete. The current
west coast population is still small and, whilst
growing in number, remains largely confined to
a restricted area. There is now a proposal to
undertake an east coast reintroduction to
improve the conservation status of the species
across Scotland and the UK as a whole. The
white-tailed eagle has been described as having
an ‘unfavourable’ conservation status across
Europe. The species has been well studied and
the experiences of the west coast reintroduction
will be essential in any further reintroduction
work. It is a high profile species which can be
used in raising biodiversity issues more broadly,
including specific management issues such as
The UK distribution is confined to the west coast
of Scotland where it was reintroduced over a
period of years, from 1975 to 1998. Most of
Scotland’s white-tailed eagle population (which
numbered 35 pairs in 2006) is now found on
Mull, Skye and the Western Isles. In the UK, it is
mainly a coastal species, occupying rocky
coastlines. It also occurs in upland habitats and
is found near rivers and large lakes which, in
Europe and Russia, may be several hundred
miles inland. Wintering areas are similar to the
breeding habitats. The European breeding
population is small (5,000-6,600 pairs) but has
increased since 1970. The largest populations
are found in Norway and Russia, with important
populations also found in south-west Greenland.
General ecology
Sea eagles feed on a wide range of prey items,
including fish, hares, rabbits, ducks and
seabirds, as well as scavenging for carrion
especially during the winter months. Nests in
Scotland are mostly built in trees, but crags and
cliffs are used elsewhere and these huge
structures are either used in successive years or
alternated with other sites in the territory. Two,
occasionally three eggs are laid in March,
though sometimes as late as April, with chicks
fledging in late July or August. Breeding usually
occurs from four or five years old, but territory
establishment may be earlier.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
In the 19th century over 100 eyries were known
from Britain, with birds breeding in Scotland,
England and the Isle of Man, and 50
from Ireland. However, following prolonged
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
persecution in the early 19th century, it became
extinct in the UK with the last bird shot on
Shetland in 1916. Habitat loss was not a factor.
Following reintroduction efforts on the west
coast, birds quickly settled in Mull and Skye, and
the population, although small, is currently
expanding. In western Europe, numbers also
declined dramatically and its range contracted
during the 19th and first half of the 20th
centuries due mainly to persecution but also to
environmental
pollution
(e.g.
mercury,
organochlorines). This trend has been in reverse
in the north-west of the range since the 1970s,
but it is still in decline in south-east Europe.
Globally, current threats include loss and
degradation of wetlands, increasing human
disturbance, indiscriminate use of poisons,
collisions with wind turbines, and reduced
availability of suitable habitat, and susceptibility
to environmental pollution leading to reduced
breeding success.
Recent action and partners involved
The first attempts at reintroduction took place in
1959 in Argyll and on Fair Isle in 1968 but
were unsuccessful. In 1975 a reintroduction
programme started on the Isle of Rum importing
82 birds from Norway over the next ten years. In
1986 the first chicks were produced by reintroduced birds. Further releases in the 1990s in
Wester Ross ensured a self-sustaining population. In 2006 the 200th wild-bred white-tailed
eagle chick fledged on the Isle of Skye. The
reintroduced population is continually monitored, with protection and surveillance at nest
sites, while some eyries have been improved by
Protection Teams. The Mull and Skye Eagle
Schemes include an RSPB viewing area at
the Aros Centre on Skye (supported by the
Biodiversity Action Grants Scheme) and an RSPB/
FCS viewing hide on Mull. Both schemes have
raised the species’ profile and were supported by
the Heritage Lottery Fund via the Nadair Trust,
an Argyll-wide project. SNH offers positive management schemes to farmers with white-tailed
eagles on their land on Mull and parts of Skye.
Current partners include FCS, Highland
Foundation for Wildlife, Raptor Study Groups
and RSPB.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To translocate white-tailed eagles to an east
coast Scottish site.
• To ensure the current west coast population
is viable and self-sustaining.
This contributes to the longer term objective of
the ‘Sea Eagle Species Action Plan’ of enabling
the population to recover to 150 territorial pairs
over a range of approximately 100 occupied
10km squares. Beyond that time scale, the
objective is to seek a restoration of breeding
white-tailed eagles to as much of their former
UK range as possible, and to seek the removal
of factors limiting expansion to all suitable
habitat, especially in estuaries and coastal and
inland wetlands.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Undertake a well managed translocation of
sea eagles to a new location on the Scottish
east coast (subject to receiving a licence)
following IUCN guidelines and involving key
partner bodies and local communities.
• Monitor the new east coast population, and
continue to monitor the existing west coast
population.
• Collaborate with partners in developing
socio-economic benefits arising from whitetailed eagle reintroduction, including
ecotourism, recreation, education and
interpretation opportunities and continue to
run the Mull and Skye Eagle Schemes.
• Research dispersal and settlement patterns
in the Scottish sea eagle population, to
better predict likely development of the
population as it expands across its former
range.
• Collaborate with other countries in developing translocation projects which aim to
establish breeding sea eagle populations.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Freshwater pearl mussel
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera
margaritifera) is a large, long-lived, bivalve
mollusc of rivers and streams.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework, as a species for conservation action.
Scotland is now a global stronghold for the
freshwater pearl mussel, having up to half the
world’s known recruiting populations, but it has
declined substantially in the last 100 years due
to human activities. However, there are a
number of management actions that can be
employed which should help to turn around this
decline. Extensive programmes of survey and
research have been undertaken on the species in
Scotland so there is a good knowledge base. A
wide range of other species will benefit from
management targeted at pearl mussel because
it requires high quality riverine habitat.
Management measures aimed at enhancing
salmonid fish stocks are also important as these
fish are an essential link in the pearl mussel life
cycle. It is a UKBAP Priority Species and is
included on the Scottish Biodiversity List. It is
listed on Annexes II and V of the EC Habitats
Directive and is fully protected under the Wildlife
and Countryside Act 1981, as amended.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The mussel inhabits coarse sand and gravel
beds of fast-flowing, non-calcareous streams
and rivers. There are approximately 60
recruiting or ‘viable’ populations (i.e. with
juveniles present) in Scotland, mostly in the north
and west, with scattered records of the species
elsewhere. Few viable populations occur
elsewhere in Britain or even the rest of Europe.
General ecology
The mussel feeds by filtering out fine organic
debris in river water. Growth is slow - this species
does not reach reproductive maturity until at
least 12 years old and some animals may reach
80-100 years. Mussel larvae (‘glochidia’) are
released by the females in summer and a small
proportion of these will attach themselves to
young trout or salmon where they live as ecto-
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
parasites before dropping off and settling on the
substrate the following spring.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The pearl mussel is now extinct, or there is no
evidence of recent juvenile recruitment, in
approximately two thirds of 155 Scottish rivers
occupied 100 years ago. Most of the remaining
populations have also suffered substantial
declines as a result of pearl fishing, pollution
and habitat loss, and salmonid declines. Despite
recent legislation on pearl fishing, a range of
pressures continue to operate, including:
• Habitat removal and alteration through
development, drainage schemes, flow
regulation and fisheries management.
• Declines in populations of salmon and trout,
which act as the larval hosts.
• Destructive pearl fishing and illegal pearl
trade, aided by improved accessibility.
• Poor water quality, including nutrient
enrichment (which also affects the numbers
of host fish).
• Conifer planting, exacerbating the effects of
river acidification.
• Sedimentation from soil erosion, affecting
the suitability of gravel and sand beds for
juvenile mussels.
Recent action and partners involved
Action has been extensive. For example, the
mussel is a qualifying interest on 19 SACs. The
‘Life in UK Rivers’ Project resulted in guidance on
monitoring and information on mussel ecology
and their relationship with salmonids.
Campaigns against illegal pearl fishing
(‘Operation Necklace’) are ongoing. Available
information on water quality requirements has
been collated and published.
The first
translocations of mussels to extinct sites took
place
in
2005.
Recommendations
on
appropriate management actions have also
been produced for all the protected sites for
pearl mussels in Scotland. Current partners
include Cairngorms National Park, CCW, NE,
EA, SEPA, University of Aberdeen.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain all currently viable populations
of freshwater pearl mussel.
• To increase the size of two viable
populations of freshwater pearl mussel by
2010 (work will also get underway to
increase the number of viable freshwater
pearl mussel populations by a further two by
2015).
• To re-establish populations of freshwater
pearl mussel at four sites within its natural
range by 2010.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Target key river catchments for suitable
management and habitat improvement.
• Carry out translocations of mussels into
rivers or streams from which they have
become extinct, where this is considered
appropriate.
• Continue campaigns against illegal pearl
fishing and trade.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Great yellow bumblebee
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The
great
yellow
bumblebee
(Bombus
distinguendus) is a brownish-orange bee with a
conspicuous black stripe across the thorax. It is
especially associated with machair and other
grasslands near the coast.
The great yellow bumblebee is associated with
extensive areas of herb-rich grasslands with a
continuum of flowering plants throughout the
flight period. It is mainly associated with wintergrazed pasture with no or little summer grazing.
These grasslands support a large number of
plant species with flowers having a long corolla,
notably labiates, legumes such as red clover,
and composites such as thistles and common
knapweed - plants which are generally absent
from improved or intensively managed ground.
Formerly distributed throughout Britain, this bee
is now restricted to northern and western
Scotland, with the main sites in the Hebrides,
Orkney, Sutherland and Caithness.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The great yellow bumblebee meets criterion 1a
of the Species Action Framework, as a species
for conservation action. Formerly widespread in
Britain, it is now restricted to north and
west Scotland, and remains threatened by
agricultural change. Its management requirements are fairly well understood, and there are
recognised agricultural practices that could
benefit this species. The habitats associated with
the great yellow bumblebee, machair and
neutral grassland, are important for a wide
range of other species of conservation concern,
such as corncrake, which would also benefit
from management measures for this species.
Action for the great yellow bumblebee could also
raise awareness of the needs of other threatened
bees in Scotland. It is a UKBAP Priority Species
and is included on the Scottish Biodiversity List.
General ecology
Worker bees are relatively large, and their
numbers per nest are low (20 - 50). Nests are
constructed underground. Traditional Hebridean
cattle-rearing regimes and rotational machair
cropping provide suitable habitat for the great
yellow bumblebee. It may be able to survive on
small, scattered patches of forage, provided
these patches supply food continuously through
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
the season (from May or June to the end of
September).
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The great yellow bumblebee has experienced
considerable range contraction in Britain since
the 1960s. It is one of several bumblebees to
have declined in range and abundance,
probably because of habitat loss to modern
agricultural practices. Although widespread in
northern and central Europe and in Asia, it is
declining in many other parts of its European
range including Germany, France, Belgium,
Netherlands, Switzerland and Scandinavia.
Threats arise from heavy summer grazing,
reduction in rotation period, fertilisation and
adoption of silage and monoculture.
Recent action and partners involved
A number of projects have been undertaken or
are in progress to establish the distribution and
status of this species, to investigate its ecology
and population genetics. Habitat assessment
and management is also being carried out at
various sites. Partners in this work include RSPB,
the Aculeate Conservation Group, the
Bumblebee Conservation Trust, the Glasgow
Natural History Society and the Institute of
Zoology.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain and extend the range of
populations in Scotland.
• To maintain and enhance suitable habitat
for this species within its known range.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Ensure appropriate habitat management is
in place, e.g. type and timing of grazing, in
core areas for the species.
• Extend existing distribution and abundance
through habitat restoration and/or creation.
• Promote an interest in, and understanding
of, the conservation management of this
species and its habitats through promotional
material and practical educational projects.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Marsh fritillary butterfly
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The marsh fritillary butterfly (Euphydryas
(Eurodryas) aurinia) has a pale yellowish-brown
upperside
patterned
with
orange-brown
markings and brown spots. The underside is
light orange to brown with yellow spots. The
caterpillars are black with black spines along the
back.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The marsh fritillary meets criterion 1a of the
Species Action Framework, as a species for
conservation action. It has become extinct over a
large part of its former range in the UK, having
declined by about 60% since records began. The
species continues to be vulnerable in many parts
of its range and western Scotland now
represents a stronghold. Its management
requirements are fairly well understood, and
there are recognised agricultural practices that
could benefit the butterfly and other wildlife
which shares its habitat. It is a UKBAP Priority
Species and is included on the Scottish
Biodiversity List (butterflies, as a group, are also
included on the Scottish Biodiversity List as a
recent social survey identified them to be
amongst the top ten most important species as
judged by the Scottish public). It is also included
on Annex II of the EC Habitats Directive and is
protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981, as amended.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The marsh fritillary occurs in open grassland
and, less frequently, in woodland clearings. The
caterpillars feed on devil’s bit scabious, although
other plants such as field scabious and small
scabious are occasionally used. In Scotland most
colonies are situated in areas of damp, neutral
or acid grassland such as fen meadows and
rush pastures, with abundant devil’s bit
scabious. Breeding areas are generally open,
though many are sheltered either by scattered
scrub or by adjacent woodland. The marsh
fritillary is distributed throughout western Europe
and eastwards to Korea. However, it is declining
in every European country. Western Scotland, in
particular Argyll, is one of the species' remaining
strongholds.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
General ecology
Continuous light grazing is required to produce
a sward between 5 and 25cm high, although
density of devil’s bit scabious may be the key
requirement. Most marsh fritillary colonies occur
where there is light cattle or horse grazing.
Sheep may preferentially graze scabious plants,
making them too short for the butterfly. Periodic
scrub control may be needed on some sites to
prevent invasion under low grazing levels,
although scattered scrub provides shelter.
Usually the marsh fritillary is a sedentary species
but some dispersal from colonies does occur.
Populations can fluctuate greatly in size from
year to year possibly because of weather
conditions, food supply and caterpillar
parasitism by braconid wasps of the genus
Cotesia. Large fluctuations can cause local
extinctions especially when butterfly populations
are small and habitat patches are of low quality
or not large enough. The number of sightings of
adults outside their breeding habitat suggests
that marsh fritillary populations have a
‘metapopulation’ structure. This implies that the
conservation of small sites, with populations that
periodically become extinct, may be as
important as the conservation of large sites.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The UK is now believed to be one of its major
European strongholds, but even here it has
declined substantially over the last 150 years,
due mostly to inappropriate management. The
major threats to the marsh fritillary populations
are habitat loss from land development and
agricultural improvement, afforestation, changes
in grazing regime, increasing fragmentation and
isolation of habitats.
Recent action and partners involved
There has been a considerable amount of survey
work over recent years to identify marsh fritillary
strongholds, undertaken by SNH and by the
voluntary sector. This information was
instrumental in identifying sites for designation
as SACs. There are now five SACs in Scotland
for which marsh fritillary is a qualifying feature,
one on Islay and four on mainland Argyll.
Suitable management regimes have been or are
being designed for these key sites. Butterfly
Conservation is the UKBAP Lead Partner for the
species and is involved in organising surveys
and the recruiting and training of volunteer
surveyors – a recent programme of work was
undertaken on Islay (funded by Allied Domecq,
SNH and the HLF), and included the production
of an advisory leaflet targeted at land
managers. Other partners involved include
SEERAD and local land owners.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain the core range of the species in
Scotland.
• To maintain viable networks (metapopulations) within this core range, aiming at
occupancy within 107 1km squares (work
will also get underway to increase this figure
to 117 by 2015).
Types of actions over the next five years
• Continue appropriate management on
relevant designated sites.
• Continue survey and monitoring undertaken
by a variety of bodies.
• Promote favourable land management
through management agreements and
appropriate schemes.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Pearl-bordered fritillary butterfly
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The pearl-bordered fritillary (Boloria euphrosyne)
is a pale, orange-brown butterfly with black
spots and wingspan 38-46 mm. The underside is
paler with reddish-brown hindwings featuring
pearly, silver spots. The caterpillar is about 2.5
cm long and has a black body with black, yellow
or white spines along the back.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The pearl-bordered fritillary satisfies criterion 1a
of the Species Action Framework, as a species
for conservation action. It has declined rapidly
across the UK, and Scotland is now the major
stronghold. Although still relatively widespread
in the UK, most colonies are small and
vulnerable to changing management. There is
sufficient information on the species to guide
suitable management action, and the
management required would benefit other
species which favour woodland glades,
coppiced woodland etc. It is a UKBAP Priority
Species and is included on the Scottish
Biodiversity List (butterflies, as a group, are also
included on the Scottish Biodiversity List as a
recent social survey identified them to be
amongst the top ten most important species as
judged by
the Scottish public). It is also
protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981, as amended.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The pearl-bordered fritillary is found in dry,
sheltered open areas, either in clearings
between trees or on woodland edges. These
habitat patches include young tree plantations,
coppiced woodland, rides and corridors along
pylon lines where the vegetation comprise a
mosaic of bracken amongst mainly acidic
grasses and spring woodland herbs such as
bugle, the butterfly’s main nectar source.
Despite having been lost from a significant part
of its former range, the butterfly remains
abundant at localities in north-west England and
the glens of central-north Scotland (Highland,
Argyll, Perthshire, Aberdeenshire and Moray). It
is widespread from western Europe to Asia
although there is evidence of a decline in many
countries.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
General ecology
The main larval food plant is the common dog
violet, although in Scotland the marsh violet
is sometimes utilized. Marking studies have
demonstrated that the pearl-bordered fritillary
has low mobility, with the majority of individuals
dispersing less than 1km during their lifetime.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The pearl-bordered fritillary was formerly
widespread throughout much of Britain, but it is
now extinct over large parts of its former range.
The main threats are loss of clearings and
canopy gaps, cessation of grazing on
unimproved grassland and abandonment of
traditional bracken and gorse management.
Open woodland sites that have been targeted
for woodland improvement schemes may be
threatened in the long-term. Locally schemes
involving deer culling, fencing to exclude stock
and deer, or bracken spraying are causes for
concern because they may lead to loss of open
areas in woodlands. Improved pastures,
abandonment of grazing or overgrazing by
sheep are also potential threats to the habitat.
Recent action and partners involved
Butterfly Conservation is the UKBAP Lead Partner
for the species and is involved in organising
surveys and the recruiting and training of
volunteer surveyors. It has also produced an
advice note which includes management
information aimed at guiding land managers.
Butterfly Conservation’s first Scottish nature
reserve, Allt Mhuic at Loch Arkaig, which was
opened in 2003, is managed for pearl-bordered
fritillary. There is one SSSI for which the species
is a notified feature and where the aim is to
manage the habitat to ensure the condition of
the butterfly is favourable. The main partners
involved include Butterfly Conservation, FCS,
SEERAD and local land owners.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain the core range of the species.
• To maintain viable networks (metapopulations) within this core range.
• To increase the number of occupied sites
within each network.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Promote extensive grazing regimes through
management agreements.
• Ensure appropriate woodland management.
• Ensure habitat requirements of this species
are incorporated into management prescriptions and agri-environmental schemes,
with particular attention to the need for
bracken control.
• Restore suitable habitats throughout the
butterfly’s former range.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Pine hoverfly
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The pine hoverfly (Blera fallax) is a hairy, mainly
black species with a bright red-tipped abdomen
and a yellow face. It has a wingspan of 8.0-9.5
mm and resembles a small bumblebee.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The pine hoverfly meets criterion 1a of the
Species Action Framework, as a species for
conservation action. It is restricted in the UK to
only two sites in the central Scottish Highlands;
there has been a documented decline in
numbers and distribution since the early 20th
century; population levels at the two remaining
sites are low; and it remains under threat of
extinction. There is sufficient knowledge of the
species’ habitat requirements for targeted action
to be taken to help the species recover. It is a
UKBAP Priority Species and is included on the
Scottish Biodiversity List. It is also considered to
be declining and under threat in Europe.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
In Scotland the pine hoverfly is associated with
mature Scots pine although in Europe it also
occurs in association with other conifer species.
Most historical records refer to native pinewood
sites but the modern records are more closely
linked to mature plantations where forestry
operations are taking place. Despite at least ten
years of survey work only two remaining
populations are known, both of which occur in
Strathspey, centred on the area between
Aviemore and Grantown-on-Spey. In historical
times this species was recorded from Deeside,
along the River Findhorn and in several other
parts of Strathspey. Population levels in natural
situations at the two sites remain low, probably
less than 250, and fluctuate in response to
forestry operations. The number of larvae at one
site has been boosted by management action
over the last five years and similar management
is now under way at the second site.
General ecology
Pine hoverfly larvae develop in wet situations in
pine stumps, usually where there has been some
softening or decay of the heartwood by the pine
butt-rot fungus Phaeolus schweinitzi. The pine
stump needs to have a diameter greater than
40cm in order to support a large enough wet
decay area. The larvae may emerge as adults
after only one year if conditions are suitable, but
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
if conditions are sub-optimal due to a small area
of decay or overcrowding they may remain as
larvae for at least two years. The larvae leave the
decay to pupate around the margin of the stump
or in surrounding undergrowth. Each fresh
stump can probably support the appropriate
decay for a period of 8-10 years before the
stump dries out completely, a continuity of
stumps is therefore required.
In a natural situation it is considered that the
pine hoverfly larvae would develop in the stumps
of large pines which, weakened by an attack of
the butt-rot fungus, would snap off during
storms. However, given the lack of extensive
areas of large, old pines in Scotland where this
process could take place naturally the species
relies, perhaps almost entirely, upon stumps cut
as part of forestry operations. Evidence from
Norway and Finland supports this position.
Adults had been seen feeding on flowers of
raspberry but little else is known about their
behaviour or dispersive abilities.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The pine hoverfly was first known in Britain in the
late 19th century when a Victorian collector
found the first specimen buzzing at his hotel
window in Braemar. There were occasional
records up until the 1940s but then a marked
gap in the latter part of the 20th century apart
from the discovery of a number of individuals,
presumed to be from one breeding stump, in the
1980s. After some ten years of searching, larvae
of the hoverfly were eventually found in Scotland
in the late 1990s and the understanding of the
conditions which they required for development
prompted a widespread survey for further sites.
Despite this only two sites are currently known.
There is no current threat to the populations in
the conventional sense; the main issue is that at
present our pinewoods do not have the extent
of mature or over-mature pines which this
species requires. Ironically, felling within
native pinewoods during the early 20th century
probably meant that pine hoverfly populations
remained high; conservation efforts in recent
decades have stopped this felling, but with a
consequential negative impact on the species.
The other important factor is that present
population levels are considered so low and
localised that any large scale colonization events
into surrounding appropriate habitat may be
unlikely.
Recent action and partners involved
Over the last five years management techniques
for the creation of artificial breeding sites have
been trialled and developed at both the known
sites. This has involved both the cutting of fresh
stumps to simulate the natural rot pockets
created by the butt-rot fungus, and the
deployment of plastic containers, sunk into the
ground, and filled with a pine mixture similar to
the natural situation. Both of these techniques
have proved to be successful in attracting larvae
which have then developed into adults. Key
partners are the Malloch Society and the RSPB.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain viable populations at the two
currently occupied sites.
• To increase the amount of suitable breeding
habitat and populations at currently
occupied sites to increase the potential for
further colonization.
• To achieve an increase in the range to five
sites by 2012.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Develop partnership with the site owners
and other forestry interests in Strathspey, to
promote appropriate management of
existing and potential new sites.
• Prepare a guidance note on habitat management for the pine hoverfly.
• Boost populations at current sites using
suitable management techniques to a level
where colonization of new sites might occur.
• Continue to develop techniques for artificial
breeding sites, and use to monitor for the
presence of the species elsewhere.
• Monitor the effectiveness of the actions in
order to refine future management.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Slender Scotch burnet moth
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The slender Scotch burnet moth (Zygaena loti
scotica) is a red and black day-flying moth with
a wingspan of 25-30 mm. Larvae are dark greygreen, with indistinct yellow and black spots
along the side.
The slender Scotch burnet inhabits low cliffs and
grassy banks on sunny, south-facing coasts
where the larval foodplant bird’s-foot trefoil
grows in open swards. It has a narrow
distribution in the UK, occurring only in Argyll at
eight sites within three 10-km squares, on the
islands of Mull and Ulva.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The slender Scotch burnet meets criterion 1a of
the Species Action Framework, as a species for
conservation action. It has shown a marked
decline in the UK, where it is restricted to
Scotland. It is a UKBAP Priority (sub) Species,
and is included on the Scottish Biodiversity List.
Zygaena loti is widespread in central Europe, but
the subspecies scotica is presumed to be
endemic to Scotland.
General ecology
Adult males are seen flying around in good
weather, congregating on flowers such as
milkworts. Females tend to perch and take
nectar from the larval food plant, bird’s-foot
trefoil. The larvae bask near the food plant in
spots open to the sun such as stones, bare soil or
moss cushions. Larvae are absent from tall grass
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
swards even though the food plant is present. All
breeding sites are prone to rock and soil slides,
which maintain the vegetation in early
successional stages. Colonies depend on the
periodic creation of small patches of suitable
habitat by grazing and natural erosion.
Nonetheless, colonization is limited because the
adults are largely sedentary; few stray beyond
the immediate boundaries of colonies.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To ensure the populations of the slender
Scotch burnet are maintained on all extant
sites.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
• To increase the amount of potentially
suitable habitat.
The slender Scotch burnet is now restricted to its
few island colonies in Argyll, having become
extinct on the mainland. The main threats to this
moth are inappropriate grazing levels,
afforestation and isolation of colonies. Due to
under-grazing, bracken invasion has damaged
several sites. Encroachment from Cotoneaster
species is also a problem.
• To maintain and seek to enhance current
metapopulation links between colonies.
Recent action and partners involved
Habitat management is already in place in some
areas. Most of the current populations occur
within SSSIs, and land owned by the NTS, which
has established monitoring transects that are
surveyed annually. Other partners include the
Burnet Study Group and Butterfly Conservation.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Implement or continue to correct management of the areas occupied by the
colonies. This moth needs an early stage of
vegetation succession, so some disturbance
such as slippages is needed.
• Increase the size of the occupied sites by
improving the habitat quality on the edges.
• Attempt to link up existing sites (therefore
reduce habitat fragmentation) by improving
the habitat quality on adjacent areas.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Bird’s nest stonewort
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Bird’s nest stonewort (Tolypella nidifica) is a
brown-green charophyte (a type of alga), which
grows to 20-30cm high on sandy substrates in
brackish waters.
Bird’s nest stonewort grows in saline lagoons
and other brackish water bodies. In recent years
it has only been recorded on North Uist in Loch
an Duin and Loch an Struth Mhor. Historical
records for this species exist for Norfolk, Suffolk,
Shetland and Orkney (Loch of Stenness and
Loch of Boardhouse). More widely it is
associated with the northern coasts of Europe
including the Baltic, the North Sea and northern
Norway.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
Bird’s nest stonewort meets criterion 1a of the
Species Action Framework, as a species for
conservation action. It has declined substantially
in the last 25 years and presently is known in the
UK from only two sites, both in Scotland. There is
reasonable knowledge to identify actions to
benefit the species. Other brackish water
charophyte species would benefit from any
habitat and water quality improvements e.g. the
rare foxtail stonewort, and action could raise
broader awareness of the conservation issues for
charophytes and other aquatic macrophytes.
Bird’s nest stonewort is a UKBAP Priority Species
and is included on the Scottish Biodiversity List.
General ecology
Stoneworts are associated with clear waters,
containing low to moderate levels of nutrients,
and are often early colonizers of new or
disturbed habitats. The term ‘stonewort’ refers to
the fact that calcium compounds are deposited
on the external surfaces of the plant, although in
bird’s nest stonewort this is less pronounced.
Bird’s nest stonewort may tolerate salinities of 2
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
to 18 ppt (parts per thousand), values of 15 ppt
being thought to be optimal. Although similar in
form to vascular plants, stoneworts are a group
of algae, which consist of extremely large cells.
They have rhizoids, rather than roots, and as
they have no vascular system, they are directly
dependent on the water column for nutrients.
Reproduction is by spore production. Spores of
the stonewort are believed to remain viable for
many years.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
In Orkney the bird’s nest stonewort has not been
recorded in Loch of Stenness, a saline lagoon,
since 1994; and it was last found in Loch of
Boardhouse in 1923. Bird’s nest stonewort
remains in the the North Uist lochs, Loch an
Duin and Loch an Struth Mhor, but the frequency
of occurrence and the distribution of the species
within the two sites is unknown.
Pressures on stoneworts include changes in
salinity, eutrophication and species succession,
although threats to current or recent sites for
bird’s nest stonewort need further assessment.
Recent action and partners involved
The UKBAP Stonewort Working Group has
supported work on the distribution and ecology
of this species, with Plantlife Scotland as the key
partner in Scotland.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain and enhance existing
populations and restore populations at
former sites where appropriate.
• To maintain the range and number of sites
including, where appropriate, through
introduction to adjacent localities, where
existing localities become unsuitable.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Established the status and extent of the
species at its current and recent sites.
• Ensure that appropriate management is in
place at existing localities.
• Produce a management advice note on the
species.
• Assess the current state of former sites and
ascertain the conditions required for
reinstatement at former sites.
• Develop cultivation/propagation techniques
for the species.
• Carry out reinstatement at previous sites, if
conditions found to be suitable.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Intermediate wintergreen
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Intermediate wintergreen (Pyrola media) is an
evergreen herb with attractive white, globular
flowers, tinged with pink, which are borne on a
stalk up to 30 cm long above a rosette of shiny,
dark green, rounded leaves. It flowers between
June and August.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework, as a species for conservation action.
It has suffered a significant decline across Britain
since the 1970s, with Scotland now its UK
stronghold. It remains under threat but there is
reasonably good knowledge of the requirements
of the species and targeted action is likely to
make a difference. Improved management of its
woodland and heathland habitats could also
benefit other species of concern including two
related wintergreens. It is included on the
Scottish Biodiversity List.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Intermediate wintergreen grows on well-drained,
mildly acidic to slightly basic soils in woods and
on heaths. It is now found mainly at higher levels
in Scotland, notably in the Cairngorms area, but
there are also scattered sites along the west
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
coast and in the north of Skye. It has disappeared from many of its former sites in
southern Scotland. It is scarce in England and
Ireland. Elsewhere in Europe it occurs in
Scandinavia, woods in the mountains in France,
Italy, Bulgaria, Serbia and the Caucasus, and it
extends eastwards to Asia Minor. It is usually
found as scattered individuals or in small
groups, and is not known to be abundant
anywhere in the United Kingdom.
General ecology
Intermediate wintergreen is especially found in
pinewoods, in association with species such as
creeping ladies tresses orchid. It also occurs in
submontane heath, notably areas characterized
by bearberry and heather, which may have been
derived from former woodland.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
Since 1970 it has suffered a significant decline.
This has been most noticeable in northern
England and southern Scotland. In England, it
has gone from nearly all its former sites and
there are now no sites in Wales; there have also
been losses in Ireland. It is a shy flowerer and
can sometimes be overlooked especially when
growing in deep heather; however, this does not
account for the greater loss in its wider
distribution throughout the northern parts of
Britain. Unfavourable woodland management
and increased moorland grazing are the main
factors that have brought about the decline. In
many woodlands there is now no suitable
management being undertaken; on heathland
there is over-grazing on some areas and no
grazing on others, leading to either a very short
turf in which the herbaceous species are grazed
out, or a rank growth of heather which shades
them out.
Recent action and partners involved
There is no current or recent action undertaken
specifically to benefit this species. Interested
partners include FCS and Plantlife Scotland.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To maintain and where appropriate
enhance existing populations, and restore to
former sites, through re-establishment of
suitable woodland and heathland management.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Carry out targeted assessment of
distribution, status and recent losses of the
species, and analyse associated management history.
• Produce an advice note on good
management practice for the species and its
habitats.
• Identify key sites for habitat restoration and
instigate appropriate management practices
with partners through existing or tailored
schemes.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Lesser butterfly orchid
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Lesser butterfly orchid (Platanthera bifolia) is an
attractive orchid which has between 15 and 25
creamy-white flowers tinged with green borne on
a central stem growing to a height of 30cm. It
normally flowers in June and July, and has a
sweet scent.
Lesser butterfly orchid grow in a variety of
habitats in heathland, grassland, open scrub,
woodland edges and on moorland. It is tolerant
of wet conditions and in Scotland is usually
found in moist grassland and heathland. It also
grows on a range of soil types, from acid to
calcareous, overlying sands, gravels and clays.
This is a relatively widespread species in
Scotland, especially along the west coast and on
the islands, but it is now relatively uncommon in
the south and east, and also scattered in west
Wales, north-west and south-west England,
Northern Ireland and central Ireland. It occurs
throughout Europe, the Caucasus, north Asia
and north Africa. The total population size in the
UK is unknown but is likely to be in the
thousands. However, it is not usually found in
dense stands and populations of over 100
individuals are infrequent, with groups
containing just a few plants being more usual.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework, as a species for conservation action.
It has suffered a 33% decline across Britain
between 1964 and 2002 and remains under
threat. There is good knowledge of the
requirements of the species and targeted action
is likely to make a difference. It is not a UKBAP
Priority Species at present but is under active
consideration as part of the Priority Species and
Habitats Review. It is included on the Scottish
Biodiversity List.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
General ecology
Whilst habitat management for species-rich
grassland and heathland areas would be
suitable for the lesser butterfly orchid, it is often
found in small sites or corners of rough
grassland/heath that have been left alone and
not taken into cultivation. Deferring mowing of
roadside verges until after mid-July (where there
is no threat to visibility and sight lines) would
avoid cutting off the flowering spikes, and would
therefore be of benefit.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The species has suffered a considerable decline,
with many losses in England occurring before
1930. It has suffered more than 33% decline
throughout Britain between 1964 and 2002.
Drainage of fields, woodland disturbance,
ploughing up of grassland and heathland,
spreading of fertilizers, spraying with herbicides,
heavy grazing during the summer, and cutting of
roadside verges in the flowering season are all
activities that have brought about its decline. All
of these pressures still exist.
Recent action and partners involved
A special survey for this species in Scotland was
launched primarily by SNH in June 2006.
Partners in this were Plantlife Scotland and BSBI
Scotland (further information is available on
www.snh.org.uk/orchid). The response has been
excellent and the results are being collated at
present. This is the beginnings of our
implementation plan. Further collation and
interpretation of the responses will take place
this winter, enabling us to take forward the next
stages in 2007.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To stop the decline of the species and to
ensure appropriate management of the
range of habitats in which it presently
occurs.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Complete the current project to assess past
and present distribution in Scotland.
• Produce illustrated advice note on good
practice management for the plant and its
habitats.
• Promote suitable management for the plant
with landowners, land managers and key
organisations and encourage uptake of
appropriate Land Management Contracts
/schemes which would benefit the species.
• Review the overall status, distribution and
condition of the sites and publicise the
project.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Small cow-wheat
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Small cow-wheat (Melampyrum sylvaticum) is an
annual herb with a yellow flower, found in
upland woodlands.
Once widespread in Britain and Ireland (over
200 sites) small cow-wheat is now restricted to
only 18 sites, most in Scotland north of the
Highland Boundary Fault. At lower altitudes this
species occupies high humidity sites - close to
water, north-facing and under a closed canopy.
At higher altitudes the climate is cool enough to
maintain adequate moisture levels without a
dense canopy, although the shorter growing
season constrains plant size. There are many
more potentially suitable locations for the
species than those it occupies. Extant sites have
all been undisturbed for more than a century
indicating that the species has a strong
requirement for stable conditions.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
This species meets criterion 1a of the Species
Action Framework, as a species for conservation
action because it has declined substantially in
the UK and for which Scotland is now a
stronghold. Recent research has improved our
understanding of the species so that targeted
actions could be undertaken to instigate
recovery. These actions could also benefit other
species such as insects in the same habitat.
Small cow-wheat is a UKBAP Priority Species and
is included on the Scottish Biodiversity List.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
General ecology
Research has demonstrated that there is low
genetic diversity both within and between the
populations – not surprising in an annual plant
with small, isolated populations. The seed is
exceptionally large for an annual species annuals usually rely on the production of many
tiny seeds to ensure their reappearance each
year.
The small cow-wheat seed has an
elaiosome, an oil body on its surface, which
attracts wood ants that carry the seed to their
nests. Wood ants rely on sun patches in the
canopy to maintain the temperature of their
nests and in this way the seeds are carried to
sites suitable for maximum growth within the
woodland.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
Some populations appear to have been lost due
to habitat changes resulting from fertilizer runoff, intense grazing and the planting of conifers.
The species is undergoing a rapid decline. Partly
this is due to change in the management of
woodlands but a crucial factor appears to be the
loss of wood ants due to woodland management
and fragmentation. A critical factor now seems
to be the loss of genetic diversity. The annual life
cycle, with self-fertilization, enhances the likelihood of genetic drift causing loss of diversity in
these isolated populations. The breakdown of
the symbiotic relationship with the loss of
wood ants reveals the parallel losses in species
composition that are evidently occurring in these
woodlands.
Recent action and partners involved
The species has been studied intensively under
the UK Species Action Plan, including research
on the genetic variation by Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh, and research on the
ecology and conservation of the species at the
University of Aberdeen. Extant sites have been
relocated and monitored by SWT. The UK
Biodiversity Action Plan is well advanced and has
led to the experimental establishment of new
populations. A key need now is to integrate
conservation of the wood ant with the plan for
this species. Current partners include SWT, FCS,
Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, and Aberdeen
University.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain existing populations of this
species as components of viable and
functioning ecosystems.
• To establish, by 2010, small cow-wheat at
five suitable sites in order to commence the
process of extending distribution in Britain.
• To ensure there are five new populations of
this species of greater genetic diversity by
2010 (so that they might be able to adapt to
the effects of climate change).
Types of actions over the next five years
• Restore suitable management conditions on
existing sites.
• Demonstrate the role of wood ants on the
survival of this species by restoration of
wood ants to the new population sites.
• Restore suitable conditions and then the
species to lost sites.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Woolly willow
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The woolly willow (Salix lanata) is a low shrub
with woolly, grey-green leaves. It is now
restricted to ungrazed areas at high altitude.
In all non-arid mountain systems, montane
scrub, consisting of species like woolly willow, is
an important habitat above the tree line.
Montane scrub supports a range of unusual
plants and invertebrates and is an important
foraging area for birds and mammals. In
Scotland this habitat is now virtually absent due
to grazing by red deer and sheep. Woolly willow
formerly occurred in the scrub zone at the upper
limit of forest on those mountains with the richest
soils. However, it is now largely restricted by
grazing to mountain cliffs. Nearly all its present
localities are in the central Highlands. Only four
of its 13 remaining populations have more than
100 plants and the total is estimated to be less
than 1800 plants.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 1a of the Species Action
Framework, as a species for conservation action.
Woolly willow is critically endangered in
Scotland because most of its few remaining
populations are small and threatened with the
further loss of individuals. The species has been
studied recently to establish the causes of decline
and restriction. Management to benefit this
species would also restore the missing montane
scrub habitat and benefit other woody scrub
species and a suite of tall montane herbs that
are also very rare due to grazing. It is a UKBAP
Priority Species and is included on the Scottish
Biodiversity List. It is protected under the Wildlife
and Countryside Act 1981, as amended. Subarctic willow scrub is also an Annex I habitat type
listed on the EC Habitats Directive.
General ecology
Woolly willow occurs at high-altitude in association with species-rich vegetation on base-rich
soils. It occurs as either male or female trees
(‘dioecious’). Unlike other native catkin-bearing
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
trees, the female catkins of woolly willow are
insect-pollinated rather than wind-pollinated.
The species can live with grazing at sustainable
levels, as demonstrated by those few sites where
grazing is limited by the nature of the ground, for
example areas where there is very late snow lie.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
• To increase population size of woolly willow
to over 2000 plants by 2010.
Montane willow scrub, of which woolly willow is
part, once formed an important ecotone above
the upper altitudinal limit of forest. Increases in
the density of grazing animals, particularly red
deer, has led to the loss of woolly willow in
Scotland. The remaining populations of woolly
willow are restricted to inaccessible areas, and
are small, isolated and vulnerable to chance
disasters.
• To ensure that populations are stable or
increasing at all known sites by 2015.
Recent action and partners involved
Three ‘populations’ which were reduced to
single female bushes have been artificially
enhanced by the planting of bushes grown from
seed from other native populations. Two of
these sites are fenced, and the other planting
was in inaccessible areas. Sub-arctic willow
scrub has been the subject of a recent research
programme funded by SEERAD. Current
partners include NTS, Highland Birchwoods,
RBGE, Plantlife, SNH and the University of
Stirling.
• To increase the range of the species by
ensuring that populations at four sites can
expand by 2015.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Ensure agreement by key interest groups of
the mechanism to protect key mountain sites
with woolly willow from the intensities of
grazing which are limiting its survival and
spread.
• Achieve lower densities of grazing animals
(but not total exclusion).
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 1
Species for conservation action
Hazel gloves
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Hazel gloves (Hypocreopsis rhododendri) is a
lichen-like fungus found in oceanic hazel woods.
Its pale tan, bracket-like appearance with
extending finger-like lobes is both distinctive and
conspicuous.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
Hazel gloves meets criterion 1a of the Species
Action Framework, as a species for conservation
action. Scotland is a stronghold for the UK
population; it is vulnerable to loss due to habitat
deterioration, but there is sufficient knowledge of
its ecology to inform effective management
action. It could also be used as a ‘flagship’
species to raise awareness of the importance of
undisturbed, ancient woodlands for Scottish
biodiversity. Management for this species will
help to maintain the diversity of other species,
particularly lichens, that depend on long periods
of woodland habitat continuity. Hazel gloves is a
UKBAP Priority Species and is included on the
Scottish Biodiversity List.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Hazel gloves was first discovered in Europe on
Mull in 1975. It is currently known from 16 sites
in Scotland, including two SSSIs. All sites are on
the west coast in Argyll and Bute or Highland.
Here, it has mainly been found growing on
standing, dead stems of hazel, but has also been
recorded on living hazel branches, cut hazel
branches and living and dead branches of
blackthorn, eared willow and wild rose species.
In Scotland, it is confined to ancient, ‘core’
stands of Atlantic coastal hazel. One of its best
recorded Scottish sites is a woodland which has
not been coppiced or thinned for many years
and therefore contains a considerable amount
of standing dead-wood, much of which is hazel.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
General ecology
Observations to date suggest that hazel
gloves is parasitic on the ‘glue crust’ fungus
Hymenochaete corrugata, a common fungus of
dead and dying hazel stems. Hazel gloves is
often found by looking for detached dead stems
that have been glued to living stems by the glue
crust fungus. Continuity of habitat seems to be
important for the persistence of hazel gloves
because it is not found on invasive stands of
hazel or stands that have regenerated after
clear-cutting.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
There are insufficient records to demonstrate
direct decline but suitable habitat for hazel
gloves has certainly suffered historic decline. The
greatest threat to hazel gloves is destruction of its
scrub habitat. Invasion of hazel woods by
Rhododendron ponticum, and overshading by
emergent trees, is likely to cause long-term
deterioration in habitat quality. Likewise,
inappropriate habitat management, e.g.
introduction of coppicing to hazel stands that
have not been previously managed in this way,
will also threaten continuity of the deadwood
micro-habitat. Over-grazing by sheep or deer
could lead to a long-term deterioration in
vegetation structure on hazel glove sites.
Collection by enthusiasts is a potential threat on
sites with small populations.
Recent action and partners involved
There has been little targeted action recently
apart from surveys and site assessments. The
Species Action Plan involves SNH as lead
partner together with FC, NE, CCW, JNCC and
local authorities.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain populations of this species at all
current sites.
• To increase the extent of known populations
where feasible.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Encourage measures to promote the growth
of hazel on existing sites.
• Remove emergent trees and/or rhododendron that threaten sites.
• Ensure that existing sites are not damaged
through misguided coppicing management
of hazel stands not previously exploited in
this way.
• Prevent over-grazing by sheep and deer.
• Advise landowners and land managers of
the presence and importance of hazel
gloves and its management needs.
• Undertake survey of suitable hazel woods to
discover new sites.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 2
Invasive non-native species
American mink
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The American mink (Mustela vison) is a semiaquatic carnivore that first became established
in the wild in Britain in the 1950s following
numerous escapes and releases from fur farms.
It has now spread throughout most of the
country.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The American mink meets criterion 2 of the
Species Action Framework as an invasive nonnative species which presents a significant risk to
biodiversity. It is a generalist predator that can
have a serious impact on a range of vulnerable
native prey species. The animal has been well
studied and management options are available
to deal with it at a local level. Control of mink
would benefit a range of species on which it
predates, such as water voles and ground
nesting birds (water vole is also on the Species
Action List and actions relating to this species
cross-link to mink). The Wildlife and Countryside
Act 1981, as amended, makes it an offence to
release mink or allow them to escape into the
wild. The Mink Keeping (Scotland) Order 2003
prohibits the keeping of the species in Scotland
except under licence.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Mink are usually associated with aquatic
habitats, including coastal areas where the
species can be particularly abundant. Following
several introductions in the UK they have spread
throughout the mainland except to, as yet,
Caithness and most of Sutherland. They are
present on the Western Isles (Harris and Lewis)
and some other Hebridean islands. The Scottish
population was estimated at 52,250 (+/- 50%)
in a 1995 study (110,000 for the UK as a
whole), although a more recent estimate
suggests a figure of 19,450 based on 1996-98
data.
In Europe, American mink are now present over
much of northern Europe including Iceland, but
also in isolated areas further south and west.
General ecology
Mink are extremely adaptable opportunist
predators and can exploit a wide range of
mammals, birds and fish. The sexes live apart
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
and occupy individual linear territories, typically
1.5-2km in length. In freshwaters, watercourses
with plenty of bank-side tree cover are preferred.
In coastal areas they prefer more sheltered sites
with large rock pools.
Western Isles Enterprise, RSPB, the University of
Aberdeen, SEERAD, the Central Science
Laboratory, GCT, SGA, SAMS, LBAP groups and
the Cairngorms National Park Authority.
History of invasion and expansion
The first feral populations of mink were recorded
in the 1950s in England. Colonization by mink
in Scotland has taken longer and has occurred
in the context of an increasing otter population.
Three national otter surveys undertaken from the
late 1970s to early 1990s, and subsequent
records, indicate an overall increase in mink,
although anecdotal evidence suggests that mink
may be declining in some parts of Scotland.
Impacts on other biodiversity and
conservation interests
As mink are generalist predators they can affect
prey species which do not form an essential part
of their diet, while remaining unaffected by a
decline of the prey population as they can switch
back to alternative prey. There is strong
correlative evidence that mink are implicated in
the drastic decline of water voles in the UK. Mink
are also known to predate a range of bird
species. Other species, not closely associated
with water, are also vulnerable to mink
predation and have potentially reduced in
numbers as a consequence. The effect of mink
predation at seabird colonies on the west coast
of Scotland has been the subject of long term
studies. Between 1989 and 1995 mink caused
widespread, whole-colony breeding failures and
declines in breeding numbers of black-headed
gulls, common gulls and common terns, as a
result of predation on eggs and chicks. Colonies
on or near the mainland were most affected.
Mink may also account for a large proportion of
salmonid mortality in some river systems.
Recent action and partners involved
Current action on mainland Scotland has
focused on coastal parts of Argyll, the
Cairngorms and parts of Aberdeenshire and
Fife. The Hebridean Mink Project has been
successful in removing the species from the
Uists. The next phase aims to remove the
remaining populations on Lewis and Harris.
Current partners include the district salmon
fishery boards, Comhairle nan Eilean Siar,
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
Complete eradication of mink is only likely to be
feasible from islands that are separated from
source populations by about 5km or more.
Elsewhere, the key objective is likely to be ongoing targeted control. Local action should focus
on coordinated and systematic targeted effort
designed to protect key sites supporting
vulnerable species from mink incursion. The
overall aims and objectives are therefore:
• To support eradication of mink in some
island locations where complete removal of
the species is considered to be possible.
• To identify and implement targeted control
in a range of mainland locations where
conservation objectives for priority species
require urgent action.
• To promote a broader 'ownership' of the
problems associated with mink amongst a
range of environmental and agricultural
organisations.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Eradicate mink from the Western Isles.
• Prevent colonization of the mink-free area in
north-west and north Highlands.
• Prevent colonization of the Northern Isles
and the remaining Hebridean islands that
are currently mink-free.
• Maintain vigilance in the north-west
Highlands (where mink are currently
thought to be spreading) and initiate an
immediate response to remove any live
mink reported in this area.
• Within the established mink range, target
key river catchments and designated
sites for mink management to protect
internationally and nationally important
populations of vulnerable native species.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 2
Invasive non-native species
North American signal crayfish
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The North American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus
leniusculus) is a lobster-like invertebrate which
can grow in excess of 16cm long and is found in
freshwater habitats.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The signal crayfish meets criterion 2 of the
Species Action Framework, as an invasive nonnative species which presents a significant risk to
biodiversity. Its entry into Scotland is restricted by
the Import of Live Fish (Scotland) Act 1978,
Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981, as amended,
Conservation of Native Freshwater Fish Stocks:
The Prohibition of Keeping or Release of Live
Fish (Specified Species) (Scotland) Order 2003
and the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act
2004.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Native to North America, signal crayfish have
been present in northern Europe since the early
1900s. They were introduced to Britain in the
1970s and are now commonly found in
waterways throughout England and parts of
Wales. They were first formally recorded in
Scotland during 1995 and have since been
recorded in 15 sites. These range from Galloway
in the south to Inverness-shire in the north.
Signal crayfish are highly adaptable organisms
which can modify aquatic environments by
eliminating aquatic vegetation and by burrowing
into riverbanks or the shallow littoral areas of
ponds and lochs.
General ecology
Signal crayfish typically grow up to a length of
16cm, although larger specimens have been
recorded. They reach maturity after two to three
years once they have attained a length of 6cm.
Eggs are produced during October and females
carry live young. Signal crayfish may live for up
to 16 years. They are generally considered to be
nocturnal and consume aquatic plants and
invertebrates. They can also predate amphibians
and fish and can restrict fish species from their
preferred habitats.
History of invasion and expansion
Signal crayfish have been present in Britain since
they were first imported from Sweden during the
1970s. Subsequent escapes from farms and
deliberate illegal releases have resulted in the
establishment of new feral signal crayfish
populations over large areas of England and
Wales. Several records exist of signal crayfish
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
introductions to Scotland during the 1980s and
there is some anecdotal evidence to suggest that
crayfish were translocated to a variety of
locations at that time. They were first formally
recorded in Scotland during 1995, since when a
total of 15 populations have been identified.
These extend from the Kirkcudbrightshire Dee in
Galloway and the River Clyde in Lanarkshire to
the River Nairn near Inverness. Populations have
also been recorded in the catchments of some of
Scotland’s most valuable river systems, such as
the Tay, Tweed and North Esk. New populations
are now being reported at a frequency of two or
three per year.
Impacts on other biodiversity and
conservation interests
Signal crayfish have a significantly adverse
impact on native freshwater flora and fauna in
running and standing waters. They can do this
by consuming large quantities of plants and
invertebrates, and by either predating or
displacing amphibians and fish. Signal crayfish
can also modify aquatic environments, by
burrowing into the banks or rivers and ponds. In
ponds, this behaviour can undermine the littoral
zone and result in increased turbidity. In running
waters, extensive burrows may destabilize the
riparian zone, leading to increased rates of bank
erosion, the shallowing of streams and the
compaction of salmonid and lamprey spawning
grounds. The species’ impact on freshwater
pearl mussel is unknown but is likely to be
significant. The potential for signal crayfish to act
as a vector for transmission of diseases within or
between catchments cannot be discounted.
Recent action and partners involved
SNH currently funds monitoring work for this
species, and has provided support to facilitate
the development of new methods designed to
contain or eradicate known populations. SNH
has also published, with input from the SSPCA,
awareness-raising materials intended to inform
the general public about the signal crayfish
issue. Current collaborators in the development
of signal crayfish containment methodologies
include Fisheries Research Services, SEPA,
District Salmon Fisheries Boards, United Clyde
Angling Protective Association and Scott Wilson
consultants.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To ensure that future monitoring provides
a better understanding of the current scale
of the signal crayfish issue and to quickly
identify new populations.
• To collaborate with partners to achieve
containment or eradication of known populations.
• To increase understanding of the ecology of
the signal crayfish and its impact on Scottish
aquatic biodiversity.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Identify clear roles, responsibilities and
resourcing for public bodies when dealing
with signal crayfish issues as part of an
agreed contingency plan, and implement
action when required.
• Raise public awareness of the impact of
signal crayfish on freshwater habitats and
species.
• Collaborate with other partner bodies to
develop and implement methodologies for
the eradication or control of established
signal crayfish populations in freshwaters.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 2
Invasive non-native species
New Zealand pygmyweed
SPECIES BACKGROUND
New Zealand pygmyweed (Crassula helmsii),
also known as Australian swamp stoneweed, is a
small aquatic plant of variable appearance with
inconspicuous white flowers.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
This species meets criterion 2 of the Species
Action Framework as an invasive non-native
species which presents a great risk to
biodiversity. A native of Australia and New
Zealand, its distribution in Scotland appears to
be, as yet, relatively limited, but it is widespread
and locally abundant in England, where it has
spread rapidly, causing smothering and loss of
native plant species and associated biota.
Although it is difficult to control, there are
management options available and there are
actions which could be taken to limit further
spread. It was recently added to Schedule 9 of
the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981), as
amended, making it an offence to deliberately
introduce this species to the wild.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
This
perennial
herb
grows
submerged
in
sheltered waters up to three metres deep or as
an emergent on damp ground. It can form
dense, virtually pure stands. It grows on soft
substrates in a variety of lowland habitats,
including ponds, lakes, reservoirs, canals and
ditches and can tolerate a wide range of water
chemistry. The occurrence of New Zealand
pygmyweed in Scotland is presently restricted,
though it is under-recorded. It is scattered mainly
in the south of Scotland but with isolated records
for Skye, Nairn and Aberdeen. As this plant is
associated with creation of new ponds, its
occurrence is often close to centres of
population.
History of invasion and expansion
This species was first introduced for sale in
England in 1927, but was not recorded outwith
water bodies which had been planted-up until
1956. Since the late 1970s it has spread rapidly
north and west. Between 1970 and 1986, it was
recorded in 33 10 km squares in Britain and
Ireland. In contrast, between 1987 and 1999 it
was recorded in 574 10 km squares. It is now
widespread in England, where it is causing
difficulties on several designated sites. Recently
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
in Scotland it was found in a number of
ponds which were planted-up, including those
associated with Sustainable Urban Drainage
Systems (SUDS).
It is believed that New Zealand pygmyweed has
been introduced into Scotland as a result of its
availability from plant suppliers such as garden
centres and nurseries. It is sold as a plant
suitable for garden ponds, though plant retailers
may refer to this species erroneously as Tillaea
helmsii or Tillaea recurva. However, it is likely
that it is also spread through contamination of
other plants and soil with viable fragments of
New Zealand pygmyweed, within these retail
outlets. Once introduced, the species can then
be spread by users of the affected water body.
Impacts on other biodiversity and
conservation interests
New Zealand pygmyweed is a successful nonnative species for a number of reasons:
guidance has been produced. In 2005 New
Zealand pygmyweed was included in Schedule 9
of the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981)
making it an offence to deliberately introduce
this species to the wild, though this is likely to
have only limited effect.
Plantlife Scotland have recently produced a
leaflet highlighting species that are a problem
when planting out ponds, including New
Zealand pygmyweed. It is also included in the
Plantlife Flora Guardian programme for
Scotland, using volunteers to record its spread.
Many organizations are likely to have an
interest, or duty, in controlling its spread. As well
as SNH these include SEERAD, SEPA, District
Salmon Fishery Boards, angling associations,
Scottish Water, British Waterways, National Park
Authorities, Local Authorities and Plantlife
Scotland/Scottish Environment Link.
• It colonizes water bodies of a variety of
forms, substrates and water chemistry.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
• Although seeds may be produced, spread
occurs through growth of small fragments of
the plant, as individual nodes are viable.
Aims and objectives
• It has both aquatic and terrestrial growth
forms and does not die-back in winter.
• It generally grows vigorously in sites to
which it is introduced, rapidly producing
high biomass, at the expense of the
indigenous plant species; stands may
become extremely dense.
As a consequence, adverse effects on aquatic
ecosystems may occur through light limitation,
oxygen depletion, changes in pH, or a
combination of these factors. In addition, there
may be suppression of the biota normally
associated with the native flora e.g. species
dependent on native plants as a substrate or
food source. It is recognized as a potential cause
of unfavourable condition for a wide range of
freshwater habitat and species features on
designated sites by the UK conservation
agencies, and as a threat to Mesotrophic lakes
and Eutrophic standing waters under UKBAP.
Recent action and partners involved
Various methods of control have been tried
out by English Nature (now Natural England)
and the Environment Agency in England and
An integrated strategy for controlling New
Zealand pygmyweed is required with clear
responsibilities. Key aims should include:
• To determine the distribution and threat
from this species in Scotland.
• To eradicate where appropriate and feasible
at existing sites.
• To prevent or limit spread to further sites
through
raising
awareness
and/or
regulation.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Ascertain the present extent and distribution
of the species throughout Scotland and
assess the threat posed.
• Develop and implement site-specific management plans for existing sites, based
on threat to biodiversity interests.
• Work with managers of planting schemes
(e.g. those related to SUDs) and retail
outlets (garden centres, nurseries) to avoid
introductions to new sites, including
consideration of regulation to prevent sale.
• Promote awareness of the species’ impacts
and the need to avoid further spread
through a public education programme,
including anglers and other water users.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 2
Invasive non-native species
Rhododendron ponticum and hybrids
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Rhododendron ponticum (and its hybrids) is a
non-native small tree or large shrub which is
common in parks and gardens but has spread
into woodland where it has become a pest
species.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
This species meets criterion 2 of the Species
Action Framework as an invasive non-native
species which presents a great risk to
biodiversity. It is widespread and abundant in
woodlands throughout Scotland, where it has
led to a serious decline in the abundance and
diversity of the associated native plant
communities. It spreads rapidly, and regenerates
from small fragments of material. It is essential
that control is coordinated across ownership and
administrative boundaries and that follow-up
action is sustained to prevent recolonization of
cleared ground. Although it is difficult to control,
there are management options available.
Removal of the species can have a beneficial
effect on a range of ground flora, mosses,
liverworts and other species.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
It is found in wooded and open areas on acid
soils in areas of high humidity. Within Scotland
the west coast is worst affected, but it is found
throughout the country.
R. ponticum is native to parts of Iberia and the
Pontic region of eastern Europe and western
Asia. It is present in 1,787 10km squares in
Great Britain, between 0-600m altitude.
History of invasion and expansion
R. ponticum was first introduced from south-west
Spain in 1763. Subsequent introductions have
also occurred, some from the Pontic region –
although genetic evidence suggests that British
plants are entirely Iberian in origin.
R. ponticum was known in the wild by at least
1894 and spread widely in the 20th century.
The rate of spread has accelerated in the last
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
50 years, possibly as a result of increased
disturbance to natural communities from
forestry, the impact of myxomatosis on rabbits
and over-grazing. Its distribution is now
considered stable by some, in that it has not
been detected in new 10km squares but the
species is still expanding aggressively within
individual patches of habitat.
Genetic analysis suggests that British populations of rhododendron often contain the
genes of R. catawbiense, a North American
species. The level of such mixing is much greater
in eastern Scotland and it is suggested that this
may confer greater cold tolerance, which may
have allowed it to colonize colder parts of
Britain. As hybridisation is common in
Rhododendron species, it is also possible that
interbreeding from some of the 500 other
Rhododendron species cultivated in Britain has
occurred through accidental or deliberate
crossing in cultivation.
Impacts on other biodiversity and
conservation interests
R. ponticum colonizes new habitat – especially
woodland and heathland – quite rapidly, and
can regenerate via seeds, suckers or rootlets. It
forms extensive dense thickets which cast a very
deep shade, leading in woodland to loss of
ground flora, epiphytic bryophytes and lichens,
modifying
the
fauna
and
preventing
regeneration of trees. In addition to the effect of
shade, it may produce biochemicals which can
affect other plants, inhibiting the germination or
seedling establishment of other species. There is
also evidence for the prevention of mycorrhizal
development in the roots of seedlings of
competing plant species. R. ponticum may act as
an intermediate host for the Phytophthera
sudden oak death fungus; although this has not
yet been found in Scotland, it is causing
considerable concern in England.
R. ponticum is identified as a serious threat to
upland oakwood in the UKBAP. It is also
identified as a threat for several lower plants and
fungi in the UKBAP including Acrobolbus
wilsonii, Arthothelium macounii, Lejeunea
mandonii and in the grouped plan for tooth
fungi.
Recent action and partners involved
Work to control rhododendron on individual
sites is ongoing on a local basis. SNH, FCS,
NTS, SEERAD, Woodland Trust are all involved in
control of rhododendron whether on their own
land or through provision of incentives to
landowners.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
Complete eradication of R. ponticum and its
hybrids from Scotland is likely to be impractical
at this time, but an appropriate aspirational
target to which SNH will contribute is:
• To eradicate it from certain Natura sites
designated for EC Habitats Directive Annex I
habitat ‘Old sessile oakwoods with Ilex and
Blechnum in the British Isles’ and from
adjacent land to prevent reinfestation.
• To raise awareness and undertake promotional work to dissuade use of this
species and its hybrids in horticulture.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Produce detailed costings of options for
controlling and ultimately eradicating R.
ponticum and its hybrids from all Natura
sites for ‘Old sessile oakwoods with Ilex and
Blechnum in the British Isles’ and from other
priority sites.
• Use this information to inform provision and
targeting of grants.
• Implement clearance from Natura sites.
• Undertake education programmes to influence the perception of the public and
the horticulture industry, including informing
conservationists about the values of other
species of Rhododendron.
• Encourage the replacement of R. ponticum
and
its
hybrids
with
non-invasive
rhododendrons in gardens and designed
landscapes.
• Encourage the cessation in trade in R.
ponticum and an end to the use of rootstock
for grafting other Rhododendron species.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 2
Invasive non-native species
Wireweed
SPECIES BACKGROUND
General ecology
Wireweed (Sargassum muticum) is a large olivebrown seaweed that can grow to more than a
metre long.
The plants have long main fronds with lateral
branches that hang like washing from a line
when held horizontally out of the water. The
lateral branches support distinctive grape-like
air bladders. In autumn, the branches break off
from the basal structure and they can be found
floating individually or in large masses. These
detached fronds remain reproductively capable
and contribute to this species’ ability to expand
its distribution rapidly. The basal structure
remains attached to the rock and will regenerate
new branches in the spring time.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
Wireweed is an invasive, non-native species
which meets criterion 2 of the Species Action
Framework, as posing a significant risk to
marine biodiversity, primarily through competition with indigenous marine plant life.
Although only very recently found in Scotland, it
has spread rapidly elsewhere in the UK since it
first appeared in 1973, and now seems to be
doing so in south-west Scotland.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Wireweed is normally found on the lower shore
or in shallow sub-tidal waters and in mid-shore
rockpools. It generally attaches to rocky
substrates, but it can also be found on sandy or
muddy shores where stones are present.
Wireweed prefers sheltered to slightly exposed
habitats as it can be damaged by wave action in
more exposed sites. In Scotland it is currently
known to occur at various sites in the south-west,
from Loch Ryan to Loch Fyne.
History of invasion and expansion
It is native to the western Pacific but has become
established in many other regions as an
invasive, non-native species. It was first recorded
in the UK in 1973 on the Isle of Wight, and has
since spread along the south coast of England
and into Wales and Ireland. The first reports of
wireweed in Scotland were in Loch Ryan in 2004
and, since then, populations have also been
found at Great Cumbrae Island and on the
North Ayrshire coast. In July 2006, wireweed
was reported in Loch Fyne, and it may already
be present, but as yet unidentified, in other
locations in the Firth of Clyde.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
Impacts on other biodiversity and
conservation interests
shipping (in ballast water or attached to ships’
hulls).
Wireweed is a fast-growing species that can
compete with native seaweeds and seagrasses
through over-growing, shading and abrasion.
Germlings are well-developed when released,
and so may have an advantage in competition
for attachment sites with other macroalgal
species. However, the competitive ability of
wireweed may be reduced at lower salinities and
this may limit their ecological impacts, for
example in Scottish sea lochs with high
freshwater input. It is considered a nuisance in
harbours and shallow waters where large
floating masses may become a hazard to
commercial and recreational boating through
entangling in propellers or blocking engine
cooling systems. The floating mats can also
affect watersports such as swimming, wind
surfing and sailing. Wireweed can foul fishing
nets and lines and can seriously impact on oyster
beds and other aquaculture structures.
Research
projects
are
currently
under
development in collaboration with SAMS, HeriotWatt University, SEPA and the University
Marine Biological Station, Millport. Previous
collaborative work between SNH and SAMS has
resulted in the publication of the ‘Marine Aliens’
leaflet, which provides information on a number
of marine non-native species in the UK,
including wireweed.
Recent action and partners involved
The control or eradication of non-native species
is particularly difficult in the marine
environment, largely due to the potential for
wide dispersal on water currents and the
difficulties associated with obtaining records of
their occurrence in the subtidal. National
eradication of wireweed is impractical and
previous attempts to eradicate it have proven
mostly unsuccessful. Manual techniques for
removal of wireweed fronds are hampered by
the location of stands in the very low intertidal
and subtidal zones, limiting the time available
for removal to only the lowest tides. Basal parts
of the fronds are attached very firmly to the
substratum and, if left, can easily regenerate.
Fragments of fronds that become detached
during the removal process can float off and
help spread the species further. However, recent
work in the Lundy Marine Nature Reserve has
successfully removed wireweed from a small
area using manual removal techniques, giving
hope that this species can be controlled on a
small scale in areas of high conservation
importance. Strategies should therefore focus on
prevention of introduction and reducing the rate
of spread around the coast, rather than
eradication. Potential routes for introduction
include the translocation of shellfish stock or via
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To assess the spread of wireweed and
identify its impacts on biodiversity.
• To develop and implement a control strategy
to prevent the further spread of wireweed
and reduce its impact on native biodiversity,
based on the outcomes of the above.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Instigate a monitoring programme to map
the spread of wireweed in Scottish waters
and assess threats to designated areas.
• Assess the effectiveness of manual clearing
techniques and implement in local areas,
particularly in areas of high conservation
value.
• Evaluate whether wireweed supports a
faunal community similar to other native
algae.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 3
Species for conflict management
Hen harrier
and habitat interests can be sustained. It is a
Scottish Biodiversity List species. The hen harrier
is listed on Annex 1 of the EC Birds Directive and
is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside
Act 1981, as amended. It has an ‘unfavourable’
conservation status across Europe.
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Hen harriers breed on moorlands, peatlands
and conifer plantations usually below 500m. In
Scotland breeding strongholds include Orkney,
East Highland, Arran, Islay, Mull and the Uists.
The Isle of Man is also a stronghold, with smaller
numbers in Wales, northern England, and
Northern Ireland. In 2004, there were 749
nesting pairs in the UK. The European
population is estimated at 32,000-59,000
breeding pairs.
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The hen harrier (Circus cyaneus) is a mediumsized bird of prey found mainly on moorland.
Males have pale grey upper-parts, black wing
tips, while females are brown with a long,
barred tail. All birds have a white rump.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
It meets criterion 3a of the Species Action
Framework as a threatened species which is a
focus of conflicts of interest with stakeholders
with other objectives (notably game management), and for which coexistence is
considered by some to be very difficult. Hen
harriers have long been subject to illegal
persecution, notably over some areas of
moorland managed for driven red grouse
shooting, though in some parts of Scotland there
are signs of recovery. In recent years,
considerable scientific research has been undertaken into the relationship between red
grouse and hen harriers to try to inform
management. A major study has already shown
that providing additional food to nesting hen
harriers can substantially reduce the number of
red grouse chicks that they take. A major
demonstration project, at Langholm, is planned
to determine if and how hen harrier, red grouse
The species continues to be absent from many
areas which are apparently suitable. Although
not used for breeding, grasslands provide
valuable foraging habitats. In winter, birds move
to open countryside (lowland farmland,
marshland, fenland, heathland and river
valleys).
General ecology
Hen harriers are predominantly ground nesting
birds favouring areas of rank vegetation. The
female normally lays four to six eggs between
April and the end of May. The chicks fledge at
37-42 days. Occasionally a male can mate with
and provide for two or more females. Hen
harriers feed mostly on small birds and rodents,
especially voles.
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The hen harrier population declined markedly
during the 19th century. By the early 20th
century hen harriers were only found in
Scotland, and even here they were virtually
absent from the mainland and much of the Inner
and Outer Hebrides, surviving in numbers only
on Orkney. By the 1970s, they had recolonized
the mainland, but numbers were well below the
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
carrying capacity of the available habitat. Large
declines occurred from 1970-1990, although
the UK level was unchanged between 1988–89
and 1998. Hen harriers continue to decline in
northern England, and south and east Scotland,
areas dominated by heather moorland
managed for grouse shooting, but numbers
have increased in parts of west Scotland,
including the Outer Hebrides.
The hen harrier has long been subjected to
illegal persecution, and is the most intensively
persecuted raptor in the UK. Persecution has
persisted even though it has been illegal since
1954; it is the main factor behind the hen
harrier's continued unfavourable status in
northern England, and south and east Scotland.
In the west of Scotland, and particularly the
larger islands, many hen harriers continue to
breed within conifer forests where trees have
failed to grow or where patches were left
unplanted. A decrease of 70% in the Orkney
population over the last 20 years has been
linked to reductions in the area of unmanaged
grassland. This population has now largely
recovered, due to more favourable spring
weather conditions and an improvement in
availability of habitat with suitable prey.
Recent action and partners involved
In recent years, considerable scientific research
has been undertaken into the relationship
between red grouse and hen harriers, to try to
inform management. SNH is developing a longterm plan, which will address hen harrier
conservation requirements as well as the conflict
issues in game moor management. Grazing
trials have been carried out on Orkney to
overcome the loss of prey availability and to
enhance the quality of rough grazing areas
for foraging hen harriers. The outcome of
these has helped to inform prescriptions in
agri-environment and management schemes.
Scotland’s Moorland Forum, comprising 24
organizations, has improved our understanding
of the hen harrier-grouse moor relationship, and
has led the development of a demonstration
project for Langholm in south Scotland, which
seeks to revive both raptor and sporting
interests.
The Scottish Raptor Monitoring Group (embracing the seven organizations listed below) is
undertaking a detailed analysis of factors
constraining numbers and breeding success of
hen harriers across Scotland. Site designation
plays an important part in harrier conservation
and monitoring by Raptor Study Groups is
necessary as part of any long term conservation
action. Current partners include SNH, SRSGs,
RSPB, BTO, JNCC, RBBP and SOC.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To develop our understanding of the
constraints on hen harrier numbers and
breeding success, and the land use and
management measures needed to sustain
hen harriers across Scotland.
• To devise and put in place management
and conservation measures to improve the
conservation status of hen harriers.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Complete the analysis of constraints acting
on hen harrier numbers and breeding
success.
• Work with moorland managers, notably at
Langholm, to address the perceived conflicts
between red grouse and birds of prey.
• Develop habitat and other management
measures which will benefit hen harriers.
• Implement schemes to manage land to
sustain and enhance populations.
• Specifically, create and manage rough
grassland for prey species such as voles and
meadow pipits; and see if it is possible to
extend the availability of potentially suitable
nesting habitat.
• Work with the National Wildlife Crime Unit
and the Police, and land management and
conservation bodies, to tackle wildlife crime
in areas where hen harriers continue to be
persecuted.
• Raise the public’s awareness of this bird and
its interesting breeding habits.
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 4
Species for sustainable use
Native deer (red deer and roe deer)
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Roe deer
Red deer
Red deer are selective grazers rather than
browsers and will forage on a range of grasses,
sedges, heathers and woody species. Hence they
can utilize a range of woodland, moorland,
peatland, montane and, in places, wetland
habitats. The red deer is widely distributed in
Scotland although absent from the Northern
Isles, other outlying islands and much of the
central belt and the south-east.
SPECIES BACKGROUND
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) is the largest of
Scotland’s two native species of deer. It is
typically a species of the woodland edge, but is
adapted to the open hill in the uplands. Roe
deer (Capreolus capreolus) is the smaller native
species. It is typically a species of the woodland
edge and of fields, but is increasingly found in
peri-urban woods, scrub and open moorlands.
Why are these on the Species Action List?
They satisfy criterion 4 of the Species Action
Framework, as species for sustainable use. Deer
are a valued part of Scotland’s natural heritage.
They are common throughout nearly all of
Scotland and hence do not have a recognized
conservation status. While the management of
deer as a sporting resource can bring them into
conflict with native habitats and species, the
sustainable management of deer can produce a
wide range of economic, social and
environmental benefits. Their categorization as
species for sustainable use recognizes the
economic benefits associated with species
management, but also recognizes that this
management determines what wider impact
deer have on ecosystem structure and diversity.
Red and roe deer are included on the Scottish
Biodiversity List having been identified as species
most important to the Scottish public.
Roe deer are selective browsers and will seek out
favoured herbs, dwarf-shrubs and tree shoots.
Roe deer are absent from the Western and
Northern Isles and many of the islands off the
west coast including Arran and Mull. They are,
however, widespread on the mainland occurring
in every 10km square on mainland Scotland.
National population estimates have little bearing
on sporting objectives or the impacts that wild
deer have on other public objectives such as
agriculture, forestry, road safety and the natural
heritage. Rather the focus for censuses and
management planning is on local population
densities. There are no comprehensive figures
on population trends, data on woodland deer
being particularly sparse. However, based on
records of presence within 10km squares, it is
suggested that the red deer range has
experienced a modest expansion in the last 30
years of about 0.3% per year, while the range of
roe has expanded from central Scotland at a
rate of 2% per year.
General ecology
Woodland red deer are generally bigger and
more productive than hill deer due to access to
better quality foods and shelter. Groups can
number in their hundreds on the open hill, while
woodland red deer tend towards smaller group
sizes. Stag and hind groups are usually separate
other than during the ‘rut’. Recruitment in red
deer in the open range in Scotland has been
found to be strongly related to weather patterns.
It is anticipated that under climate change
predictions, red deer productivity may increase,
particularly in the east of the country.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
Roe bucks start becoming territorial from
February through to mid-August and are
therefore generally solitary, although they may
form small groups in the winter. Does are
accompanied by kids for most of the year but
will actively drive them out in readiness for the
birth of that years fawns. Normally does give
birth to 1-2 kids.
Impacts on other biodiversity and
conservation interests
Red deer are managed as a sporting resource
on many Scottish estates. To maintain a certain
level of sporting cull, deer managers may
manage the population at a density which in
certain areas can create a tension with the
biodiversity interests on the habitats the red deer
occupy and indirectly the other species
supported by these habitats. On the other hand,
red deer are a ‘keystone’ habitat-shaping
species, particularly in the uplands. Grazing by
red deer can help to maintain some
communities, creating niches for seedling
regeneration and they are a source of dung and
carrion used by other species.
Roe deer are associated with limiting native
woodland regeneration and establishment,
particularly in the lowlands and upland fringes
of central Scotland. They may also impact on the
more palatable woodland ground flora, for
example bramble and on coppice re-growth.
Due to their smaller group sizes, smaller body
sizes and greater browsing selectivity than red
deer, they are not commonly associated with
negative grazing and trampling impacts on
open ground habitats.
Recent action and partners involved
The DCS is charged with furthering the
conservation,
control
and
sustainable
management of all species of wild deer in
Scotland, and keeping under review all matters,
including welfare, relating to wild deer. SNH’s
focus on wild deer relates to their role as a
valued component of the Scottish fauna and in
advising on their impacts directly or indirectly
(deer management) on public objectives related
to access, landscape and biodiversity. The public
agencies, local deer managers and estates are
working together to promote sustainable
management of wild deer and to address
situations where the impacts of red deer are
limiting natural heritage objectives. The focus of
Joint Agency Action on wild deer has been on
addressing impacts on designated sites and
road safety sites.
The ‘Sustainable Deer Management Project’ is
re-examining the definition of, and developing
criteria
to
evaluate,
sustainable
deer
management. The project is further examining
the existing delivery mechanisms to understand
the decision making factors involved and identify
the public and private benefit delivered. Where
appropriate the project will trial novel
approaches using pilot sites throughout the
native deer range. DCS are also leading on
research to identify ways in which wider
countryside public objectives can be identified
and assessed.
SNH, FCS, SEERAD, the
Association of Deer Management Groups,
Environment LINK and the Deer Management
Round Table are all engaged with these projects.
In addition, a research consortium led by
Macaulay Land Use Research Institute is
commencing a five year case study on integrated
deer management, looking at the balance of
public and private costs and benefits in deer
management, and seeking methods to reduce
conflicts and improve communications between
stakeholders.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives
• To promote the sustainable management of
native deer populations to meet a range of
private and public objectives relating to
biodiversity interests.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Expand the programme of Joint Agency
Working on designated sites with features
identified as in ‘unfavourable condition’ in
relation to deer impacts.
• Articulate the public and private benefit
delivered through the sustainable use of
native deer.
• Explore models for achieving sustainable
deer management in a range of upland and
lowland situations through the Sustainable
Deer Management Project.
7 5
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A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
CATEGORY 4
Species for sustainable use
Native oyster
SPECIES BACKGROUND
The native or common oyster (Ostrea edulis) is a
marine bivalve mollusc with a rough, irregularlyshaped shell up to about 10 cm across.
Why is this on the Species Action List?
The native oyster meets criterion 4 of the Species
Action Framework as a threatened species of
socio-economic value requiring action to ensure
sustainable use. It declined greatly as a
commercially harvested species in the 19th and
early 20th centuries around our waters. Its
distribution in the wild is now very restricted with
a stronghold on the Scottish west coast, but
threats remain, such that it potentially meets
criterion 1a as well. There is also sufficient
knowledge of the species to apply effective
targeted action. Native oyster is a potentially
valuable resource that could be sustainably
harvested if population status is improved,
unlawful fishing is ended and there is a robust
management framework. Furthermore, both
management of ‘wild’ stock/habitat and
cultivation have the potential to contribute
positively to recovery of the species. Native
oyster is a UKBAP Priority Species and is included
on the Scottish Biodiversity List. The conservation
importance of this species is also reflected in its
inclusion on the OSPAR List of Threatened
and/or Declining Species and Habitats (2003).
Habitat, distribution and abundance
Native oysters live on the seabed in relatively
shallow coastal waters and estuaries (from the
lower shore to 80m). They prefer habitats
sheltered from strong wave action which tend to
be muddy but require something hard for larval
settlement – usually shells or stones. Native
oysters are found (or have been known to occur)
at locations around the whole of UK from the
Thames estuary to the Northern Isles. In Scotland
they now mainly occur in scattered populations
fringing sea lochs on the west and north coasts.
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
General ecology
Recent action and partners involved
The native oyster may live up to 15 years but
about six years is more usual. It is an active filter
feeder taking plankton and particulate matter
from the water column. Native oysters have an
unusual life history as an alternating
hermaphrodite species that may change sex
successively throughout its life.
The native oyster Species Action Plan is
coordinated at UK level by the Shellfish
Association of Great Britain. In Scotland,
previous action under the plan has focused on:
History of decline, contributory factors
and current threats
The native oyster has been harvested or
cultivated for centuries and once supported a
prolific fishery in several parts of Scotland,
perhaps the best known example being in the
Firth of Forth. In the 13th century the native
oyster fishery of the Forth covered over 129 km2
and was one of the most commercially
important in Scotland. At peak production the
fishery was producing 30 million oysters per
annum and the superior reputation of the oysters
was so widespread that they were transported to
Glasgow, western Scotland, England and the
Continent for consumption and on-growing.
Various attempts at managing the fishery (close
seasons, minimum size for market, ban on
exportation for on-growing) failed and under
extreme pressure from harvesting and illegal
poaching the fishery began to collapse by the
1870s and eventually ceased entirely in 1920.
Surveys of the Firth of Forth carried out in 1957
reported that native oysters were not only
commercially extinct but were biologically extinct
since no living oysters were found. A similar
pattern of decline was recorded elsewhere in the
UK and continental Europe.
At various points in the past the decline in stocks
resulted in the import of oysters to Scotland from
overseas, to establish or replenish fisheries. Such
movements are a potential route for the
introduction of non-native species including
some which are pests and diseases of oysters
(e.g. the slipper limpet) although Scotland has
remained free of most of these. There remains
only one active oyster fishery in Scotland (Loch
Ryan) and a number of sites where they are
cultivated (on a relatively small scale).
Current issues and threats to the native oyster
also include illegal harvesting in Argyll and the
first Scottish case of the oyster disease Bonamia,
which was found in native oysters in Loch Sunart
in July 2006.
• An assessment of the current status of native
oyster populations in Scotland via a project
at University Marine Biological Station
Millport.
• Combating unlawful harvesting in Argyll,
through a partnership project involving
SNH, Argyll and Bute Council, Association
of Scottish Shellfish Growers, Crown Estate,
Strathclyde Police, Northern Constabulary
and University Marine Biological Station
Millport.
Summary 5 year implementation plan
Aims and objectives:
There are existing, wider UKBAP objectives for
Scotland which we will work towards:
• To maintain and, where appropriate,
expand the existing geographical distribution and abundance of the native oyster
within Scottish inshore waters.
• To secure effective management mechanisms for exploitation and cultivation and
end illegal fishing.
Types of actions over the next five years
• Conduct further research to support development of policy and management actions,
including:
– Investigation of methods for habitat
enhancement/recovery (to promote
recruitment).
– Consideration of reintroduction to sites
where is oyster now absent.
• Implement findings of above research to
expand abundance and distribution of
native oysters.
• Continue campaign
harvesting.
to
end
unlawful
• Develop good practice guidelines to prevent
translocation/introduction of non-native
species which would pose a threat to the
native oyster.
7 7
Red squirrel
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
Glossary of terms
Adaptive management:
Management that responds to new information as it becomes available from monitoring.
Conservation status:
Summarises the distribution and abundance of a species within a geographical area. It is usually defined
in terms of population trends (and sometimes dynamics such as breeding success), distribution trends and
may include an assessment of habitat and current threats.
Ecosystem:
A community of plants and animals interacting with each other and with their environment.
Endemic species:
A species of animal or plant confined to a particular region or island and having, so far as is known,
originated there.
Native species:
A species occurring naturally in an area (its natural range), in this case Scotland.
Natural range:
The geographic area over which a species is or was present in the absence of human intervention, i.e.
where it is a natural part of the ecosystem having colonised or evolved alongside other native species.
The historical natural range of a species is often difficult to establish and depends on historical records.
A species’ natural range may change in time in response to environmental change such as in climate.
Non-native species:
Refers to a species introduced (i.e. by human action) outside its natural range. We use this term to refer
particularly to those that were introduced to Scotland since around 1500. Species that came to Scotland as
a result of human activities before 1500 are now considered part of our natural heritage, e.g. brown hare
and many arable ‘weeds’. This threshold is only indicative, and often there is uncertainty as to when and
how species arrived in this country. Species that are native to Britain are not necessarily native to the whole
country, e.g. hedgehogs are not native to the Western Isles but were introduced during the last century.
‘Invasive’ non-native species are those whose introduction threaten biodiversity.
Population:
A group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular geographic region.
Reintroduction:
The deliberate release of a living organism into the wild in an area (e.g. country, region, site) that was once
part of its natural range but from which it has become extinct.
Species:
A group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that can successfully produce viable, fertile
offspring. The species is the basic level of taxonomy, i.e. the naming and classification of plants and
animals. In this document, ‘species’ can encompass subspecies where there is a reason to consider
conservation at the level of subspecies, e.g. the slender Scotch burnet moth Zygaena loti scotica.
Translocation:
A general term for the transfer, by people, of any organism from one place to another.
7 9
8 0
A FIVE YEAR SPECIES ACTION FRAMEWORK: MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR SCOTLAND’S SPECIES
Index to Species accounts
Species
Page
Black grouse
18
Capercaillie
20
Great crested newt
22
Greenland white-fronted goose
24
Red squirrel (and grey squirrel)
26
Scottish wildcat
28
Vendace
30
Water vole
32
European beaver
34
White-tailed eagle
36
Freshwater pearl mussel
38
Great yellow bumblebee
40
Marsh fritillary butterfly
42
Pearl-bordered fritillary butterfly
44
Pine hoverfly
46
Slender Scotch burnet moth
48
Bird’s nest stonewort
50
Intermediate wintergreen
52
Lesser butterfly orchid
54
Small cow-wheat
56
Woolly willow
58
Hazel gloves
60
American mink
62
North American signal crayfish
64
New Zealand pygmyweed
66
Rhododendron ponticum and hybrids
68
Wireweed
70
Hen harrier
72
Native deer (red deer and roe deer)
74
Native oyster
76
Our mission statement:
Working with Scotland’s people to care for our natural heritage
Our aim:
Scotland’s natural heritage is a local, national and global asset.
We promote its care and improvement, its responsible enjoyment, its greater
understanding and appreciation and its sustainable use now and for future
generations.
Our operating principles:
We work in partnership by co-operation, negotiation and consensus, where
possible, with all relevant interests in Scotland: public, private and voluntary
organisations and individuals.
We operate in a devolved manner, delegating decision-making to local level
within the organisation to encourage and assist SNH to be accessible and
responsive to local needs and circumstances.
We operate in an open and accountable manner in all our activities.
Further copies available from:
Scottish Natural Heritage,
Publications,
Battleby, Redgorton, Perth PH1 3EW
Tel: 01738 458530
Fax: 01738 458613
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.snh.org.uk
© Scottish Natural Heritage 2007
NP.5k0107
ISBN 978-1-85397-504-2
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