Download Strategies to Prevent Surgical Site Infections in Acute Care Hospitals

Strategies to Prevent Surgical Site Infections in Acute Care Hospitals: 2014 Update
Author(s): Deverick J. Anderson, MD, MPH; Kelly Podgorny, DNP, MS, RN; Sandra I. BerríosTorres, MD; Dale W. Bratzler, DO, MPH; E. Patchen Dellinger, MD; Linda Greene, RN, MPS,
CIC; Ann-Christine Nyquist, MD, MSPH; Lisa Saiman, MD, MPH; Deborah S. Yokoe, MD, MPH;
Lisa L. Maragakis, MD, MPH; Keith S. Kaye, MD, MPH
Source: Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, Vol. 35, No. 6 (June 2014), pp. 605-627
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology
of America
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infection control and hospital epidemiology
june 2014, vol. 35, no. 6
shea/idsa practice recommendation
Strategies to Prevent Surgical Site Infections
in Acute Care Hospitals: 2014 Update
Deverick J. Anderson, MD, MPH;1 Kelly Podgorny, DNP, MS, RN;2 Sandra I. Berrı́os-Torres, MD;3
Dale W. Bratzler, DO, MPH;4 E. Patchen Dellinger, MD;5 Linda Greene, RN, MPS, CIC;6
Ann-Christine Nyquist, MD, MSPH;7 Lisa Saiman, MD, MPH;8 Deborah S. Yokoe, MD, MPH;9
Lisa L. Maragakis, MD, MPH;10 Keith S. Kaye, MD, MPH11
purpose
Previously published guidelines are available that provide comprehensive recommendations for detecting and preventing
healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The intent of this document is to highlight practical recommendations in a concise
format designed to assist acute care hospitals in implementing
and prioritizing their surgical site infection (SSI) prevention
efforts. This document updates “Strategies to Prevent Surgical
Site Infections in Acute Care Hospitals,”1 published in 2008.
This expert guidance document is sponsored by the Society
for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and is the
product of a collaborative effort led by SHEA, the Infectious
Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Hospital
Association (AHA), the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC), and The Joint Commission, with major contributions from representatives of a
number of organizations and societies with content expertise.
The list of endorsing and supporting organizations is presented
in the introduction to the 2014 updates.2
section 1: r ationale and statements
of concer n
I. SSIs are common complications in acute care facilities
A. SSIs occur in 2%–5% of patients undergoing inpatient
surgery.3,4
B. Approximately 160,000–300,000 SSIs occur each year
in the United States.5,6
C. SSI is now the most common and most costly HAI.7-9
II. Outcomes associated with SSI
A. Up to 60% of SSIs have been estimated to be pre-
ventable by using evidence-based guidelines.10,11
B. SSIs account for 20% of all HAIs in hospitalized
patients.12
C. Each SSI is associated with approximately 7–11 additional postoperative hospital-days.3,9,13,14
D. Patients with an SSI have a 2–11-times higher risk of
death compared with operative patients without an
SSI.15,16
1. Seventy-seven percent of deaths in patients with SSI
are directly attributable to SSI.17
E. Attributable costs of SSI vary depending on the type of
operative procedure and the type of infecting pathogen.14,16,18-25
1. SSIs are believed to account for $3.5 billion to $10
billion annually in healthcare expenditures using the
CPI (consumer price index for inpatient hospital services with all cost estimates adjusted for 2007
dollars).6
section 2 : background—strategies
to detect ssi
I. Surveillance definitions
A. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s
(CDC’s) National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN)
definitions for SSI are widely used for public reporting,
interfacility comparison, and pay-for-performance
comparisons.26
B. SSIs are classified (Figure 1) as follows:
1. Superficial incisional (involving only skin or subcutaneous tissue of the incision).
Affiliations: 1. Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina; 2. The Joint Commission, Oakbrook Terrace, Illinois; 3. Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; 4. University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; 5. University of Washington
Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; 6. Highland Hospital and University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York; 7. Children’s Hospital Colorado
and University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado; 8. Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York; 9. Brigham and Women’s
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts; 10. Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; 11. Detroit Medical
Center and Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan.
Received February 12, 2014; accepted February 17, 2014; electronically published May 5, 2014.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;35(6):605-627
䉷 2014 by The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. All rights reserved. 0899-823X/2014/3506-0001$15.00. DOI: 10.1086/676022
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infection control and hospital epidemiology
june 2014, vol. 35, no. 6
figure 1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Healthcare Safety Network classification for surgical site infection (SSI).215
2. Deep incisional (involving fascia and/or muscular
layers).
a. Deep incision primary (DIP)—SSI identified in a
primary incision in a patient who has had an operation with 1 or more incisions.
b. Deep incision secondary (DIS)—SSI identified in
a secondary incision in a patient who has had an
operation with more than 1 incision.
3. Organ/space (involving any part of the body opened
or manipulated during the procedure, excluding skin
incision, fascia, or muscle layers).
II. Methods for surveillance of SSI
A. The direct method with daily observation of the surgical
site by the physician, physician extender, registered
nurse, or infection prevention and control (IPC) professional starting 24–48 hours postoperatively is the
most accurate method of surveillance.13,27-29
1. While the direct method is used as the gold standard
for studies, it is rarely used in practice because of
its resource utilization requirements and impracticality.
B. The indirect method of SSI surveillance consists of a
combination of the following:
1. Review of microbiology reports and patient medical
records.
2. Surgeon and/or patient surveys.
3. Screening for readmission and/or return to the operating room.
4. Other information, such as coded diagnoses, coded
procedures, operative reports, or antimicrobials
ordered.
C. The indirect method of SSI surveillance is less timeconsuming and can be readily performed by IPC per-
sonnel during surveillance rounds.
D. The indirect method of SSI surveillance is both reliable
(sensitivity, 84%–89%) and specific (specificity, 99.8%)
compared with the gold standard of direct surveillance.30,31 Components of the indirect methods that
were associated with highest sensitivities included review of nursing notes, International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes, and antimicrobials used.
E. Indirect methods for SSI surveillance are not reliable
for surveillance of superficial incisional infections, particularly those occurring postdischarge.32
F. Automated data systems can be used to broaden SSI
surveillance.
1. SSI surveillance can be expanded by utilizing hospital
databases that include administrative claims data (including diagnosis and procedure codes), antimicrobial-days, readmission to the hospital, and return to
the operating room and/or by implementing a system
that imports automated microbiologic culture data,
surgical procedure data, and general demographic information into a single surveillance database.33-35
2. These methods improve the sensitivity of indirect surveillance for detection of SSI and reduce the effort
of the infection preventionist.33
3. Medicare claims data can be used to enhance traditional surveillance methods for SSI and to identify
hospitals with unusually high or low rates of SSI.36,37
4. Use of administrative data can increase the efficiency
of SSI reporting and validation.38
III. Postdischarge surveillance
A. Over the past 3 decades, advances in medical technology
and changes in payment arrangements have increasingly shifted performance of surgical procedures from
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strategies to prevent ssi: 2014 update
the acute care setting to the ambulatory (free-standing
or hospital-affiliated) outpatient care setting.39-41
B. Concurrently, postoperative hospital length of stay has
steadily declined.42 These trends highlight the increasing
importance of postdischarge surveillance, without
which SSI rates will be underestimated43 and opportunities for improvements in healthcare delivery, patient
safety, and SSI prevention will be missed.
C. The proportion of SSIs detected through postdischarge
surveillance can vary by surveillance method, operative
setting, type of SSI, and surgical procedure.
1. No standardized or reliable method for postdischarge
surveillance has been established.34,44-48 Postdischarge
surveillance based on surgeon and patient questionnaire results have been shown to have poor sensitivity
and specificity.44,49-51
2. The ambulatory care setting represents a challenge
because patients do not return to it for routine postoperative care or for management of complications.41
Research is needed to better understand how definitions and postdischarge surveillance protocols developed for the acute care setting can be translated
to the ambulatory care setting.
3. Superficial incisional SSIs are most commonly detected
and managed in the outpatient setting. In contrast,
deep incisional and organ/space infections typically require readmission to the hospital for management.32
4. In the Netherlands, the proportion of deep SSIs identified after discharge from the hospital ranged from
6% for colon resections to 88% for knee arthroplasties.43 The differences between these procedures could
be explained by potential differences in both wound
contamination class and the duration of postdischarge surveillance (30 days versus 1 year for an
implant-related procedure). A pilot study in general
surgery reported that 10.5% of SSIs following colon
procedures were identified after discharge from the
hospital.52
5. By improving completeness of reporting, the overall
institutional SSI rate typically increases after postdischarge surveillance methods are implemented regardless of which method is used.43,44,53
a. To improve interfacility comparisons and minimize
potential bias introduced by differences in postdischarge surveillance methods, national public reporting focuses on nonsuperficial incisional SSIs
detected during hospitalization for the index procedure or after discharge and requiring readmission
for management.41,54,55
section 3: background—strategies
to prevent ssi
I. Summary of existing guidelines, recommendations, and
requirements
A. CDC and Healthcare Infection Control Practices Ad-
607
visory Committee (HICPAC) guidelines
1. The most recently published guideline for prevention
of SSIs was released in 1999 by Mangram et al.17 The
CDC and HICPAC are currently working on an updated version of the guideline with a projected publication date in mid-2014.
B. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence
(NICE)—United Kingdom
1. NICE published guidelines for the prevention and
treatment of SSI in 2008.56
C. Surgical Infection Prevention (SIP) Project
1. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS)
created the SIP project in 2002.
a. After review of published guidelines, an expert panel
identified 3 performance measures for quality improvement related to antimicrobial prophylaxis:57,58
i. Delivery of intravenous antimicrobial prophylaxis within 1 hour before incision (2 hours are
allowed for the administration of vancomycin
and fluoroquinolones).
ii. Use of an antimicrobial prophylactic agent consistent with published guidelines.
iii. Discontinuation of the prophylactic antimicrobial agent within 24 hours after surgery (discontinuation within 48 hours is allowable for
cardiothoracic procedures in adult patients).
b. The SIP project focused on 7 procedures: abdominal hysterectomy, vaginal hysterectomy, hip arthroplasty, knee arthroplasty, cardiac surgery, vascular surgery, and colorectal surgery.
c. Many hospitals that implemented and improved
compliance with SIP performance measures decreased their rates of SSI.59
D. Surgical Care Improvement Project (SCIP)
1. The SCIP, a multiagency collaboration created in
2003, is an extension of SIP.
2. In addition to the 3 performance measures of SIP,
the SCIP also focuses on 3 additional evidence-supported process measures to prevent SSIs and expanded the types of operations eligible for the performance measures.58
a. Proper hair removal: no hair removal, although
hair removal with clippers or the depilatory
method is considered appropriate. Use of razors is
considered inappropriate with exception of use on
the scrotal area or on the scalp after a traumatic
head injury. Because of near-universal compliance
with this performance measure, CMS retired the
measure in 2012.
b. Controlling blood glucose during the immediate
postoperative period for cardiac surgery patients:
controlled 6 am blood glucose (200 mg/dL or
lower) on postoperative days 1 and 2, with the
procedure day being postoperative day 0. In 2014,
this measure will be revised to assess glucose control (180 mg/dL or lower) in cardiac surgery pa-
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tients in the time frame of 18–24 hours after anesthesia end time.60,61
c. Maintenance of perioperative normothermia in
surgical patients who have anesthesia duration of
at least 60 minutes.
E. Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI)
1. The IHI created a nationwide quality improvement
project to improve outcomes in hospitalized
patients.62,63
2. The IHI recommends the same 6 preventive measures
recommended by the SCIP and has included these in
the 100,000 and 5 Million Lives Campaigns.62,63
F. The Joint Commission National Patient Safety Goals
1. The Joint Commission’s National Patient Safety Goal
07.05.01 includes several evidence-based practices for
prevention of SSI.64
G. Federal requirements
1. CMS
a. In accordance with the Deficit Reduction Act of
2005, hospitals that are paid by Medicare under
the Acute Care Inpatient Prospective Payment System receive their full Medicare annual payment
update only if they submit required quality measure information to CMS.
b. CMS now requires hospitals to submit data on 7
SCIP measures as a part of the Hospital Inpatient
Quality Reporting (IQR) system.65 Three of these
measures focus on prevention of SSI (antimicrobial
prophylaxis provided within 1 hour of incision,
antimicrobial selection, and cardiac surgery perioperative glucose control). In addition, CMS now
requires hospitals to report SSI rates for patients
undergoing abdominal hysterectomy and colorectal surgery through NHSN.65
c. Actual rates of performance on SCIP measures now
impacts hospital payment under the Value-Based
Purchasing (VBP) program. Current benchmarks
identified for the VBP score that is used to modify
a hospital’s base operating diagnosis-related group
payment are at or near 100%.65,66
II. Infrastructure requirements
A. Trained personnel
1. Infection preventionists must (1) be specifically
trained in methods of SSI surveillance, (2) have
knowledge of and the ability to prospectively apply
the CDC/NHSN definitions for SSI, (3) possess basic
computer and mathematical skills, and (4) be adept
at providing feedback and education to healthcare
personnel when appropriate.17
B. Education
1. Regularly provide education to surgeons and perioperative personnel through continuing education activities directed at minimizing perioperative SSI risk
through implementation of recommended process
measures.
a. Several educational components can be combined
into concise, efficient, and effective recommendations that are easily understood and remembered.67
b. Provide education regarding the outcomes associated with SSI, risks for SSI, and methods to reduce risk to all patients, patients’ families, surgeons, and perioperative personnel.
c. Education for patients and patients’ families is an
effective method to reduce risk associated with intrinsic patient-related SSI risk factors.68,69
C. Computer-assisted decision support and automated
reminders
1. Several institutions have successfully employed computer-assisted decision support methodology to improve the rate of appropriate administration of antimicrobial prophylaxis (including redosing during
prolonged cases).70-73
2. Computer-assisted decision support, however, is potentially expensive, can be time-consuming to implement, and in a single study was reported to initially
increase the rate of adverse drug reactions.74
3. Institutions must appropriately validate computer-assisted decision support systems after implementation.
D. Utilization of automated data
1. Install information technology infrastructure to facilitate data transfer, receipt, and organization to aid
with tracking of process and outcome measures.
section 4 : recommended s trategies
for ssi p revention
Recommendations are categorized as either (1) basic practices
that should be adopted by all acute care hospitals or (2)
special approaches that can be considered for use in locations
and/or populations within hospitals when HAIs are not controlled by use of basic practices. Basic practices include recommendations where the potential to impact HAI risk clearly
outweighs the potential for undesirable effects. Special approaches include recommendations where the intervention is
likely to reduce HAI risk but where there is concern about
the risks for undesirable outcomes resulting from the intervention, where the quality of evidence is low, or where evidence supports the impact of the intervention in select settings (eg, during outbreaks) or for select patient populations.
Hospitals can prioritize their efforts by initially focusing on
implementation of the prevention approaches listed as basic
practices. If HAI surveillance or other risk assessments suggest
that there are ongoing opportunities for improvement, hospitals should then consider adopting some or all of the prevention approaches listed as special approaches. These can
be implemented in specific locations or patient populations
or can be implemented hospital-wide, depending on outcome
data, risk assessment, and/or local requirements. Each infec-
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strategies to prevent ssi: 2014 update
609
table 1. Grading of the Quality of Evidence
Grade
Definition
I. High
Highly confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimated size and direction of the
effect. Evidence is rated as high quality when there is a wide range of studies with no major
limitations, there is little variation between studies, and the summary estimate has a narrow
confidence interval.
The true effect is likely to be close to the estimated size and direction of the effect, but there is
a possibility that it is substantially different. Evidence is rated as moderate quality when there
are only a few studies and some have limitations but not major flaws, there is some variation
between studies, or the confidence interval of the summary estimate is wide.
The true effect may be substantially different from the estimated size and direction of the effect.
Evidence is rated as low quality when supporting studies have major flaws, there is important
variation between studies, the confidence interval of the summary estimate is very wide, or
there are no rigorous studies, only expert consensus.
II. Moderate
III. Low
note. Based on Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE)234 and the
Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care.235
tion prevention recommendation is given a quality-of-evidence grade (see Table 1).
I. Basic practices for preventing SSI: recommended for all
acute care hospitals
1. Administer antimicrobial prophylaxis according to evidence-based standards and guidelines (quality of evidence: I).17,75,76
a. Begin administration within 1 hour before incision
to maximize tissue concentration.57,58 Administering
agent closer than 1 hour is effective, and some studies
show superior efficacy for administration between 0
and 30 minutes prior to incision compared with administration between 30 and 60 minutes.77,78
i. Two hours are allowed for the administration of
vancomycin and fluoroquinolones.
ii. Many experts believe that antimicrobials should be
infused prior to inflation of tourniquets in procedures using “bloodless” techniques, although data
are insufficient to support this recommendation.79,80
b. Select appropriate agents on the basis of the surgical
procedure, the most common pathogens causing SSIs
for a specific procedure, and published recommendations.76
c. Discontinue agent within 24 hours after surgery.76
i. Although guidelines suggest stopping the antimicrobial agent within 24 hours of surgery, there is
no evidence that agents given after closure contribute to efficacy, and they do contribute to increased resistance81,82 and the risk of Clostridium
difficile disease.83
d. Adjust dosing on the basis of patient weight;76 for
example:
i. Use 30 mg/kg for pediatric patients, 2 g of cefazolin for patients weighing 80 kg or more, and 3
g for patients weighing 120 kg or more.
ii. Vancomycin should be dosed at 15 mg/kg.
iii. Gentamicin should be dosed at 5 mg/kg for adult
patients and 2.5 mg/kg for pediatric patients.
(a) For morbidly obese patients receiving gentamicin, the weight used for dose calculation
should be the ideal weight plus 40% of the
excess weight.
e. Redose prophylactic antimicrobial agents for long
procedures and in cases with excessive blood loss during the procedure.76
i. Prophylactic antimicrobials should be redosed at
intervals of 2 half-lives (measured from time the
preoperative dose was administered) in cases that
exceed this time.
f. Use a combination of parenteral antimicrobial agents
and oral antimicrobials to reduce the risk of SSI following colorectal procedures.84-91
i. The additional SSI reduction achieved with mechanical bowel preparation has not been studied,
but the data supporting use of oral antimicrobials
have all been generated in combination with mechanical bowel preparation.
ii. Mechanical bowel preparation without oral antimicrobials does not decrease the risk of SSI.92
2. Do not remove hair at the operative site unless the
presence of hair will interfere with the operation. Do
not use razors (quality of evidence: II).17,93
a. If hair removal is necessary, remove hair outside the
operating room using clippers or a depilatory agent.
3. Control blood glucose during the immediate postoperative period for cardiac surgery patients58 (quality of
evidence: I) and noncardiac surgery patients94-98 (quality
of evidence: II).
a. Maintain postoperative blood glucose of 180 mg/dL
or lower.
i. The recommendation of maintaining postoperative
blood glucose less than 200 mg/dL at 6 am on postoperative days 1 and 2 is being replaced. In 2014,
this measure will be revised in the SCIP to assess
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glucose control (180 mg/dL or lower) in cardiac
surgery patients in the time frame of 18–24 hours
after anesthesia end time. Several societies, experts,
and the National Quality Forum support this new
recommendation.60,61,99,100
b. Intensive postoperative glucose control (targeting levels less than 110 mg/dL) has not been shown to reduce the risk of SSI and may actually lead to higher
rates of adverse outcomes, including stroke and
death.101
4. Maintain normothermia (temperature of 35.5⬚C or
more) during the perioperative period (quality of evidence: I).
a. Even mild degrees of hypothermia can increase SSI
rates. Hypothermia may directly impair neutrophil
function or impair it indirectly by triggering subcutaneous vasoconstriction and subsequent tissue hypoxia. In addition, hypothermia may increase blood
loss, leading to wound hematomas or need for transfusion, both of which can increase rates of SSI.102
b. Randomized controlled trials have shown the benefits
of both preoperative and intraoperative warming to
reduce SSI rates and to reduce intraoperative blood
loss.103-105
5. Optimize tissue oxygenation by administering supplemental oxygen during and immediately following surgical procedures involving mechanical ventilation (quality of evidence: I).
a. Supplemental oxygen is most effective when combined with additional strategies to improve tissue oxygenation, including maintenance of normothermia
and appropriate volume replacement. The available
evidence is in patients undergoing surgery with general anesthesia using mechanical ventilation.106-108
i. Seven randomized clinical trials have been published comparing 80% with 30%–35% FiO2 (4
with nitrogen106-109 and 3 with nitrous oxide110-112)
in patients undergoing general anesthesia with intraoperative mechanical ventilation and postoperative oxygen delivered for 2–6 hours via a nonrebreathing mask.
ii. Three trials in patients undergoing elective colorectal resection106,107,111 and 1 each in open appendectomy108 and total gastrectomy with esophagojejunal anastomosis112 reported an approximate
40% decrease in the rate of SSI. Three of the studies
reported protocols that included maintenance of
perioperative normothermia and liberal fluid replacement.106-108
iii. Two trials in mixed surgical populations undergoing emergency or elective laparotomy for gastrointestinal, gynecologic, or urologic procedures
reported different results.109,110
(a) The large multicenter trial that restricted perioperative fluid replacement reported no dif-
ference.109 A follow-up study performed in this
population noted that patients undergoing
cancer surgery who received 80% FiO2 had
higher rates of mortality than patients undergoing cancer surgery who received 30%
FiO2.113
(b) The smaller trial without standardized protocols for perioperative normothermia or volume
replacement reported an increase in SSIs.110 In
this study, the 80% FiO2 group had a significantly higher proportion of patients with high
body mass index (more than 30), higher blood
loss, more crystalloid infused, and longer operations. This group also had 5 patients who
remained intubated postoperatively (vs 1 in the
35% group). Postoperative intubation was predictive of SSI.
b. A meta-analysis of 5 of the above-referenced studies
concluded that perioperative supplemental oxygen
led to a relative risk (RR) reduction of 25% for SSI.114
6. Use alcohol-containing preoperative skin preparatory
agents if no contraindication exists (quality of evidence: I).
a. Alcohol is highly bactericidal and effective for preoperative skin antisepsis but does not have persistent
activity when used alone. Rapid, persistent, and cumulative antisepsis can be achieved by combining alcohol with chlorhexidine gluconate or an iodophor.115
i. Alcohol is contraindicated for certain procedures,
including procedures in which the preparatory
agent may pool or not dry (eg, involving hair) due
to fire risk. Alcohol may also be contraindicated
for procedures involving mucosa, cornea, or ear.
b. The most effective disinfectant to combine with alcohol is unclear.
i. A recent trial of 849 patients undergoing cleancontaminated surgery randomized patients to preoperative skin antisepsis with chlorhexidinealcohol or povidone-iodine.116 The overall rate of
SSI was significantly lower in the chlorhexidinealcohol group than in the povidone-iodine group
(9.5% vs 16% [P p .004]; RR, 0.59 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.41–0.85]).
ii. In contrast, a single-center study compared povidone-iodine followed by isopropyl alcohol versus
chlorhexidine-alcohol versus iodine-alcohol using
a sequential implementation design.117 General
surgical patients who received skin antisepsis with
iodine-alcohol had the lowest rates of SSI (3.9 per
100 procedures), compared with 6.4 per 100 procedures for patients who received povidone-iodine
followed by alcohol and 7.1 per 100 procedures
for patients who received chlorhexidine-alcohol.
iii. In the absence of alcohol, chlorhexidine gluconate
may have advantages over povidone-iodine, in-
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strategies to prevent ssi: 2014 update
cluding longer residual activity and activity in the
presence of blood or serum.118,119
iv. These disinfectants are not interchangeable. Follow the manufacturers’ instructions to ensure correct application.
7. Use impervious plastic wound protectors for gastrointestinal and biliary tract surgery (quality of evidence: I).
a. A wound protector is a plastic sheath that lines a
wound and can facilitate retraction of an incision
during surgery without the need for additional mechanical retractors.
b. A recent meta-analysis of 6 randomized clinical trials
in 1,008 patients reported that use of a plastic wound
protectors was associated with a 45% decrease in
SSIs.120
i. There was a nonsignificant trend toward greater
protective effect using a dual-ring protector compared with a single-ring protector.
8. Use a checklist based on the World Health Organization
(WHO) checklist to ensure compliance with best practices to improve surgical patient safety (quality of evidence: I).
a. The WHO checklist is a 19-item surgical safety checklist to improve adherence with best practices.
b. A multicenter quasi-experimental study conducted in
8 countries demonstrated that use of the WHO
checklist led to lower rates of surgical complications,
including SSI and death.121
c. These findings have been confirmed in subsequent
single-center and multicenter quasi-experimental
studies.122,123
9. Perform surveillance for SSI (quality of evidence: II).
a. Identify high-risk, high-volume operative procedures
to be targeted for SSI surveillance on the basis of a
risk assessment of patient populations, operative procedures performed, and available SSI surveillance
data.
b. Identify, collect, store, and analyze data needed for
the surveillance program.17
i. Develop a database for storing, managing, and
accessing data collected on SSIs.
ii. Implement a system for collecting data needed to
identify SSIs. Data are required from surgical and
microbiological databases. Obtain the following
data from surgical databases: patient name, medical record number, date, type of procedure, surgeons, anesthesiologists, incision time, wound
class, ASA score, closure time, and presence of an
SSI. Ideally, these data are supplemented with process data, including prophylactic agent and dose
and time(s) of administration of prophylactic
agent. For patients diagnosed with an SSI, necessary microbiological data include type of SSI,
infecting organism and antimicrobial susceptibilities, and date of infection. More detailed surgical
611
and patient information may be useful for some
procedures, including use of general anesthesia,
emergency or trauma-related surgery, body mass
index, and diagnosis of diabetes.
iii. Prepare periodic SSI reports (time frame will depend on hospital needs and volume of targeted
procedures).
iv. Collect denominator data on all patients undergoing targeted procedures in order to calculate SSI
rates for each type of procedure.67
v. Identify trends (eg, in SSI rates and pathogens
causing SSIs).
c. Use updated CDC NHSN definitions for SSI.26
d. Perform indirect surveillance for targeted procedures.30,31,124,125
e. Perform postoperative surveillance for 30 days; extend the postoperative surveillance period to 90 days
for certain procedure categories.26
i. Procedures that require 90-day surveillance are determined by specific procedure codes.
f. Surveillance should be performed on patients readmitted to the hospital.
i. If an SSI is diagnosed at your institution but the
surgical procedure was performed elsewhere, notify
the hospital where the original procedure was
performed.
g. Develop a system for routine review and interpretation of SSI rates to detect significant increases or
outbreaks and to identify areas where additional resources might be needed to improve SSI rates.125 If
increased rates are identified, determine the number
of potentially preventable infections that occurred,
defined as the number of SSIs that occurred during
a procedure in which less than 100% of recommended
practices and processes were completed.
10. Increase the efficiency of surveillance through utilization of automated data (quality of evidence: II).
a. Implement a method to electronically transfer microbiology and operative data, including process measures when available, to IPC personnel to facilitate
denominator data acquisition and calculation of SSI
rates for various procedures.
b. If information technology and infrastructure resources are available, develop automated methods
for detection of SSIs utilizing automated data for
readmissions, diagnosis and procedure codes, microbiology results, and antimicrobial dispensing.35,126-129
c. Implementation of automated surveillance may improve the sensitivity of surveillance.
11. Provide ongoing feedback of SSI rates to surgical and
perioperative personnel and leadership (quality of evidence: II).
a. Routinely audit and provide confidential feedback on
SSI rates and adherence to process measures to in-
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dividual surgeons, the surgical division and/or department chiefs, and hospital leadership.17,130
i. For each type of procedure performed, provide
risk-adjusted rates of SSI.
ii. Anonymously benchmark procedure-specific riskadjusted rates of SSI among peer surgeons.
12. Measure and provide feedback to providers regarding
rates of compliance with process measures (quality of
evidence: III).58
a. Routinely provide feedback to surgical staff, perioperative personnel, and leadership regarding compliance with targeted process measures.
13. Educate surgeons and perioperative personnel about
SSI prevention (quality of evidence: III).
a. Include risk factors, outcomes associated with SSI,
local epidemiology (eg, SSI rates by procedure, rate
of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [MRSA]
infection in a facility), and basic prevention measures.
14. Educate patients and their families about SSI prevention as appropriate (quality of evidence: III).
a. Provide instructions and information to patients
prior to surgery describing strategies for reducing SSI
risk. Specifically provide preprinted materials to
patients.131
b. Examples of printed materials for patients are available from the following websites:
i. JAMA patient page: wound infections (from the
Journal of the American Medical Association; available at http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/294
/16/2122).
ii. SCIP’s tips for safer surgery (available at https://
www.premierinc.com/safety/topics/scip
/downloads/consumer-tips.pdf).
iii. Frequently asked questions about SSIs (available
from SHEA at http://www.shea-online.org/Assets
/files/patient%20guides/NNL_SSI.pdf).
iv. SSI: resources for patients and healthcare providers (available from the CDC at http://www.cdc
.gov/hai/ssi/ssi.html).
15. Implement policies and practices aimed at reducing
the risk of SSI that align with evidence-based standards
(eg, CDC, Association for periOperative Registered
Nurses, and professional organization guidelines; quality of evidence: II).17,58,132
a. The pathogenesis and likelihood of developing an SSI
involves a complex relationship among the following:
i. Microbial characteristics (eg, degree of contamination, virulence of pathogen);
ii. Patient characteristics (eg, immune status, comorbid conditions); and
iii. Surgical characteristics (eg, type of procedure, introduction of foreign material, amount of damage
to tissues).133
b. Risk factors for SSI can be separated into intrinsic
patient-related characteristics and extrinsic proce-
dure-related characteristics. Implement policies and
practices to reducing modifiable risk factors (Table
2), including the following:
i. Optimal preparation and disinfection of the operative site and the hands of the surgical team
members.
ii. Adherence to hand hygiene, including nonsurgeon
members of the operating team.134
iii. Reduce unnecessary traffic in operating
rooms.135,136
iv. Appropriate care and maintenance of operating
rooms, including appropriate air handling and optimal cleaning and disinfection of equipment and
the environment.17
II. Special approaches for preventing SSI
Standard infection control methods of outbreak investigation are recommended for use in locations and/or
populations within the hospital with unacceptably high
SSI rates despite implementation of the basic SSI prevention strategies listed above.
1. Screen for S. aureus and decolonize surgical patients
with an antistaphylococcal agent in the preoperative setting for high-risk procedures, including some orthopedic and cardiothoracic procedures (quality of evidence: II).
a. Screening for S. aureus refers to the practice of attempting to identify patients colonized with methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and/or MRSA.
Decolonization refers to the practice of treating patients with known S. aureus colonization with antimicrobial and/or antiseptic agents to eliminate S. aureus colonization.
i. There is no standardized approach to either screening or decolonizing. Most clinicians attempt to decolonize surgical patients with a combination of
chlorhexidine gluconate applied to the skin and nasal mupirocin.
b. A Cochrane review concluded that mupirocin alone
may be effective, particularly in certain groups, including orthopedic and cardiothoracic patients.137
Several nonrandomized trials corroborate this conclusion.138-140
c. Clinical practice guidelines from the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists recommend giving mupirocin intranasally to all patients with documented S. aureus colonization for orthopedic
procedures, including total joint replacement and hip
fracture repair, and cardiac procedures.76
d. Some trials demonstrate that preoperative screening
for S. aureus, coupled with intranasal mupirocin and
chlorhexidine bathing is effective in reducing SSI for
some patients.
i. For example, a randomized, double-blind, placebocontrolled, multicenter trial that evaluated rapid
identification of S. aureus nasal carriers followed
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table 2. Selected Risk Factors for and Recommendations to Prevent Surgical Site Infections (SSIs)
Risk factor
Recommendation
Intrinsic, patient related (preoperative)
Unmodifiable
Age
History of radiation
History of SSTIs
Modifiable
Glucose control
Obesity
Smoking cessation
Immunosuppressive medications
Hypoalbuminemia
Extrinsic, procedure related (perioperative)
Preparation of patient
Hair removal
Preoperative infections
Operative characteristics
Surgical scrub (surgical team members’
hands and forearms)
Skin preparation
Antimicrobial prophylaxis
Timing
Blood transfusion
Choice of prophylactic agent
Duration of prophylaxis
Surgeon skill/technique
Appropriate gloving
Asepsis
Operative time
OR characteristics
Ventilation
Traffic
Environmental surfaces
Sterilization of surgical equipment
Quality
of evidence
No formal recommendation. Relationship to increased risk of SSI may be
secondary to comorbidities or immunosenescence.216-218
No formal recommendation. Prior irradiation at the surgical site increases
the risk of SSI, likely due to tissue damage and wound ischemia.219
No formal recommendation. History of a prior skin infection may be a
marker for inherent differences in host immune function.220
NA
Control serum blood glucose levels for all surgical patients, including patients without diabetes.17 For patients with diabetes mellitus, reduce
glycosylated hemoglobin A1c levels to less than 7% before surgery,
if possible.94
Increase dosing of prophylactic antimicrobial agent for morbidly obese
patients.76,221
Encourage smoking cessation within 30 days of procedure.17,222-226
Avoid immune-suppressive medications in perioperative period, if possible.
No formal recommendation. Although a noted risk factor,227 do not delay
surgery for use of TPN.
I
NA
NA
I
I
III
NA
Do not remove unless hair will interfere with the operation.17 If hair removal is necessary, remove outside the OR by clipping. Do not use
razors.
Identify and treat infections (eg, urinary tract infection) remote to the surgical site prior to elective surgery.17 Do not routinely treat colonization
or contamination.
II
Use appropriate antiseptic agent to perform preoperative surgical
scrub.17,228 For most products, scrub the hands and forearms for 2–5
minutes.
Wash and clean skin around incision site. Use a dual agent skin preparation containing alcohol, unless contraindications exist.17
Administer only when indicated.17
Administer within 1 hour of incision to maximize tissue concentration76,a
Blood transfusions increase the risk of SSI by decreasing macrophage
function. Reduce blood loss and need for blood transfusion to the
greatest extent possible.229-231
Select appropriate agents on the basis of surgical procedure, most common pathogens causing SSIs for a specific procedure, and published
recommendations.76
Stop agent within 24 hours after the procedure for all procedures.76
Handle tissue carefully and eradicate dead space.17
All members of the operative team should double glove and change gloves
when perforation is noted.208
Adhere to standard principles of OR asepsis.17
No formal recommendation in most recent guidelines. Minimize as much
as possible without sacrificing surgical technique and aseptic practice.
II
Follow American Institute of Architects’ recommendations for proper air
handling in the OR.17,232
Minimize OR traffic.17,135,136
Use an EPA-approved hospital disinfectant to clean visibly soiled or contaminated surfaces and equipment.17
Sterilize all surgical equipment according to published guidelines.233 Minimize the use of immediate-use steam sterilization.17
II
I
I
I
II
I
II
III
III
III
I
III
III
III
II
note. EPA, Environmental Protection Agency; NA, not applicable; OR, operating room; SSTI, skin and soft-tissue infection; TPN, total
parenteral nutrition.
a
Vancomycin and fluoroquinolones can be given 2 hours prior to incision.
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by decolonization was associated with a greater than
2-fold reduction in the risk for postoperative infection due to S. aureus and an almost 5-fold reduction in risk for deep incisional SSI due to S.
aureus.141
(a) This study was performed in a setting with high
baseline rates of SSI and in the absence of
MRSA.
e. In contrast, other trials have failed to demonstrate a
benefit.
i. A prospective, interventional cohort study with a
crossover design involving 21,000 patients concluded that universal, rapid screening for MRSA
at admission coupled with decolonization of carriers did not reduce the rate of SSI due to MRSA.142
ii. A double-blind randomized controlled trial involving more than 4,000 patients showed that intranasal application of mupirocin, which was not
coupled with chlorhexidine bathing, did not significantly reduce the S. aureus SSI rate.143
(a) In a secondary analysis of these data, the use
of intranasal mupirocin was associated with an
overall decreased rate of nosocomial S. aureus
infections among the S. aureus carriers.
f. A recently published meta-analysis of 17 studies concluded that decolonization strategies prevent grampositive SSIs, S. aureus SSIs, and MRSA SSIs, although
there was significant heterogeneity among the trials.144
g. Factors that impact the decision to implement screening for S. aureus and decolonization include adherence to basic SSI prevention strategies, baseline rate
of SSI due to S. aureus, individual patient risk factors
for acquiring SSI due to S. aureus, availability of resources to implement the protocol, and ability to follow-up on protocol parameters (eg, laboratory results) and adherence.
h. Routine preoperative decolonization with mupirocin
without screening is not currently recommended.
i. Mupirocin resistance has been documented.145
2. Perform antiseptic wound lavage (quality of evidence: II).
a. Wound lavage is a common practice, although the
solution used for lavage differs among surgeons.146
b. Several groups have evaluated whether dilute povidone-iodine lavage of the surgical wound can decrease the risk of SSI. A meta-analysis published in
2010 evaluated 24 randomized controlled trials and
concluded that lavage with dilute povidone-iodine
decreased the risk of SSI compared with nonantiseptic
lavage (RR, 0.64 [95% CI, 0.51–0.82]).147
3. Perform an SSI risk assessment (quality of evidence: III).
a. Convene a multidisciplinary team (eg, surgical leadership, hospital administration, quality management
services, and infection control) to identify gaps, improve performance, measure compliance, assess impact of interventions, and provide feedback.148
b. Determine baseline SSI rates by surgical specialty,
procedure, and/or surgeon to better target your evaluation and interventions.
4. Observe and review operating room personnel and the
environment of care in the operating room (quality of
evidence: III).
a. Perform direct observation audits of operating room
personnel to assess operating room processes and
practices to identify infection control lapses, including but not limited to adherence to process measures
(antimicrobial prophylaxis choice, timing and duration protocols, hair removal, etc), surgical hand antisepsis, patient skin preparation, operative technique,
surgical attire (wearing and/or laundering outside the
operating room), and level of operating room traffic.149-153 Perform remediation when breaches of standards are identified.
i. Operating room personnel should include surgeons, surgical technologists, anesthesiologists, circulating nurses, residents, medical students, trainees, and device manufacturer representatives.149
b. Perform direct-observation audits of environmental
cleaning practices in the operating room, instrument
processing (sterilization), and storage facilities.
i. Review instrument processing and flash sterilization logs.
ii. Review maintenance records for operating room
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system,
including results of temperature and relative humidity testing, and test for maintenance of positive
air pressure in the operating room(s).
c. Provide feedback and review infection control measures with operating room and environmental
personnel.
5. Observe and review practices in the postanesthesia care
unit, surgical intensive care unit, and/or surgical ward
(quality of evidence: II).
a. Perform direct observation audits of hand hygiene
practices among all personnel with direct patient
contact.151
b. Evaluate wound care practices.154
c. Perform direct observation audits of environmental
cleaning practices.
d. Provide feedback and review infection control measures with staff in these postoperative care settings.
III. Approaches that should not be considered a routine part
of SSI prevention
1. Do not routinely use vancomycin for antimicrobial prophylaxis (quality of evidence: II).75,76,155
a. Vancomycin should not routinely be used for antimicrobial prophylaxis, but it can be an appropriate
agent for specific scenarios. Reserve vancomycin for
specific clinical circumstances, such as a proven outbreak of SSI due to MRSA; high endemic rates of SSI
due to MRSA; targeted high-risk patients who are at
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increased risk for SSI due to MRSA (including cardiothoracic surgical patients and elderly patients with
diabetes); and high-risk surgical procedures in which
an implant is placed.156
i. No definitions for high endemic rates of SSI due
to MRSA have been established.157
ii. Studies of the efficacy of vancomycin prophylaxis
were published prior to the emergence of community-acquired MRSA.
b. Two meta-analyses of studies comparing glycopeptides
to b-lactam antimicrobial prophylaxis concluded that
there was no difference in rates of SSI between the 2
antimicrobial prophylaxis regimens.144,158
c. A meta-analysis of 6 studies concluded that prophylaxis
with a glycopeptide and a second agent was protective
against SSI due to gram-positive organisms compared
with prophylaxis with a b-lactam alone.144 Of note, the
2 randomized controlled trials included in the metaanalysis combined a glycopeptide with non-b-lactam
antibiotic(s). Thus, no study has prospectively analyzed
the effect of providing both glycopeptides and b-lactam
antimicrobials for preoperative antimicrobial prophylaxis. As vancomycin does not have activity against
gram-negative pathogens and appears to have less activity against MSSA than b-lactam agents, many experts
recommend adding vancomycin to standard antimicrobial prophylaxis for the specific clinical circumstances described above.76,157-159
2. Do not routinely delay surgery to provide parenteral
nutrition (quality of evidence: I).
a. Preoperative administration of total parenteral nutrition has not been shown to reduce the risk of SSI
in prospective randomized controlled trials and may
increase the risk of SSI.160,161
b. Individual trials comparing enteral and parenteral
perioperative nutrition and “immunomodulating”
diets containing arginine and/or glutamine with
“standard” control diets tend to have very small numbers and fail to show significant differences. Two recent meta-analyses, however, demonstrate reduction
in postoperative infectious complication in patients
receiving enteral diets containing glutamine and/or
arginine administered either before or after the surgical procedure.162,163
3. Do not routinely use antiseptic-impregnated sutures as
a strategy to prevent SSIs (quality of evidence: II).
a. Human volunteer studies involving foreign bodies
have demonstrated that the presence of surgical sutures decreases the inoculum required to cause an SSI
from 106 to 102 organisms.164
b. Some trials have shown that surgical wound closure
with triclosan-coated polygactin 910 antimicrobial
sutures may decrease the risk of SSI compared with
standard sutures. For example, a recent randomized
controlled trial of 410 colorectal surgeries concluded
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that the rate of SSI decreased more than 50% (9.3%
in the control group vs 4.3% among cases; P p .05).165
c. In contrast, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated 7 randomized clinical trials and concluded that neither rates of SSI (odds ratio [OR], 0.77
[95% CI, 0.4–1.51]; P p .45) nor rates of wound
dehiscence (OR, 1.07 [95% CI, 0.21–5.43]; P p .93)
were statistically different compared with controls.166
In addition, one small study raised concern about
higher rates of wound dehiscence while using these
sutures.167
d. The impact of routine use of antiseptic-impregnated
sutures on development of resistance to antiseptics
is unknown.
4. Do not routinely use antiseptic drapes as a strategy to
prevent SSIs (quality of evidence: I).
a. An incise drape is an adhesive film that covers the
surgical incision site to minimize bacterial wound
contamination due to endogenous flora. These drapes
can be impregnated with antiseptic chemicals, such
as iodophors.
b. A 2007 Cochrane review of 5 trials concluded that
nonantiseptic incise drapes were associated with a
higher risk of SSI compared with no incise drape (RR,
1.23 [95% CI, 1.02–1.48]),168 although this association may have been caused by one specific study.169
Two trials (abdominal and cardiac surgical patients)
compared iodophor-impregnated drapes to no
drapes.170,171 While wound contamination was decreased in one trial,170 neither trial demonstrated that
iodophor-impregnated drapes decreased the rate of
SSI. A nonrandomized retrospective study similarly
concluded that impregnated drapes do not prevent
SSIs after hernia repair.172
IV. Unresolved issues
1. Preoperative bathing with chlorhexidine-containing
products.
a. Preoperative bathing with agents such as chlorhexidine has been shown to reduce bacterial colonization
of the skin.173 Several studies have examined the utility
of preoperative showers, but none has definitively
proven that they decrease SSI risk. A Cochrane review
evaluated the evidence for preoperative bathing or
showering with antiseptics for SSI prevention.174 Six
randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of 4%
chlorhexidine gluconate were included in the analysis,
with no clear evidence of benefit noted. It should be
noted that several of these studies had methodological
limitations and were conducted several years ago.
Thus, the role of preoperative bathing in SSI prevention is still uncertain.
i. To gain the maximum antiseptic effect of chlorhexidine, adequate levels of CHG must be achieved
and maintained on the skin. Typically, adequate
levels are achieved by allowing CHG to dry com-
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pletely. New strategies for preoperative bathing with
chlorhexidine, such as preimpregnated cloths, have
shown promise,175,176 but data are currently insufficient to support this approach.
2. Preoperative intranasal and pharyngeal chlorhexidine
treatment for patients undergoing cardiothoracic
procedures.
a. Although data from a randomized controlled trial exist
to support the use of chlorhexidine nasal cream combined with 0.12% chlorhexidine gluconate mouthwash,177 chlorhexidine nasal cream is neither approved
by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) nor commercially available in the United States.
3. Use of gentamicin-collagen sponges.
a. Gentamicin-collagen sponges have been evaluated as
a way to decrease SSI among colorectal and cardiac
surgical patients.
i. Colorectal surgical patients. Several single-center
randomized trials have demonstrated that gentamicin-collagen sponges decrease the risk of SSI following colorectal procedures.178-180 The rate of SSI
was higher with the sponge, however, in a recent
large, multicenter randomized clinical trial.181
ii. Cardiothoracic surgical patients. Four randomized
controlled trials have evaluated the use of gentamicin-collagen sponges in cardiothoracic surgery.
Three of these trials demonstrated a decrease in
SSIs,182-184 and one showed no difference.185 A recent
meta-analysis combining these trials concluded that
the risk of deep sternal wound infection was significantly lower in patients who received a gentamicin-collagen sponge than in patients who did not
(RR, 0.62 [95% CI, 0.39–0.97]) despite significant
heterogeneity among the trials.186
b. Gentamicin-collagen sponges are not currently approved by the FDA for use in the United States.
4. Use of bundles to ensure compliance with best practices.
a. Bundles have been promoted as methods to improve
adherence to best practices.
b. Although generally favorable, the use of bundles for
the prevention of SSI has led to mixed results, depending on which components are included.59,187,188
c. Thus, there is no consensus on the components of
an effective bundle to prevent SSIs.
section 5: performance measures
I. Internal reporting
These performance measures are intended to support
internal hospital quality improvement efforts and do not
necessarily address external reporting needs. The process
and outcome measures suggested here are derived from
published guidelines, other relevant literature, and the
opinion of the authors. Report process and outcome mea-
sures to senior hospital leadership, nursing leadership, and
clinicians who care for patients at risk for SSI.
A. Process measures
1. Compliance with antimicrobial prophylaxis guidelines.
a. Measure the percentage of procedures in which antimicrobial prophylaxis was appropriately provided. Appropriateness includes (1) correct type of
agent, (2) start of administration of the agent
within 1 hour of incision (2 hours allowed for vancomycin and fluoroquinolones), and (3) discontinuation of the agent within 24 hours after surgery.
i. Numerator: number of patients who appropriately received antimicrobial prophylaxis.
ii. Denominator: total number of selected operations performed.
iii. Multiply by 100 so that the measure is expressed
as a percentage.
2. Compliance with hair removal guidelines.
a. Measure the percentage of procedures for which
hair removal is appropriately performed (ie, clipping, use of a depilatory or no hair removal is
performed rather than use of razor).
i. Numerator: number of patients with appropriate perioperative hair removal.
ii. Denominator: total number of selected operations performed.
iii. Multiply by 100 so that the measure is expressed
as a percentage.
3. Compliance with perioperative glucose control
guidelines.
a. Measure the percentage of procedures for which
serum glucose is 180 mg/dL or lower within 18–
24 hours after anesthesia end time for all cardiac
surgery patients.60,61,100
i. Numerator: number of patients with appropriately maintained serum glucose (180 mg/dL or
lower) in the time frame of 18–24 hours after
anesthesia end time following cardiac surgery.
ii. Denominator: total number of cardiac procedures performed.
iii. Multiply by 100 so that the measure is expressed
as a percentage.
B. Outcome measures
1. SSI rate
a. Use NHSN definitions and risk adjustment methods for SSI (available at http://www.cdc.gov/nhsn
/acute-care-hospital/ssi/index.html).
i. Numerator: number of patients with an SSI following selected operations.
ii. Denominator: total number of selected operations performed.
iii. Multiply by 100 so that the measure is expressed
as the number of SSIs per 100 procedures.
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iv. Rates of SSI can be risk adjusted using one of
2 methods: stratification using the NHSN risk
index133 or calculation of the standardized infection ratio (SIR).189 NHSN now promotes the
use of SIR over the NHSN risk index for improved risk adjustment potential,190 and SIR is
preferentially used for the national public reporting outcome measure within NHSN.
(a) The NHSN risk index is an operation- and
patient-specific prospectively applied risk
score that predicts SSIs.191 This risk index
includes 3 predictors of increased risk of SSI:
(1) estimators of wound microbial contamination, (2) duration of operation, and (3)
markers for host susceptibility.42
(b) SIR is the ratio of the observed number of
SSIs (O) that occurred compared with the
expected number for a surgeon performing
a specific type of procedure (E; eg, SIR p
O/E).189 The expected number of SSIs can
be obtained by multiplying the number of
operations done by the surgeon in each procedure risk category by the NHSN rate for
the same procedure risk category and dividing by 100. Values that exceed 1.0 indicate
that more SSIs occurred than expected. Importantly, SIR can only be calculated if the
number of expected HAIs is ≥1. Thus, this
approach may be more difficult for small
surgical programs or if few procedures are
performed for any one procedure type.192
(c) Risk adjustment using logistic regression and
the SIR method generally provides better riskadjustment than the basic risk index.190,193
II. External reporting
There are many challenges in providing useful information to consumers and other stakeholders while preventing unintended adverse consequences of public reporting of HAIs.194 Recommendations and requirements
for public reporting of HAIs have been provided by
HICPAC,195 the Healthcare-Associated Infection Working
Group of the Joint Public Policy Committee,54 the National Quality Forum,55 and CMS.196 The following is an
example of an external performance measure that is currently required by some healthcare stakeholders and
regulators.
A. Process measures
1. Compliance with CMS antimicrobial prophylaxis
guidelines (see the section above on internal reporting
in “Section 5: Performance Measures”).
a. Measure the percentage of procedures in which antimicrobial prophylaxis was appropriately provided. Appropriateness includes correct type of
agent, administration of the agent within 1 hour
617
of incision (2 hours are allowed for vancomycin
and fluoroquinolones), and discontinuation of the
agent within 24 hours after surgery (48 hours for
cardiothoracic procedures).197
2. Compliance with the CMS guideline for control of
postoperative blood glucose in cardiac surgery
patients.
a. Measure the percentage of procedures in which
postoperative blood glucose was appropriately controlled in cardiac surgery patients.
B. Federal and state requirements
1. Federal requirements
a. The CMS published a final rule in the Federal Register on August 18, 2011, that includes SSI reporting
via the CDC’s NHSN in the CMS Hospital IQR
program requirements for 2012.196 More specifically, the rule announced a reporting requirement
for SSI data for inpatient abdominal hysterectomy
and inpatient colon procedures beginning with surgical procedures performed on January 1, 2012.198
b. The requirements for SSI reporting to NHSN for
the IQR program do not preempt or supersede
state mandates for SSI reporting to NHSN (ie, hospitals in states with an SSI reporting mandate must
abide by their state’s requirements, even if they are
more extensive than the requirements for this CMS
program). NHSN users reporting SSI data to the
system must adhere to the definitions and reporting requirements for SSIs as specified in the NHSN
Patient Safety Component Protocol Manual.198 For
more information, see http://www.cdc.gov/nhsn
/acute-care-hospital/ssi/index.html.
2. State requirements and collaboratives
a. State requirements. Hospitals in states that have
mandatory SSI reporting requirements must collect
and report the data required by the state. For information on state requirements, check with your
state or local health department.
b. State collaboratives. Currently 27 states have implemented voluntary SSI collaboratives. For more
information on state collaboratives for SSI, see
http://www.cdc.gov/hai/stateplans/states-w-SSI
-collaborative.html.
3. External quality initiatives
a. Several external quality initiatives focused on SSI
prevention are ongoing. The benefits in participation in these external quality initiatives is unknown but may include improvement in the culture of safety and patient outcomes, including
decreased rates of SSI. For additional information,
see the following:
i. http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/haify11.htm#projects
ii. http://www.ihi.org/Engage/Initiatives/Completed
/ProjectJOINTS/Pages/default.aspx
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table 3. Fundamental Elements of Accountability for Healthcare-Associated Infection Prevention
Senior management is responsible for ensuring that the healthcare system supports an infection prevention and control (IPC) program that effectively prevents healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and the transmission of epidemiologically important
pathogens
Senior management is accountable for ensuring that an adequate number of trained personnel are assigned to the IPC program and
adequate staffing of other departments that play a key role in HAI prevention (eg, environmental services)
Senior management is accountable for ensuring that healthcare personnel, including licensed and nonlicensed personnel, are adequately trained and competent to perform their job responsibilities
Direct healthcare providers (such as physicians, nurses, aides, and therapists) and ancillary personnel (such as environmental service
and equipment processing personnel) are responsible for ensuring that appropriate IPC practices are used at all times (including
hand hygiene, standard and isolation precautions, and cleaning and disinfection of equipment and the environment)
Senior and unit leaders are responsible for holding personnel accountable for their actions
IPC leadership is responsible for ensuring that an active program to identify HAIs is implemented, that HAI data are analyzed and
regularly provided to those who can use the information to improve the quality of care (eg, unit staff, clinicians, and hospital
administrators), and that evidence-based practices are incorporated into the program
Senior and unit leaders are accountable for ensuring that appropriate training and educational programs to prevent HAIs are developed and provided to personnel, patients, and families
Personnel from the IPC program, the laboratory, and information technology departments are responsible for ensuring that systems
are in place to support the surveillance program
section 6: examples o f
implementation strategies
Accountability is an essential principle for preventing HAIs.
It provides the necessary translational link between science
and implementation. Without clear accountability, scientifically based implementation strategies will be used in an inconsistent and fragmented way, decreasing their effectiveness
in preventing HAIs. Accountability begins with the chief executive officer and other senior leaders who provide the imperative for HAI prevention, thereby making HAI prevention
an organizational priority. Senior leadership is accountable
for providing adequate resources needed for effective implementation of an HAI prevention program. These resources
include necessary personnel (clinical and nonclinical), education, and equipment (Table 3).
The following information identifies implementation strategies that can be used as part of a program to prevent and
reduce the risk for SSI. The implementation strategies are
organized under 4 concepts: engage, educate, execute, and
evaluate.199
I. Engage
In the engagement phase, there needs to be clear and
effective communication pertaining to the reasons why the
SSI implementation strategies are important for patient
care. Engagement of senior leadership, physician champions, infection preventionists, and multidisciplinary
teams are examples of strategies necessary for initial implementation of a program to reduce SSIs. The following
implementation strategies are described in the literature as
being essential for the engagement process.
A. Obtaining support for SSI reduction from senior leadership. Senior leadership support is an important factor
contributing to SSI rate decreases. Senior leadership is
also critical for sustaining improvements over time.
Senior leadership can include but is not limited to the
hospital’s board, president, chief operating officer, chief
medical officer, and chief nursing officer.148,200-203
B. Obtaining highly engaged physicians as champions. Medical and surgical staff engagement is critical for SSI prevention activities and to champion SSI prevention
throughout the hospital. Examples include a physician
leading an SSI prevention multidisciplinary team and
a physician champion who provides education on strategies to reduce SSIs to other physicians and staff.202,203
C. Use of multidisciplinary teams. Numerous studies and
literature address the effectiveness of multidisciplinary
teams to plan, develop, implement, and evaluate efforts
to reduce SSIs. The key components of the team include
preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative management of the patient. Teams should include nursing,
pharmacy, and physician champions.148,200,204-207
D. Adopting evidence-based practices and guidelines. Several
studies in the literature focus on the need for hospitals
to adopt evidence-based practices and guidelines in an
effort to decrease the risk of SSIs. The literature stresses
that, although evidence-based interventions can reduce
the number of SSIs and improve patient outcomes,
implementation of these practices nationally occurs less
frequently than is desirable.10,148,203,208-210
E. Focus on a culture of safety. The literature supports the
need for a culture of safety to successfully implement
a program focusing on reducing SSIs. A culture of safety
focuses on teamwork, technical processes, and promoting accountability for preventing SSIs throughout
the continuum of care.136,200,202
II. Educate
Education pertaining to practices to prevent SSIs is essential for senior leadership, physicians, nurses, and patients and families. The following implementation strat-
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
strategies to prevent ssi: 2014 update
egies describe the types of education that can impact SSI
rates and who should be the focus of educational efforts.
A. Aligned and coordinated SSI education for licensed independent practitioners and staff. Multidisciplinary education for licensed independent practitioners (physicians and midlevel practitioners) and other practitioner
staff (registered nurses) must be aligned and coordinated. The content of the education focuses on the
continuum of the patient’s care and execution of evidence-based practices to prevent SSIs.202,203
B. One-to-one education of the surgeon when an SSI issue
is identified. Provide one-to-one education when surgeons have elevated SSI rates and/or when appropriate
preventive processes are not being adhered to. This education may be conducted by another surgeon, infection preventionist, quality office, or other qualified individuals. The education should be nonconfrontational
with an emphasis on understanding variation in practice rather than judgment. If lack of adherence to evidence-based practices is identified, then an action plan
must be developed.203
C. Education for senior leadership that describes the value
and benefits of SSI reduction. Provide education to executive leadership regarding the value of reducing SSIs,
including patient and fiscal outcomes.131
D. Education for the surgical team on safety science. Provide
education to licensed independent practitioners and
staff involved in the care of surgical patients on the
science of safety, including the principles of safe system
design.200
E. Specific SSI education for patients and families. Patient
education for reducing SSIs is a major priority for any
hospital focused on preventing SSIs. Education strategies such as presurgical classes, television education, and
one-to-one education with the patient and family have
been used successfully. Educational materials should be
provided in multiple languages on the basis of the population served.131,202,203
III. Execute
In the execution phase, the focus is on implementation
strategies to reduce barriers and improve adherence with
evidence-based practices and reduce the risk of SSIs, including (a) standardization of care processes, (b) creating
redundancy or independent checks, and (c) learning from
defects when an SSI occurs. As noted above, no consensus
exists on the components of an effective bundle to prevent SSIs. Thus, individual hospitals must identify local
deficits and create their own bundle.
A. Use a quality improvement methodology. Use of quality
improvement methodology for designing and implementing a program leads to reduced rates of SSIs. Quality improvement methodologies include Lean Six
Sigma, the Comprehensive Unit-Based Safety Program,
and the Plan-Do-Check-Act model. Various performance improvement (PI) tools have been used, in-
619
cluding dashboards, scorecards, and histograms, to display data.149,200,203,207,211
B. Differentiate between adult and pediatric populations.
Pediatric-focused evidence-based practices for reducing
SSIs are lacking. Clinical interventions designed for the
adult population cannot necessarily be transferred to
the pediatric population. Hospital and pediatric surgeons must determine whether adult evidence-based
interventions can be safely used with the pediatric
population.203
C. Use of information technologies (IT). IT innovations can
be used to simplify and standardize clinical documentation. IT and the electronic medical record can also
be used for electronic surveillance, electronic prompts,
automatic stops for prophylactic antibiotic orders, and
education. Education can be delivered to patients, families, and healthcare workers through different media,
including the Internet and television.148,202,203,212
D. Participation in a collaborative. Numerous studies have
reported that participation in a collaborative can help
reduce SSI rates in participating organizations. Collaboratives provide a mechanism for organizations to
1. Utilize valid data, such as with the American College
of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement
Program;213
2. Identify increased morbidity and mortality through
comparisons to peer hospitals on a national basis;213
and
3. Learn
through
the
collaboration
process.161,202,203,205,207,209,213,214
E. Use of preoperative/postoperative order sets. Standardized
order sets can be developed on the basis of evidencebased practices. The order sets should be approved by
the medical staff and updated when the evidence-based
practices change. The development of order sets is a
labor-intensive process necessitating skills and expertise
of several disciplines, including surgery, anesthesia,
nursing, and pharmacy. All relevant disciplines should
be educated in the use of the order sets.148,202,203
F. Acting on identified SSI issues. When issues suspected of
increasing the risk of SSI are identified, the hospital
should take action to resolve the identified issues. Several hospitals conduct root-cause analyses with a multidisciplinary team to identify the cause of the issues
and any lack of adherence in the evidence-based practices.149,202-204
G. Establish a protocol for preoperative testing. Establish a
protocol for procedure-specific preoperative testing to
detect medical conditions that increase the risk of SSI.
The protocol should focus on nutritional counseling if
indicated, smoking cessation if indicated, preadmission
infections, and reconciling medications with adjustments prior to surgery if indicated.202 If high-risk patients are identified through screening, alerts should be
added to electronic medical records to ensure that all
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infection control and hospital epidemiology
june 2014, vol. 35, no. 6
members of the perioperative team are aware of the
high-risk condition(s).
IV. Evaluate
In the evaluation phase, the focus is on the use of
measurement and evaluation tools to determine the effectiveness of implementation strategies in the prevention
of SSIs.
A. Use of performance improvement tools. Various PI tools
can be used. PI tools include dashboards, scorecards,
or histograms to display data. Additional PI tools can
include root-cause analysis and failure modes and effects analysis.148,202,203
B. Direct observation of evidence-based practices. As part of
a hospital’s SSI improvement activities, trained observers (eg, infection preventionists, educators, nurses, and
physicians) should observe surgery to assure that evidence-based practices have been implemented in the
operating room. Direct observation can also be conducted for hand hygiene and surgical hand antisepsis
technique. This activity is used to educate and reinforce
evidence-based practices with the operating room
practitioners.136,149,203,214
C. Longitudinal evaluation of SSI rates and compliance rates.
Track the success of the SSI reduction program by evaluating SSI rates over time (ie, before, during, and after
the program). If specific practices or processes are identified for improvement, evaluate the compliance with
evidence-based practices related to these practices and
processes. Feed these data evaluations back to frontline
staff.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
acknowledgments
Disclaimer. S.I.B.-T.—The findings and conclusions in this report are those
of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Potential conflicts of interest. E.P.D. reports serving as an advisor/consultant for Merck, Baxter, Ortho-McNeil, Targanta, Rib-X, Affinium, 3M,
Schering-Plough, Astellas, CareFusion, Durata, Pfizer, and Applied Medical
and receiving grant support from Tetraphase. L.G. reports receiving honoraria
from Premier, CareFusion, and Infection Control Today. K.S.K. reports receiving grant support and serving as an advisor/consultant for Sage Products.
D.J.A., K.P., D.W.B., S.I.B.-T., A.-C.N., L.L.M., L.S., and D.S.Y. report no
relevant conflicts of interest.
Address correspondence to Deverick J. Anderson, MD, MPH, Division of
Infectious Diseases, Box 102359, Duke University Medical Center, Durham,
NC 27710 ([email protected]).
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