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Chapter One Child Development: Themes, Theories, and Methods Page 3 (right) © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved What is child development and why should we study it? • Sub-area of child psychology 1. Identifies and describes changes in child from beginning of life to adolescence • Cognitive • Emotional • Motor • Social capacities and behaviors 2. Uncover processes/strategies underlying the changes • Use of research • Suggest practical applications based on research © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved What exactly does that mean? • Developmental psychologists are interested in what things change as children get older and how these changes come about. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Themes of Development • Themes focus on theories and study of psychological development • Main theoretical views guide research • Specific processes and experiences may account for different aspects of child development © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Themes of Development • Themes focus on theories and study of psychological development – Origins of human behavior – Pattern of developmental change over time – Individual and contextual forces that define and direct child development © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Page 2 (left)-Reflective Response • Thinking about Themes in Child PsychologyActivity Sheet #1-B © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Page 5 (right)-Themes of Development • Biological versus Environmental Influences: nature vs. nurture – Disagreement on which influences development the most – Genetic or biological processes unfold naturally in maturation – Environmental events can shape, modify – Children are active agents © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Themes of Development • Continuity(stability) versus Discontinuity – Continuous process: each new event builds on earlier experiences in orderly way or gradual improvement – Discontinuous process: development occurs in discrete steps or stages; each stage is a qualitatively new set of behaviors © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Themes of Development • Individual Characteristics versus Contextual and Cultural Influences – Individual and personality characteristics direct behaviors – Environmental influences (family income, education, death, divorce, remarriage) – Interactionist view: adopt both – Resilience or “sleeper” effects? © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pg. 4 (left) Work it Out: What is Sroufe’s view on the characteristics of child development? © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sroufe feels that research indicates… • That child development is characterized by continuity and change. • While many aspects of the child’s psychological, physical, and behavioral characteristics change across development, there are many aspects of the child’s characteristics that remain stable or consistent across development. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Two functions of theories – Organize and integrate existing information into coherent, interesting, plausible accounts of how children develop – Generate testable hypotheses or predictions about child behavior © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Page 7 (right)-Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Structural-Organismic Perspectives Learning Perspectives Dynamic Systems Perspectives Contextual Perspectives Ethological and Evolutionary Approaches © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Page 6 (left) Graphic Organizer • Complete the 5 perspective handouts and staple them in when finished © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives 1. Structural-Organismic Approach focuses on structured set of stages an organism goes through over the course of psychological growth (structuralism) – Used in Freud, Erikson, and Piaget’s theories © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory Age 12+ Latency Stage Age 6 - 12 Age 3 - 6 Age 1 - 3 Age 0 - 1 Genital Stage Phallic Stage Super Ego Anal Stage Oral Stage Ego Id Freud: Personality is formed within the first 6 years © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Ages 65+ Ages 30 - 65 Ages 20 - 30 Ages 12 - 20 Integrity vs. Despair Generativity vs. Stagnation Intimacy vs. Isolation Identity vs. Role confusion Ages 6 - 12 Industry vs. Inferiority Ages 3 - 6 Initiative vs. Guilt Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Trust vs. Mistrust Ages 1 - 3 Ages 0 - 1 © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development Formal Operational Concrete Operational Preoperational Sensorimotor 0-2 2-7 7 - 12 Age © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 12+ Piaget’s Principle of Adaptation Adapt to new information Assimilation Reinterpret new experiences so they fit into old ideas – existing ideas don’t change, stay same Accommodation Revamp old ideas so they can adapt to new – change current ways of thinking/ideas so as to add new knowledge © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives 2. Learning Approach • Behaviorism focuses on learning of behavior; not unobservable factors or motivations (Watson, Pavlov, Skinner) • Classical Conditioning • Operant Conditioning © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus (metronome) UCS UCR (salivation) Before conditioning: when food was placed in dish (UCS), the dog salivated (UCR) Appearance of food becomes CS; dog salivation is the CR CS CS CS CR (salivation) CR (salivation) Pairing of metronome with appearance of food makes each a Conditioned Stimulus Play metronome (CS) and dog salivates (CR) without food being presented © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Watson’s Classical Conditioning CS (furry rat) CR (fear) UCS (loud noise) © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Quiz grade of A earned If grades or parents’ urging are a ‘reward’ (reinforcement), student will study well Task: study for a quiz Consequences can reinforce or decrease chances of behavior occurring again If grades or parents’ urging are not a ‘reward’ (reinforcement), student will do other activities © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Quiz grade of F earned Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives 2. Learning Approach(continued) • Cognitive Social Learning Theory: children learn through behaviorism and from observation and imitation of role models (Bandura’s process of imitation) • Information-Processing Approaches focus on flow of information through the cognitive system (brain is like computer) © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modeled Behavior ATTENTION Experience, Personality characteristics, Relationship with model, Situational variables RETENTION Rehearsal, Organization, Recall, Other cognitive skills REPRODUCTION Cognitive representation, Concept matching, Use of feedback MOTIVATION External & Vicarious incentives, Self-evaluation, Internalized standards, Social comparison Matched Behavior © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved literature geography Information-Processing Theory science INPUT OUTPUT Information is taken into brain history Information is used as basis of behaviors and interactions religion math Information gets processed, analyzed, and stored in the brain until use © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives 3. Dynamic Systems Perspective focuses on changes over time that result from interacting elements in a complex, integrated system – Individuals and their achievements can only be understood within this framework © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives 4. Contextual Perspectives • Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – development is product of social and cultural experiences – Emphasizes importance of cultural variation in development – cultural tools include language, technology © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives – Contextual Perspectives • Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory – experiences and relationships in layers of environmental systems impact child development • The life-span perspective © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Development CHRONOSYSTEM MACROSYSTEM EXOSYSTEM Extended family MESOSYSTEM Friends of family Family Neighbors Child Attitudes & ideologies of culture Peers Legal services MICROSYSTEM Mass media Social welfare services © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theoretical Perspectives on Development • Five general theoretical perspectives 5. Ethological and Evolutionary Approaches • Ethological theory focuses on adaptive or survival behavior within specific contexts – observation yields detailed classifications • Evolutionary developmental psychology focuses on critical components of human evolutionary change in the brain and cognitive functioning © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Page 9 (right) - Research Methods in Child Psychology • Selecting a sample – Representativeness of sample – tries to mirror a larger population by using age, ethnicity, gender, social class, education, and culture – National Survey approach uses a nationally representative group of people but it’s costly and time consuming © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Child Psychology • Methods of Collecting Data on Children – Children’s Self-Reports – Reports by Family, Teachers, and Peers – Direct Observation • Valuable in examining human behavior • Specimen Record • Event Sampling, Time Sampling • Structured Observation © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Child Psychology • Research Design: Establishing Patterns and Causes – Correlational Method allows researchers to relate certain experiences or factors to each other and assess the strength of the relations © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Frequency with which children watched “Sesame Street” Test score gains Rarely 2 to 3 times per week 4 to 5 times per week More than 5 times per week © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Child Psychology • Studying Change Over Time – Cross-Sectional Method compares different age levels at about the same point in time – Longitudinal Method studies same subjects over time at various points in their life • Problem: practice effects of repeated testing – Sequential Method combines both crosssectional and longitudinal methods STOP © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Page 8 (left)- Activity Sheet #1-C • Glue/Staple in this handout and complete the assignment with a partner. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Year of evaluation Cross-sectional comparisons Longitudinal comparisons 1994 Cohort comparisons 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 Year of birth © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Child Psychology • The Ethics of Research with Children – Research approved by review boards (i.e.: APA) – Informed consent – Do no harm, especially in deception studies – A Bill of Child Participants’ Rights in Child Development Research (Table 1-6) © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Page 10 (left)- Activity Sheet #1-D • Read pages 30 and 31 in your textbook and complete this activity with a partner. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved The End © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved