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Published 1982
NITROGEN IN
AGRICULTURAL SOILS
AGRONOMY
A Series of Monographs
The American Society of Agronomy and Academic Press published the first six books in this series. The
General Editor of Monographs I to 6 was A. G. Norman. They are available through Academic Press, Inc.,
III Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003.
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
C. EDMUND MARSHALL: The Colloid Chemical of the Silicate Minerals, 1949
BYRON T. SHAW, Editor: Soil Physical Conditions and Plant Growth, 1952
K. D. JACOB: Fertilizer Technology and Resources in the United States, 1953
W. H. PIERRE and A. G. NORMAN, Editors: Soil and Fertilizer Phosphate in Crop Nutrition, 1953
GEORGE F. SPRAGUE, Editor: Corn and Corn Improvement, 1955
J. LEVITT: The Hardiness of Plants, 1956
The Monographs published since 1957 are available from the American Society of Agronomy, 677 S.
Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711.
7. JAMES N. LUTHlN, Editor: Drainage of Agricultural Lands, 1957
General Editor, D. E. Gregg
8. FRANKLIN A. COFFMAN, Editor: Oats and Oat Improvement
Managing Editor, H. L. Hamilton
9. C. A. BLACK, Editor-in-Chiej and D. D. EVANS, J. L. WHITE, L. E. ENSMINGER, and F. E.
CLARK, Associate Editors: Methods of Soil Analysis, 1965.
Part I..LPhysical and Mineralogical Properties, Induding Statistics of Measurement and Sampling
A. L. PAGE, Editor: Methods of Soil Analysis, 1982
Part 2-Chemical and Microbiological Properties, Second Edition
Managing Editor, R. C. Dinauer
10. W. V. BARTHOLOMEW and F. E. CLARK, Editors: Soil Nitrogen, 1965
(Out of print; replaced by no. 22)
Managing Editor, H. L. Hamilton
II. R. M. HAGAN, H. R. HAISE, and T. W. EDMINSTER, Editors: Irrigation of
Agricultural Lands, 1967
Managing Editor, R. C. Dinauer
12. FRED ADAMS, Editor: Soil Acidity and Liming, Second Edition, 1984
Managing Editor, R. C. Dinauer
13. K. S. QUISENBERRY and L. P. REITZ, Editors: Wheat and Wheat Improvement, 1967
Managing Editor, H. L. Hamilton
14. A. A. HANSON and F. V. JUSKA, Editors: Turfgrass Science, 1969
Managing Editor, H. L. Hamilton
15. CLARENCE H. HANSON, Editor: Alfalfa Science and Technology, 1972
Managing Editor, H. L. Hamilton
16. B. E. Caldwell, Editor: Soybeans: Improvement, Production, and Use, 1973
Managing Editor, H. L. Hamilton
17. JAN VAN SCHILFGAARDE, Editor: Drainage for Agriculture, 1974
Managing Editor, R. C. Dinauer
18. GEORGE F. SPRAGUE, Editor: Corn and Corn Improvement, 1977
Managing Editor, D. A. Fuccillo
19. JACK F. CARTER, Editor: Sunflower Science and Technology, 1978
Managing Editor, D. A. Fuccillo
20. ROBERT C. BUCKNER and L. P. BUSH, Editors: Tall Fescue, 1979
Managing Editor, D. A. Fuccillo
21. M. T. BEATTY, G. W. PETERSEN, and L. D. SWINDALE, Editors: Planning the Uses and
Managing Editor, R. C. Dinauer
Management of Land, 1979
22. F. J. STEVENSON, Editor: Nitrogen in Agricultural Soils, 1982
Managing Editor, R. C. Dinauer
23. H. E. DREGNE and W. O. WILLIS, Editors: Dryland Agriculture, 1983
Managing Editor, D. A. Fuccillo
24. R. J. KOHEL and C. F. LEWIS, Editors: Cotton, 1984
Managing Editor, D. A. Fuccillo
25. N. L. TAYLOR, Editor: Clover Science and Technology, 1985
Managing Editor, D. A. Fuccillo
NITROGEN IN
AGRICULTURAL SOILS
FRANK J. STEVENSON, editor
Editorial Committee
F. J. Stevenson
J. M. Bremner
R. D. Hauck
D. R. Keeney
Managing Editor: RICHARD C. DINAUER
Assistant Editor: KRISTINE E. GATES
Editor-in-Chiej ASA Publications: MATTHIAS STELLY
Number 22 in the series
AGRONOMY
American Society of Agronomy, Inc.
Crop Science Society of America, Inc.
Soil Science Society of America, Inc.
Publisher
Madison, Wisconsin USA
1982
Copyright © 1982 by the American Society of Agronomy, Inc.
Crop Science Society of America, Inc.
Soil Science Society of America, Inc.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER THE U.S. COPYRIGHT LAW
OF 1978 (P.L. 94-553)
Any and all uses beyond the "fair use" provision of the law require
written permission from the publishers and/or author(s); not applicable to contributions prepared by officers or employees of the U.S.
Government as part of their official duties.
American Society of Agronomy. Inc.
Crop Science Society of America. Inc.
Soil Science Society of America. Inc.
677 South Segoe Road. Madison. Wisconsin 53711 USA
Second Printing 1985
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Nitrogen in agricultural soils.
(Agronomy; no. 22)
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Soils-Nitrogen content. 2. Plants, Effects of nitrogen
on. 3. Crops and soils. 4. Nitrogen fertilizers.
I. Stevenson, F. 1. II. Series.
S592.6.N5N566
631.4'16
82-1704
AACR2
ISBN 0-89\\8-070-2
Printed in the United States of America
CONTENTS
DEDICATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL FOREWORD AND FOREWORD ................................
PREFACE. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. ..
CONTRIBUTORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR U.S. AND METRIC UNITS. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . ..
Page
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1 Origin and Distribution of Nitrogen in Soil
F. J. STEVENSON
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. The N Cycle. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Geochemistry of N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Evolutionary Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Mechanisms by Which N is Added to Soil in Nature. . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nitrogen in Atmospheric Precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Biological N, Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Nitrogen Losses from Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
A. VolatilizationofNH 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
B. Bacterial Denitrification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Leaching..............................................
D. Chemical Reactions of NO, - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Factors Affecting the N Content of Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nitrogen Accumulations during Soil Development
(the Time Factor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Effect of Climate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Vegetation.............................................
D. Parent Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Topography...........................................
F. Effect of Cropping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Summary.................................................
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
3
4
6
11
11
12
21
21
22
23
24
24
25
27
30
31
31
32
38
39
2 Inorganic Forms of Nitrogen in Soil
J. L. YOUNG AND R. W. ALDAG
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Mineral-Fixed NH. +-N . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
A. General Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Origin.............................. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Methods of Estimation ..................................
D. Amounts of Distribution in Soil Profiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Effect on C/N Ratios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Stability, Transformation, Fluctuation, and Movement. . . . . . .
III. Exchangeab!e and Water-soluble Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .
A. Methods of Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Amounts and Distribution ...............................
IV. Soil Nitrogen Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Methods of Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Amounts and Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
43
44
44
44
46
48
54
55
56
57
58
60
61
61
62
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CONTENTS
3 Organic Forms of Soil Nitrogen
F. 1. STEVENSON
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Fractionation of Soil N......................................
A. Distribution of Organic Forms of N in Mineral Soils. . . . . . . . . .
B. Distribution of the Forms of N in Histosols and Aquatic
Sediments ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Humic and Fulvic Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Distribution and Stabilization of Newly Immobilized N. . . . . . .
E. Natural Variations in N Isotope Abundance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Amino Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Extraction and Quantitative Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Identification of Amino Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Distribution Patterns in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Factors Affecting the Distribution of Amino Acids. . . . . . . . . . .
E. Amino Acids in Humic and Fulvic Acids ...................
F. Stereochemistry of Amino Acids. .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . .. . .
G. Free Amino Acids.......................................
H. State of Amino Acids in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Amino Sugars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Extraction and Quantitative Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Isolation of Amino Sugars ...............................
V. Other N Compounds.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nucleic Acids and Derivatives ............................
B. Chlorophyll and Chlorophyll Degradation Products .........
C. Phospholipids..........................................
D. Amines, Vitamins, and Other Compounds. .................
E. Pesticide and Pesticide Degradation Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Stability of Soil Organic N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VII. Summary ............................ '.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED..........................................
67
67
70
77
79
83
87
88
89
90
91
94
96
97
97
99
101
102
103
105
105
107
109
109
III
112
114
114
4 Retention and Fixation of Ammonium and Ammonia in Soils
HANS NOMMIK AND KAAREL VAHTRAS
I. Introduction..............................................
II. Exchangeable Binding of NH. + in Soils and Clay Minerals. . . . . . . .
A. Cation Adsorption and Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Cation Exchange Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Nonexchangeable Binding (Fixation) of NH. + in Soils and
Clay Minerals .............................................
A. Mechanism of NH. + Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Methods Used for Studying NH. + Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Factors Affecting Rate and Magnitude of NH. + Fixation. . . . . .
D. Release of Fixed NH. + from Soils and Minerals by Different
Extraction and Distillation Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Availability of Fixed NH: to Soil Microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . .
F . Availability of Fixed NH. + to Higher Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Retention of NH, and Fixation of NH, in Soil Organic Matter ....
A. General Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Physical Sorption of NH, .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Chemisorption ofNH,...................................
D. Fixation ofNH, in Soil Organic Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
LITERATURE CITED..........................................
123
123
124
126
127
127
130
132
139
143
148
152
152
154
156
156
166
CONTENTS
vii
5 Biochemistry of Ammonification
J. N. LADD AND R. B. JACKSON
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Proteins, Peptides, Amides, Amidines, and Amino Acids ........
A. Proteinases and Peptidases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Proteinases and Peptidases in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Amidohydrolases and Amidinohydrolases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Amino Acid Dehydrogenases and Oxidases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Aminopolysaccharides and Amino Sugars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Origin and Hydrolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Stability of Aminopolysaccharides in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Hydrolysis of Aminopolysaccharides in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Ammonia Production From Amino Sugars.................
IV. Nucleic Acids, Nucleotides, Nucleosides, Purines, and
Pyrimidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nucleic Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Nucleotides and Nucleosides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Nucleases, Nucleotidases, and Nucleosidases in Soil. . . . . . . . . .
D. Deamination of Nucleotides and Nucleosides ...............
E. Catabolism of Purines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Degradation of Pyrimidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Degradation of Purines and Pyrimidines in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Urea.....................................................
A. Ureases................................................
B. SoiIUreases........ ... ............ .....................
VI. Other Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
173
174
175
178
186
187
189
190
191
192
193
194
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198
198
199
204
207
208
209
210
221
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6 Mineralization and Immobilization of Soil Nitrogen
S. L. JANSSON AND J. PERSSON
I. Background...............................................
A. The Processes of Mineralization and Immobilization. . . . . . . . .
B. Relations to the Universal N Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Partition of the Universal N Cycle Into Three Subcycles. . . . . . .
D. Competition Among the N Subcycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Mineralization-Immobilization Turnover (MIT) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Features and Functions of MIT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Inadequacies of Net Effect Determinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Possibilities of Measuring Gross Effects: Usefulness of
Tracer Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Confusion Caused by MIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Priming Effect and Related Phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Fertilizer N and MIT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Evaluation of N Fertilizers ...............................
G. MIT and Nitrification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Consequences of N, Fixation and Denitrification on MIT . . . . .
I. MIT Interactions with Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Effects of Physical and Chemical Soil Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Energy-Nutrient Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. The C/N Ratio: C and N Interdependence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M. The Phase Concept of Soil Organic Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N. Humus Formation and Decay: A Dynamic Phenomenon.....
229
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240
240
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241
242
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CONTENTS
O. Use of Equilibrium Concepts in Phase Determinations. . . . . . . .
P. "A" and Related Values.................................
Q. Attempts at Extended Phase Separations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Problems and Prospects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. A New Line in Soil Organic Matter Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Inorganic Phase Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Simulation Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Future Role of Tracer Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
243
244
244
245
245
247
247
248
248
Nitrification in Soil
EDWIN L. SCHMIDT
I. Introduction..............................................
II. The Process of Nitrification in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Factors Regulating Nitrification in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Substrates and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Interactions with Other N Cycle Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Approaches to Soil Nitrification ..........................
III. Microbiological Basis of Nitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nitrification by Heterotrophs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Methane Oxidizing Bacteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Autotrophic Nitrifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Ammonium Oxidizing Bacteria in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Biochemistry of NH: Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Carbon Metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Soil Genera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Nitrite Oxidizing Bacteria of Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Biochemistry of NO,- Oxidation ..........................
B. Carbon Metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Study of Nitrifying Populations of Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Isolation...............................................
B. Most Probable Number (MPN) Enumeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Fluorescent Antibody (FA) Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Short Term Nitrification Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VII. Regulation of Nitrifying Populations in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Naturally Occurring Inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Inhibition by Pesticides Added to Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Specific Inhibitors of Nitrification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VIII. Growth of Nitrifying Bacteria in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Growth Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. yields.................................................
C. Activity...............................................
IX. Concluding Comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
253
254
254
257
258
259
260
260
262
263
264
264
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270
271
271
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273
274
275
276
278
278
280
281
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8 Biological Denitrification
M. K. FIRESTONE
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Biochemical and Microbiological Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Definition and Pathway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
289
290
290
CONTENTS
ix
B. Organisms Involved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Cellular Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Characteristics of Specific Reductases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Energy Conservation During Denitrification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Denitrification in Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Carbon Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Oxygen Control ........................................
C. Nitrate Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Effect of Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Effect of pH ...........................................
IV. Concluding Comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED..........................................
292
294
299
305
306
306
3 IO
314
315
316
318
318
9 Gaseous Losses of Nitrogen Other Than Through Denitrification
DARRELL W. NELSON
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Ammonia Loss From Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Ammonia Volatilization Following Ammonium Fertilization
of Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Ammonia Losses from Soils Following Anhydrous Ammonia
Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Gaseous Nitrogen Loss From Soils Through Nitrite Reactions. . . . .
A. Nitrite-Nitrous Acid Equilibria in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Factors Affecting Nitrite Instability in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Gaseous Products of Nitrite Reactions in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Mechanisms for Gaseous Loss of Nitrite N from Soils. . . . . . . .
E. Importance of Nitrite Reactions in Nitrogen Losses
from Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Gaseous Nitrogen Loss from Soils Through Reactions of
Nitrate and Hydroxylamine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Management Techniques to Minimize Gaseous Nitrogen Losses. . .
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
327
327
328
339
341
343
343
344
346
354
356
357
358
10 Biological Nitrogen Fixation
U. D. HAVELKA, M. G. BOYLE, AND R. W. F. HARDY
I. General Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Extent of N, Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Nitrogenase Enzyme ....................................
C. Nitrogenase Reaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Nitrogenase Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Microbiology of N, Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Introduction...........................................
B. Free-Living Diazotrophs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Symbiotic N, Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Physiology and Agronomy of N, Fixation-Legume/Rhizobium
Symbiosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Introduction...........................................
B. Nodulation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Energy Relationships in N, Fixation .......................
D. Methodology ofN, Fixation Measurement..................
E. Rhizobium ClassIfication .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
365
366
366
366
367
367
367
370
375
383
383
384
387
398
406
x
CONTENTS
F. Legume/Rhizobium Interactions.. . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . .
G. Seed Inoculant Technology.. . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
H. Inoculant Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Future Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED..........................................
11
408
409
411
413
413
Nitrogen Transport Processes in Soil
D. R. NIELSEN, J. W. BIGGAR, AND P. J. WIERENGA
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Deterministic Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Soil Water Movement. '" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Soil Solute Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Stochastic Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
423
424
425
426
433
445
12 Nitrogen Transformations in Submerged Soils
W. H. PATRICK, JR.
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Properties of Submerged Soils that Affect Nitrogen Behavior. . . . .
III. Nitrogen Transformations in Submerged Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Mineralization and Immobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Nitrification-Denitrification..............................
C. Nitrogen Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Ammonium Volatilization ...............................
IV. Management of Submerged Soil to Minimize Nitrogen Loss......
LITERATURE CITED.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
449
449
452
452
454
457
460
461
462
13 Advances in Methodology for Research on Nitrogen Transformations
in Soils
J. M. BREMNER AND R. D. HAUCK
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Determination of Different Forms of Nitrogen .................
A. Total Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Inorganic Forms of Nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Organic Forms of Nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
D .. Gaseous Forms of Nitrogen ..............................
III. Tracer Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Stable N Techniques ....................................
B. Nitrogen-13 Techniques..................................
C. Use of Variations in Natural Nitrogen-15 Abundance. . . . . . . . .
IV. Methods for Assay of the Activity of Enzymes Causing Nitrogen
Transformations in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nitrogenase Activity ....................................
B. Urease Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Other Enzymes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Methods for Research on Biological Nitrogen Fixation. . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Methods for Research on Denitrification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
467
468
468
471
473
474
479
479
483
484
486
487
487
488
488
491
493
xi
CONTENTS
14 Soil Nitrogen Budgets
J. O. LEGG AND J. J. MEISINGER
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. The N Cycle in Relation to N Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nitrogen Cycle Diagrams ................................
B. Soil N Equilibrium Concept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Nitrogen Sources in Soil-Plant Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Indigenous Soil Organic N ...............................
B. Additions Through Crop and Animal Wastes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Additions by Precipitation and Irrigation Water. . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Adsorption of Atmospheric Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Biological N, Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Commercial Fertilizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Miscellaneous Items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Nitrogen Losses from Soil-Plant Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Removal by Crops and Livestock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Erosion and Runoff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Leaching Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Denitrification and Other Gaseous Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Ammonium Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Recent Studies of N Budgets in Soil-Plant Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Use of Labeled N in N Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. N Balance Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Problems in N Balance Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. N Balance Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Summary..............................................
VI. Applications ofN Balances to Soil and Crop Problems...........
A. General Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Nitrogen Budgets Applied to Environmental Problems .. . . . . .
C. Summary..............................................
VII. Summary and Conclusions ..................................
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
503
505
505
505
507
507
507
508
509
510
512
512
512
513
513
516
518
520
521
521
522
523
525
546
547
547
547
555
555
557
Crop Nitrogen Requirements, Utilization, and Fertilization
R. A. OLSON AND L. T. KURTZ
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Plant Use of N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Functions of N in Plant Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Uptake, Translocation, and Storage of N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Biochemical Pathways of N in the Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Genetic Effects on Biochemical Pathways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Nitrogen in Crop Production ................................
A. Nitrogen Levels in Crops Associated with Deficiency,
Sufficiency, and Excess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Amounts of N in Crops and Distribution within the Crop. . . . .
C. Influence of Fertilizer N on Crop Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Impact of Applied Fertilizer N on Crop Utilization of
Other Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Efficient Use of N Fertilizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Influence of Climate and Cropping Systems on N Use. . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Climate and N Fertilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Nitrogen Carriers and Cropping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
567
568
568
570
575
578
579
579
581
585
590
592
596
596
598
xii
CONTENTS
V. Nitrogen Fertilization in the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
598
599
Nitrogen Management for Maximum Efficiency and Minimum Pollution
DENNIS R. KEENEY
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. N Requirements for Food and Fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Adverse Health and Environmental Impacts of N ...... . . . . . . . . .
A. Nitrogen and Human Health .............................
B. Animal Health .........................................
C. Environmental Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Perspectives............................................
IV. Trends in Anthropogenic N Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Worldwide.............................................
B. United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Sources of N Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Point Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Nonpoint Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Some Examples of Agricultural N Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. U.S. Corn Belt.........................................
B. Irrigated Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Livestock Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Grasslands .............................. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Tropical Agriculture ....................................
VII. Factors Affecting Crop Yields and Use of N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VIII. Control of N Pollution From Croplands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Agricultural Best Management Practices.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Improved Management of Nutrient Systems................
C. Limitations on Rates of Fertilizer Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Fundamental Changes in Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IX. Summary.................................................
LITERATURE CITED..........................................
605
605
606
606
608
608
610
611
611
612
613
614
614
615
615
617
621
623
624
626
627
628
631
638
638
641
641
17 Assessment of Soil Nitrogen Availability
GEORGE STANFORD
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Estimating Residual Mineral Nitrogen in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Incubation Methods for Measuring Mineralization of Soil
Organic Nitrogen ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Short-term Incubation Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Potentially Mineralizable Soil Nitrogen ....................
IV. Chemical Indexes of Soil Organic Nitrogen Availability. . . . . . . . . .
A. Intensive Extraction Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Extraction Methods of Intermediate Intensity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Relatively Mild Extraction Methods .......................
V. Interpreting Chemical and Biological Assays of Soil Nitrogen
Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Under Controlled Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Under Field Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERA TURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
651
653
658
659
662
664
665
666
669
673
675
676
683
CONTENTS
xiii
18 The Effects of Pesticides on Nitrogen Transformations in Soils
C. A. I. GORING AND D. A. LASKOWSKI
Introduction ..............................................
Soil Variability ... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Behavior of Pesticides ......................................
Effects of Pesticides on N Transformations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Mineralization/Immobilization...........................
B. Nitrification ...........................................
C. Denitrification .........................................
D. Symbiotic N, Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Nonsymbiotic N, Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Agronomic Implications ....................................
VI. Environmental and Regulatory Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERATURE CITED..........................................
I.
II.
III.
IV.
689
689
691
692
693
693
694
694
695
695
713
714
19 Modeling of the Soil Nitrogen Cycle
KENNETH K. TANJI
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Computers and Simulation MOdels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Computers and Programming ............................
B. Development and Application of Systems Simulation Models. .
III. Representative Nitrogen Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Survey of Dynamic N Simulation Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Evaluation of Selected Simulation Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Technical and Philosophical Critique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General Critique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Specific Critique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERA TURE CITED... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
721
721
722
724
725
726
731
767
767
768
770
Economic Implications of Controls on Nitrogen Fertilizer Use
EARL R. SWANSON
Introduction ..............................................
Alternative Methods of Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economic Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Per-Hectare Restrictions on N Fertilizer Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. National Analyses ......................................
B. Regional Analyses ......................................
C. State Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Restrictions on NO J - -N Concentration in Leachate or Effluent. . . .
VI. Treatment of Water to Reduce NO J - -N Content ................
VII. Restrictions on the N Balance at the Farm Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VIII. An Excise Tax on N Fertilizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IX. An Effluent Charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X. A Market for Rights to Use N Fertilizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XI. Information Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XII. Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LITERA TURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.
II.
III.
IV.
773
774
775
778
778
779
780
780
781
781
782
783
784
786
787
788
788
xiv
CONTENTS
21 Recycling of Nitrogen Through Land Application of Agricultural, Food
Processing, and Municipal Wastes
J. H. SMITH AND J. R. PETERSON
I. Introduction..............................................
II. Agricultural Wastes ................................... " . ..
A. Crop Residues ...................... '" . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .
B. Animal Manures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Food Processing Wastes ....................................
A. The Nature and Composition of Food Processing Wastes. . . . .
B. Irrigating Agricultural Land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Nitrogen Loading and Utilization on Land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Nitrification and Denitrification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Pollution Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Municipal Wastes. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . ..
A. Sewage Effluent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Sewage Sludge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Summary.................................................
LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
791
791
791
797
806
806
811
812
814
814
815
815
818
825
826
22 Energetics of Nitrogen Transformations
R. F. HARRIS
I. Introduction ..............................................
II. Bioenergetic Principles of Environmental Nitrogen
Transformations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics and Reaction Kinetics. . . . . .
B. Ecological Considerations. . . . . . . . . . • . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Calculations and Interpretation of Group Transfer Energetics. . . . .
A. General Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Energetics of Proton Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Pathway Energetics of Nitrogen Transformations. . . . . • . . . . . . . . .
A. Assimilatory Pathways ..................................
B. Dissimilatory Pathways ...................... " . . . . . . . . ..
C. Hydrogen Cyanide Metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Efficiency of Reductive Dinitrogen Fixation ... _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Appendix.................................................
A. Selected Values of Thermodynamic Properties for Nitrogen. . .
LITERATURE CITED.. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
833
835
835
842
845
845
847
869
869
871
875
875
879
879
888
23 Nitrogen Transfers and Mass Balances
R. D. HAUCK AND K. K. TANJI
I. Introduction..............................................
II. N Transformations and Transfers ............................
A. General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. N Income, Outgo, and Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. N Mass Balances and Models ................................
A. N Mass Balance Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Small-Scale Models and N Balances. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .
C. Regional Models and N Balances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Global Models and N Balances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Perspective................................................
LITERATURE CITED.. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
915
920
922
SUBJECT INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
926
891
892
892
893
902
902
903
908
DEDICATION
It is highly appropriate that Nitrogen in Agricultural Soils is dedicated to
the memory of Dr. George Stanford,
whose research career over the past 4
decades centered chiefly on elucidating
nitrogen behavior and transformations
in soils as a basis for achieving more effective use of nitrogen fertilizers.
Born 7 March 1916 near Pierre,
South Dakota, he received his B.S. degree from South Dakota University in
1938. His research career and studies for
advanced degrees began in 1939 at Iowa
State University. The M.S. degree was
received in 1941 and the Ph.D. in 1947.
This period included military service as
an infantry officer in World War II.
His professional career was spent at
Cornell
University (1948-50); Iowa State
GEORGE STANFORD
University (1950-55); TVA (1955-60);
1916-1981
Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association
and Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station (1960-65); and USDA, Beltsville,
Maryland (1965-80). He retired as a research soil scientist from USDA due to ill
health that culminated in his death on 28 January 1981.
Dr. Stanford's research accomplishments were numerous and had considerable
influence on soil fertility practices at a time when major expansion in fertilizer use
was just beginning. His major research accomplishments dealt with ammonium
fixation in soils; a rapid greenhouse-laboratory method for evaluating the relative effectiveness of diverse nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium sources; optimal use of
nitrogen fertilizer on sugarcane; development of a nitrogen availability index (extractable ammonia) for rapidly estimating the nitrogen-supplying capacities of soils;
denitrification and nitrogen losses from soils; and long-term field experiments using
stable nitrogen isotopes.
Throughout his career, Dr. Stanford's fine qualities as a researcher and team
leader were often demonstrated. His careful planning, attention to detail, and good
judgment contributed greatly to the success of experiments. He directly involved
himself in all phases of the work. His ability to assimilate research data and to reduce
it to its most significant terms was a trait admired by all who knew him.
Dr. Stanford's research greatly expanded our knowledge of nitrogen in agronomic systems and has resulted in more than 75 publications. He devoted a large
share of his life to nitrogen research, and his findings will continue to influence the
trends in research on this important element for years to come. His frank and forthright manner left no doubt as to where he stood on critical or controversial issues.
His approach to research was realistic and involved a critical examination of the
problems, alternate procedures, possibilities for success, and what contribution the
research results made to scientific knowledge and to practical solutions. All those
who conduct research in the future may do well to follow his example.
xv
GENERAL FOREWORD
Nitrogen in Agricultural Soils is an update of the 1965 edition of Soil Nitrogen,
ASA Monograph 10, and replaces the depleted supply of Soil Nitrogen. The new
book incorporates the significant advances made in this field during the past 17 years
and is the 22nd monograph in the series Agronomy that was started in 1949. The first
six volumes were published by Academic Press, Inc., New York. In 1957, the American Society of Agronomy took over publication of the monographs and continued to
be the sole publisher through the 18th monograph published in 1977. The Crop Science Society of America and the Soil Science Society of America were invited to
participate in the series and have been copublishers since 1977. The monographs
represent an important and continuing effort of the associated societies, their
officers, and the 11,700 members located in 100 countries to provide mankind worldwide with the most recent information available.
On behalf of the members of the associated societies and myself, I sincerely
thank the Editorial Committee members chaired by Dr. F. 1. Stevenson for their
diligent work, the many authors for their writings, Managing Editor Richard C.
Dinauer for his inexhaustible patience in the compilation of the contents of this
book, and all others who have contributed directly or indirectly to the accomplishment of this worthy project.
December 1981
MATTHIAS STELLY
Executive Vice President, ASA-CSSA-SSSA
and Editor-in-Chief, ASA Publications
FOREWORD
The nitrogen reactions in soils and the nitrogen nutrition of crops are insufficiently understood. Soil nitrogen derived from organic matter is essential for plant
growth and the formation of proteins required by living matter. The principal source
of protein for a major portion of the human population is cereal grain. Humans depend on foraging animals to capture plant proteins and provide meat and milk.
These basic characteristics of soil nitrogen challenge our interest in the mechanisms
and processes by which people obtain food and fiber products.
An increase in the protein content of cereal grains would enhance the nutritional
status of the human population. In many soils and for many crops, farmers increase
the nutrient supply of nitrogen by the addition of various forms of nitrogen to the
soil or by biological dinitrogen fixation with legumes. Plants consume only about
50"70 of the added nitrogen forms, and there is a strong need to increase this utilization level. The nitrogen cycle in soils follows a complex series of reactions that require continuing study to utilize this nutrient more effectively and to assure an adequate supply for plants. In the overall process of removing barriers to crop productivity, nitrogen supply to plants plays a major role.
We express appreciation and gratitude to Dr. F. 1. Stevenson, editor, and his
editorial committee, Drs. 1. M. Bremner, R. D. Hauck, and D. R. Keeney for their
important functions leading to this publication. We acknowledge and thank the
xvi
PREFACE
xvii
authors for their cooperation and efforts and the help of society members who reviewed manuscripts. We are grateful to the Headquarters staff for editorial and production efforts, which makes it possible to place this fine volume in your hands.
November 1981
STERLING R. OLSEN
president ASA
KENNETH J. FREY
president CSSA
BOBBY A. STEWART
president SSSA
PREFACE
Nitrogen in Agricultural Soils provides an authoritative review of the principles
governing the behavior of nitrogen in the soil-plant system. The volume supersedes
ASA Monograph 10 Soil Nitrogen, published in 1965. Significant advances on all
aspects of the subject have been made since that time, and the need had arisen for a
compilation and critical analysis of current knowledge. Material contained in the
1965 monograph has been extensively revised and updated, and new chapters have
been introduced in response to increasirlg concern about energy conservation and
preservation of the environment. Authors were allowed considerable latitude in developing their topics, with the result that both panoramic and specific views have
been presented for each major component of the soil nitrogen cycle.
The volume covers many facets of soil nitrogen, including forms and distribution, biological and nonbiological transformations, gains, losses, and recycling,
plant availability and uptake, modeling and transport, pesticide interactions, experimental approaches, and economic implications of restrictions on fertilizer nitrogen
use. The field of study is broad and has involved researchers working in many
specialized areas. Because of the voluminous literature that has accumulated over the
past two decades, an exhaustive coverage of the literature was not always possible,
and selection of references has often been rather arbitrary. The editors and authors
apologize for omission of important work.
The editorial committee expresses appreciation to the authors and the organizations they represent for cooperation and support. Acknowledgment is given to
Richard C. Dinauer, Matthias Stelly, and other members of the Headquarters staff
for advice and assistance in editing and preparing the manuscripts for publication.
We pay special tribute to George Stanford, author of Chapter 17, whose untimely
death occurred while the monograph was in progress. The assistance of J. J.
Meisinger in proofreading and indexing Dr. Stanford's chapter is gratefully
acknowledged.
August 1981
The Editorial Committee
F. J. STEVENSON, editor, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
J. M. BREMNER, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
R. D. HAUCK, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama
D. R. KEENEY, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
CONTRIBUTORS
Rudolf W. Aldag
Dr. sc. agr., Dr. habil., Institut fur Bodenkunde, Universitat
Gottingen, Gottingen, West Germany
James W. Biggar
Professor of Water Science, Department of Land, Air, and Water
Resources, University of California, Davis, California
John M. Bremner
Professor, Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University,
Ames,lowa
Mark G. Boyle
Agronomist, Central Research and Development Department,
E.1. DuPont DeNemours Company, Wilmington, Delaware
Mary K. Firestone
Assistant Professor of Soil Microbiology, Department of Plant
and Soil Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Cleve A. I. Goring
Technical Director, Agricultural Products Department, The Dow
Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
Ralph W. F. Hardy
Director, Life Sciences, Central Research and Development Department, E.1. DuPont DeNemours Company, Wilmington, Delaware
Robin F. Harris
Professor of Soil Microbiology, Department of Soil Science and
Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
Roland D. Hauck
~esearch Soil Scientist, National Fertilizer Development Center,
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama
U. D. Havelka
Research Staff, Central Research and Development Department,
E.1. DuPont DeNemours Company, Wilmington, Delaware
Ron B. Jackson
Experimental Officer, Division of Soils, CSIRO, Glen Osmond,
South Australia, Australia
Sven L. Jansson
Professor, Department of Soil Sciences, Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Dennis R. Keeney
Professor and Chairman, Department of Soil Science, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
Lester T. Kurtz
Professor of Soil Fertility, Department of Agronomy, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
Jeffrey N. Ladd
Senior Principal Research Scientist, Division of Soils, CSIRO,
Glen Osmond, South Australia, Australia
Dennis A. Laskowski
Research Leader, Environmental Chemistry, Agricultural Products Department, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
Soil Scientist (retired), Soil Nitrogen and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland. Currently Adjunct Professor, Agronomy Department, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
xviii
CONTRIBUTORS
xix
J. J. Meisinger
Soil Scientist, Soil Nitrogen and Environmental Chemistry
Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
Donald R. Nielsen
Professor of Soil and Water Science, Department of Land, Air,
and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, California
Darrell W. Nelson
Professor of Agronomy, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Hans Nommik
Professor of Soil Chemistry, Department of Forest Soils, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Robert A. Olson
Professor of Agronomy, Department of Agronomy, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
J. Persson
Department of Soil Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
William H. Patrick. Jr.
Boyd Professor, Laboratory for Wetland Soils and Sediments,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
James R. Peterson
Soil Scientist Ill, Research and Development Department, The
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, Cicero, Illinois
Edwin L. Schmidt
Professor, Department of Soil Science, University of Minnesota,
SI. Paul, Minnesota
Jay H. Smith
Soil Scientist, Snake River Conservation Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Kimberly, Idaho
George Stanford
Research Soil Scientist, Soil Nitrogen and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland. Deceased 28 January 1981
Frank J. Stevenson
Professor of Soil Chemistry, Department of Agronomy, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
Earl R. Swanson
Professor of Agricultural Economics, Department of Agricultural
Economics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
Kenneth K. Tanji
Professor of Water Science, Department of Land, Air, and Water
Resources, University of California, Davis, California
Kaarel Vahtras
Agronomie Licentiat, Department of Soil Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, U ppsala, Sweden
Peter J. Wierenga
Professor of Soil Science, Department of Agronomy, New Mexico
State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico
J. L. Young
Research Chemist and Professor of Soil Science, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Soil Science
Department, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR U. S. AND METRIC UNITS
To convert column I
into column Z,
multiply by
Column
Column 2
1
To convert column Z
into column 1,
multiply by
Length
0.621
1.094
0.394
kilometer, km
meter, m
centimeter, cm
0.386
247.1
2.471
kilometer, km2
kilometer2 , km2
hectare, ha
0.00973
3.532
2.838
0.0284
1.057
meter", m 3
hectoliter, hI
hectoliter, hI
liter
liter
1.102
2.205
ton (metric)
quintal, q
2.205
0.035
kilogram, kg
gram, g
14.50
0.9869
0.9678
14.22
14.70
bar
bar
kg(weight)/cm 2
kg(weight) /cm 2
atmosphere, atm
0.446
0.892
0.892
Yield or Rate
ton (metric)/hectare
ton (U.S.)/acre
kg/ha
Ib/acre
quintal/hectare
hundredweight/ acre
mile, mi
yard, yd
inch, in
1.609
0.914
2.54
mile 2 , mj2
acre, acre
acre, acre
2.590
0.00405
0.405
acre-inch
cubic foot, ft3
bushel, bu
bushel, bu
quart (liquid), qt
102.8
0.2832
0.352
35.24
0.946
ton (U.S.)
hundredweight,
cwt (short)
pound,lb
ounce (avdp), oz
0.9072
0.454
Ib/inch 2 , psi
atmosphere, atm
atmosphere, atm
Ib/inch 2 , psi
Ib/inch 2 , psi
0.06895
1.013
1.033
0.07031
0.06805
Area
Volume
Mass
0.454
28.35
Pressure
( ~ OC)
+
Celsius
32 -17.8C
Temperature
Fahrenheit
OF
OC
32F
212F
100C
8.108
97.29
0.08108
0.973
0.00973
0.981
440.3
0.00981
4.403
2.24
1.12
1.12
Water Measurement
hectare-meters, ha-m
acre-feet
hectare-meters, ha-m
acre-inches
hectare-centimeters, ha-cm
acre-feet
hectare-centimeters, ha-cm
acre-inches
meters 3 , m 3
acre-inches
hectare-centimeters/hour, ha-cm/hour
feet"/sec
hectare-centimeters/hour, ha-cm/hour
U.S. gallons/min
meters"/hour, m"/hour
fect"/sec
U.S. gallons/min
meters"/hour, m" /hour
Plant Nutrition Conversion-P and K
P (phosphorus) X 2.29 = P20S
K (potassium) X 1.20 = K 2 0
xx
0.1233
0.01028
12.33
1.028
102.8
1.0194
0.00227
101.94
0.227