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Ecology Exam Review Ecology • Earth Sciences • The Biosphere • Ecosystems and Communities • Populations • Branches of Earth Science • Cells • Cell Structure • Photosynthesis • Cell Respiration • States of Matter • Lab Safety • Earths Surface • Maps • Topography • Landforms Ecology • The scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology and Earth science. Ecology includes the study of interactions organisms have with each other, other organisms, and with abiotic components of their environment. • Ecologists seek to explain: • Life processes, interactions and adaptations • The movement of materials and energy through living communities • The successional development of ecosystems • The abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the environment. Biosphere • Global sum of all ecosystems • Closed system that self regulates Biome • Formation of plants and animals that have common characteristics due to similar climates and can be found over a range of continents. • Biomes are distinct from habitats, because any biome can be comprised of a variety of habitats. Ecosystems • Each ecosystem is made up of the following parts • Producers – Make their own food (energy) • Plants • Small organisms • Consumers – Cannot make their own food. • Primary Consumers - Eat Producers (Herbivores) • Secondary Consumers – Eat primary Consumers and / or Producers (carnivores, omnivores) • Decomposers – Break down dead or decaying organisms • Bacteria, Fungi, Earthworms Food Chain • Direct line from plant (bottom) to largest or most advance (top) entity in an ecosystem. Food Web • Lines go in several directions • Connected food chains • Shows everything within an ecosystem and what it eats or what eats it Populations • Group of organisms, which live in a particular area and can interbreed • Interbreeding is generally more common than cross-breeding with individuals from other areas • Populations are affected by Environmental Impacts • Wars • Drops in childbirths, production of products and crops • Baby booms • Diseases • Water, Crop, or food product issues • Natural Disasters Cell Structure Plant Cell Photosynthesis • What three things are reactants (are used) in the photosynthetic process? • sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water • What two substances are products (get made) in the photosynthetic process? • oxygen and glucose Photosynthesis • There are two phases in photosynthesis. • light-dependent reactions • the Calvin cycle • The Calvin cycle is the principal mechanism that leads to the conversion of carbon dioxide into sugars by plants, algae, photosynthetic bacteria, and certain other bacteria that use chemicals as an energy source instead of light. The Calvin cycle, also known as the Calvin Benson cycle, is an integral part of the process of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria. Named after its discoverer, Melvin Calvin of the University of California at Berkeley, its principal product is a three-carbon compound called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, or PGAL. Sugars are synthesized using PGAL as a starting material. Light, absorbed by chlorophyll, is used to synthesize the high-energy compounds adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). Chlorophyll and the enzymes that are used for synthesis of ATP and NADPH are associated with internal membranes in all photosynthetic cells. The ATP and NADPH, once formed, are released from the membrane-bound enzymes and diffuse into the surrounding solution inside the cell. The Calvin cycle takes place in this solution, using the ATP and NADPH molecules as a source of energy to drive the conversion of carbon dioxide into PGAL. Calvin Cycle Photosynthesis • The light-dependent reactions use sunlight energy and water. The water is obtained through the roots. (Reminder: water enters through the roots, and travels through the xylem to the rest of the plant) • Xylem - The basic function of xylem is to transport water, but it also transports some nutrients. Photosynthesis • The light-dependent reactions produce oxygen and energy. The oxygen leaves the leaf through the stomata. • Stomata - The stomata are pores in leaves. They are responsible for gas exchange. Carbon dioxide enters through the stomata. • The light-dependent reactions happen in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. • The thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast is an internal system of interconnected membranes, that carry out the light reactions of photosynthesis. They are arranged into stacked and unstacked regions called grana and stroma thylakoids, respectively Photosynthesis • The Calvin cycle uses the energy from the light reactions, as well as the input of carbon dioxide The big product of following the Calvin cycle is glucose, which has the chemical formula C6H12O6. • The Calvin cycle happens in the stroma of the chloroplast. • This is the complete balanced equation for photosynthesis. • 6 COs + 6 H2O + energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2 • carbon dioxide + water + sunlight glucose + oxygen Photosynthesis • What is the primary pigment responsible for absorbing the light energy for photosynthesis? • chlorophyll is the primary pigment • Why do most plants appear green? • Chlorophyll reflects green light, and absorb other colors like red, blue, and violet. We see what is reflected from objects. • Chlorophyll is contained in disc-shaped structures in the chloroplasts called thylakoids. A stack of these discs is called a granum. Photosynthesis Photosynthesis • Gas exchange is necessary for photosynthesis. How does carbon dioxide gas get in and oxygen gas get out of the leaves? • The gases move in an out through the stomata, which are tiny holes on the bottom side of leaves. • What layers of cells in the leaf perform photosynthesis? • the mesophyll layers – palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll Cellular Respiration • Cellular respiration is the set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called "highenergy" bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although technically, cellular respiration is a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell due to slow release of energy from the series of reactions. • Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes. States of Matter Gas Evaporation Sublimation Solid Condensation Liquid Melting Freezing Lab Safety • Fire • Chemical Burns • Weights • Safe Handling of Equipment • Glass • Metal • Labels Models of Earth G 1-2 Maps and Globes • Map –flat model of all or part of Earth’s surface as seen from above • Globe – a sphere that represent Earth’s entire surface – Correctly shows the relative size and shape of landmasses and bodies of water – Both are drawn to scale and use symbols to represent topography and other features G 1-2 Parts of the Map Scale – relates distance on a map to a distance on the Earth’s surface. Often given as a ratio Symbols – pictures that represent features Key – legend, a list of symbols used on the map Compass Rose – used for direction on a map. The top of a map is usually North G 1-2 Earth’s Reference System Equator – imaginary line divides the Earth into Northern and Southern hemispheres. Hemispheres= ½ of the sphere that is planet Earth. Prime Meridian – imaginary line that makes a half circle from the North Pole and the South Pole. It divides the earth into the Western and Eastern hemispheres Degree – 1/360 of the way around a full circle. G 1-2 Locating Points on the Earth’s Surface Latitude – distance north or south of the equator. The equator is 0 °. North Pole is 90 °north, South Pole is 90 ° south. Longitude – distance in degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian. Prime meridian is 0°. Half way around the sphere is 180° east or west. G 1-2 Map Projections- A framework of lines that show land masses on a flat surface Mercator projection lines are flat and straight. Land masses are distorted. G 1-2 Equal Area projection: correctly shows the sizes of Earth’s landmasses. Landmasses at the edges are distorted.