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JOURNAL OF INFORMATION, KNOWLEDGE AND RESEARCH IN COMPUTER
SCIENCE AND APPLICATIONS
A STUDY OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN WIRELESS MESH
NETWORKS
1
M. ARIF SIDDIQUI, 2QAZI SHOEB AHMAD, 3M.H. KHAN
1
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India
3
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Institute of Engineering & Technology,
UP Technical University, Lucknow, India
2
1
[email protected]
ABSTRACT: A wireless mesh networks (WMNs) is a collection of mesh routers and mesh clients. Mesh routers
form the backbone of WMNs and mesh clients form the mesh network with mesh routers. Mesh routers are
stationary or less mobile and forwards information to other nodes. Routing protocol plays a significant role in
performance of a network. The AODV, DSR and DSDV are among the most discussed and used multi-hop
wireless ad hoc routing protocols. This paper presents an overview of the aforementioned protocols.
Keywords : Routing Protocol, Routing Metric, Dynamic Source Routing, Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance
Vector, Optimized Link State Routing, Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector
1. INTRODUCTION
Routing is the process of choosing paths through
which network traffic flows. Routing is
implemented in different sort of networks, for
instance telephone network, electronic data
networks and internet network. In electronic data
networks routing uses packet switching technology.
In packet switching networks, routing makes the
path for packet forwarding, and also supports for
the transportation of addressed packets from source
to destination through intermediate nodes by using
hardware devices like routers, bridges, gateways,
firewalls or switches. Ordinary computers with
multiple network cards may forward packets and
activate routing, regardless of limited performance.
The routing process usually adopts forwarding in
terms of routing tables. Therefore for the
manufacturing of routing tables memory is
necessary for precise routing.
Routing schemes have different attributes in their
delivery.

Unicast  Sends message to a single
special node.

Broadcast  Sends message to all the
nodes in the network.

Anycast  Sends message to anyone
which is not included in node’s groups, probably
the closest to source.
Unicast is the prominent kind of message delivery
in internet [1]. Routing plays the vital role in the
internet, to support messages to pass from one to
another computer and consequently reach the
destination. Each middle computer performs
routing. This procedure includes analyzing a
routing table to find the best path. Routing is
mostly being mixed with bridging, as the functions
of both the techniques are identical. The basic
difference between them is that bridging takes
place at low level in which hardware component
performs main role, whereas the routing occurs at
high level in which software component has vital
role. Routing creates complex analysis to determine
the suitable path for the packet [2].
2. TYPES OF ROUTING
There are mainly two types of routing which are as
follows.

Proactive Routing

Reactive Routing
Proactive Routing
Proactive routing protocols are also known as
table-driven routing protocols. Proactive protocols
try to maintain consistent up-to-date routing
information from each node to every other node in
the network [3]. Each node maintains a routing
table which contains routing information for all
nodes in the network. When the network topology
changes, update messages will propagate as a
broadcast message throughout the network. In
response, every node in the network updates its
routing table with the changes in the network. As a
result, up-to-date routing tables are maintained at
every node in the network.
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Route selection: In hop-by-hop routing, every node
maintains its routing table that indicates next hops
for the routes for all other nodes in the network [3].
In this routing, message overhead is very small
because packet contains only destination address.
The intermediate nodes relay the packet according
to destination address. However, the proactive
routing protocols are very inefficient overall due to
the number of control messages propagated in the
network for updating routing table information.
Reactive Routing
It is also know as on-demand routing. In ondemand routing, a source node will find a route for
the destination node only when there is a need for a
route (when source node needs to send packets to
destination node). A flooding technique is used to
discover routes when it is needed. Once routes are
discovered, they are stored and maintained in route
cache. Afterwards these stored routes are used for
packet transfer instead of flooding. As a result,
performance of an on-demand routing protocol is
better than a table driven protocol because of less
overhead in maintaining routing tables.
3. ROUTING IN WMNS
Wireless mesh networking and mobile ad hoc
networking use the same key concept—
communication between nodes over multiple
wireless hops on a meshed network graph. Since
WMNs share common features with wireless ad
hoc networks, the routing protocols developed for
MANETs can be applied to WMNs. For example,
Microsoft Mesh Networks [4] are built based on
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) [5], and many
other companies, e.g., [6] are using Ad hoc Ondemand Distance Vector (AODV) routing [7],
Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) [8].
Currently, the design of routing protocols for
WMN is still an active research area no matter the
many available routing protocols for MANETs.
4. PRE-REQUISITE
OR
GENERAL
PROSPECTIVE FOR WMNS ROUTING
To resolve the main issues like dynamic
connectivity and guaranteed delivery for routing
protocols in WMNs or MANETs following factors
play vital role. There should be the clear path from
source to destination, so that routing protocols can
easily deliver data through that path. If there is
variation due to change in connectivity between
nodes, routing protocols should have the capability
to recover by using alternate path. There are also
some other issues and problems regarding routing
wireless Ad-hoc networks, for instance overhead is
very important in wireless networks with small
bandwidth. One of the other issues is power
consuming issue in MANETs. Moreover other vital
issue is to maintain quality of service. Routing
protocols should have the ability to handle traffic
balance on links. Protocols scalability should be
updated
regarding
large
networks.
The
implementation of security through routing
protocols is also necessary to protect against
different sort of attacks like sniffer, interruption,
fabrication and denial of service etc. Routing
protocols can also depend on other layers, for
instance the implementation of Global position
System in Wireless Ad-hoc networks. The
determination or analysis of mobility can also play
important role to give worth to routing in WMNs.
Cross layer designing is another field of research in
the field of MANET protocols [9].
5. WIRELESS
MESH
NETWORK
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Wireless Mesh Networks are generally considered
as the type of mobile ad-hoc networks. However
there are some differences between them. Firstly in
wireless mesh networks all most all the traffic
starts from gateways and ends ups also on gateway.
Secondly in wireless mesh networks, nodes are
clearly separated from each other either they are in
the form of stagnant nodes or mobile nodes.
MANETs are linked with mobile ad-hoc networks,
general MANETs routing protocols can be used in
WMNs. Additionally WMNs are new technological
networks which are similar to MANETs. One of
the applications of WMNs is that, it provides
connection to an infrastructure node. It plays vital
role for providing broadband internet access. The
other successful production of WMNs is Wireless
local area network. Routing is basic attribute of
WMNs. The protocols have the clear effect on the
behavior of WMNs. Therefore selection of suitable
routing protocol increases the efficiency of
network. Some of the effects of routing protocols in
WMNs are listed below.
1.
They are responsible to strength the
network.
2.
They are helpful to make connection
between nodes.
3.
Creates synchronization between nodes.
4.
Provides quality of service in terms of
bandwidth utilization, delay, throughput, network
load, and jitter.
As mentioned earlier general MANETs protocols
can be implemented in WMNs, however the more
efficient protocol which synchronizes with wireless
mesh networks is mesh routing protocol (MRP).
The protocol creates the continuity between routing
paths and gateway destinations. It has also the
ability to select the route, which is basic
requirement to make better communication in
WMNs. There are lots of relevant protocols in this
context. Many of them have been authorized by
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), some of
them are reactive and some of them are proactive
for example AODV and DSR are implemented for
ad-hoc networks. Wireless mesh technology is the
latest well developed technology which has vital
role in the field of telecommunication as well as
internet services; however there are still some
challenges and problems which have been faced by
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trouble shooters. To fix up the problems in WMNs
many projects have been launched such as MAC
layer, internet mobility and transport layer
efficiencies. Consequently for designing of routing
protocols in WMNs, it must be considered that
almost all the traffic is supposed to flow to and
from gateway to internet systems. Thus routing
protocol should be designed to avoid flooding for
the discovery of route [10].
5.1
Ad-hoc on-Demand Distance Vector
The Ad-hoc on-demand is basically reactive
protocol which supports multi routing between
nodes which are playing their roles to form an Adhoc network. AODV is the improved version of
DSDV protocol, but the main difference is that
AODV is reactive whereas DSDV is proactive. It
has great advantages, for instance, for
disseminating information through routes on
demand basis requirement for maintenance is not
necessary. One of the main qualities of AODV is
that it is free from hops. The environment where
AODV is activated, target sequence numbers
confirm the route, to be refreshed properly. The
algorithm use d in AODV considers two messages,
one is route request, to establish the route request
message is being activated by AODV, and the other
is hello message. These messages support nodes to
strengthen neighbor nodes. Without the presence of
hello messages, the identification of nodes is
difficult. AODV has the ability to provide lot of
information about the following technical aspects
[6].

Target IP addresses, where the packets
should be sending.

Sequence numbers.

Counting of hops, that packet has passed.

Next hop, stability of routes

Neighbor nodes activity

Request, the request should be on at a
time.
Process to Find out Route
The node starts to find out the path, the path is
necessary for determining and travelling of data.
The source finds out the path and sends the
message towards the destination. The request
message is also activated to find out the appropriate
route for sending the message [6].
Route Management Policy
To manage the route, it is necessary to point out the
route that lacks its validity, then the removal of
route entry exists and link failure message is
conveyed. This message is also transferred to nodes
which are using the same route which has been
suffering from breakage. The neighbor’s nodes are
properly updated. This process is repeated again
and again. The main benefit of AODV is the
limitation of routing messages as compared to
ordinary protocols. This is all due to the reactive
behavior of AODV [6].
5.2
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
The DSR [5] [11] is a simple and efficient protocol
for routing in mobile ad hoc and wireless networks.
DSR is suitable for routing in multi-hop networks.
A mobile ad hoc network is completely selforganizing by using the DSR protocol. All nodes
cooperate to forward packets of its neighbors which
are not in direct communication range of the
destination node(s). DSR is an on-demand or
reactive protocol. For example, when any node
wants a route, DSR initiates a route discovery
process. In other words, due to the reactive nature
of the protocol, when there is a need for a route, it
starts discovering them.
DSR is based on source routing. A source node has
complete hop-by-hop route information for
destination in their route cache. Every generated
packet carries this information (source route or
path) in its packet header. When a node needs a
path to a destination, it generates a route request
(RREQ) packet. Each node first checks its route
cache to determine the route for destination. If
route is found in its cache then it will initiate a
route reply for the source node of the route,
otherwise each node keeps forwarding until the
RREQ packet reaches the destination indicated in
the path.
There are three types of messages in DSR for its
routing. Firstly, Route Request Message (RREQ) is
used for discovery a route. Secondly, Route Reply
Message (RREP) is generated in response of RREQ
message which contains route information. These
two messages are used in route discovery process.
Finally, Route Error Message (RERR) is generated
when a broken link is discovered in the network.
This message is used for route maintenance
process. DSR has two mechanisms; Route
Discovery and Route Maintenance. These
mechanisms will allow DSR to discover and
maintain routes for particular destination nodes in
the network.
Route Discovery
Route discovery is the mechanism by which source
node discovers route for destination. In route
discovery, the source node floods the route request
packet throughout the network, and the reply is
returned either through the destination node or
through any intermediate nodes which contains the
route to destination in its route cache. For example,
if source Node A wishes to send packet to
Destination Node B, it obtains a source route for
Node B. This route discovery is initiated only when
Node A tries to send packet for Node B and does
not find any route in its own route cache. Finding a
route for destination will be purely on demand
using the route discovery mechanism.
Route discovery mechanism
In route discovery mechanism, for example in
figure (2.1), Node A broadcasts a Route Request
Packet (RREQ) in the network to discover route for
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Node B. This RREQ contains the address of
initiator (source node A in this scenario), the
address of target node (Destination Node B),
maximum hop-count (how many nodes this packet
will traverse), and Route Request number, which is
set by the initiator of the route discovery message.
This route request number identifies different route
requests from different nodes. Each node maintains
a routing table in which it adds request number
before propagating these requests to the next node.
An Up-to-date table also avoids duplication of
route request process by each node. The request
which is initiated by source Node A reaches an
intermediate Node C. The Node C checks its route
cache to determine the route for the destination. If
successful, it makes a RREP Packet and appends its
own address to RREQ packet and combines the
route which is found from its route cache (route
from C to B). If unsuccessful, Node C also initiates
a route discovery like Node A with the same route
request number set by Node A. Same route
discovery procedure will be applied by every
intermediate node until the packet reaches its
destination or some intermediate node will reply
from its route cache. Finally, when the packet
reaches the destination node, destination Node B
will add its own address at the end of the packet’s
route (containing whole path information through
which this packet has travelled). Now the
destination reverses this route and makes a RREP
packet. The RREP packet traverses in the opposite
direction from where it came from, until it reaches
the initiator of this route discovery.
active
acknowledgment.
In
a
passive
acknowledgment, Node S may overhear the
forwarding of the packet by node I and knows that
the packet has been received by node B.
If packets retransmitted by some node reaches the
maximum limit and no acknowledgement is
received then the node generates a Route Error
message (RERR). This route error message is
returned to the original sender of the packet with
the identification of the broken link and the packet
could not be forwarded over that link. For example,
as we have illustrated in figure (2.3), node J is
unable to deliver a packet to node K because the
link between node J and node K is broken. Node J
sends a router error message to node S, which
informs the broken link from node J to node K.
Now node S will try an alternative route for
destination node D if it is stored in its route cache.
Otherwise node S will start a new route discovery
mechanism to discover a route for destination node
D.
Figure 2.2: Route Maintenance
Figure 2.1: Route Discovery Process
Route maintenance
Route maintenance ensures that the paths stored in
the route cache are valid. It is important for correct
delivery of messages. When forwarding a packet
each node confirms that this packet reaches the
next hop (node). This confirmation is mandatory
for correct delivery of packets along the path [11].
We illustrate this through an example in figure
(2.2), when node S sends packets to destination
node D through intermediate nodes I, J and K.
Node S is responsible for the correct delivery of
packets too node I. Node I is responsible for the
correct delivery of packet to node J and finally
node J is responsible for the correct delivery of
packet to final destination node D. This
confirmation of delivery will be an active or
passive
acknowledgement.
An
active
acknowledgement may be part of MAC protocol in
use. IEEE 802.11 standards provide such link level
Figure 2.3: Route Error Message
Route Cache
In DSR every node maintains its up-to-date route
cache. Caching is an important part of any ondemand routing protocol for wireless ad hoc
networks [12]. All information is added in the route
cache when nodes discover or maintain some route.
Likewise, information is removed from cache when
a broken route is noticed and Route Error message
is received. In route cache there are usually
multiple routes for a single destination. This route
cache helps every node to find a route fast for itself
as well as when replying to RREQ packets from
other nodes as an intermediate node. DSR have two
types of caching strategies known as path cache
and link cache. However, only one cache is enabled
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at a time. In NS-2 v2.29 DSR code, the path cache
is enabled by default. One can enable and disable
each cache. Path cache is a simple cache which
guarantees loop-free routes. Whenever a new route
is discovered a node will add whole route in its
cache as a separate path. To find a route in the path
cache, a sender node can search its cache for the
shortest path to the destination node. However, to
find a route in the link cache, Dijkstra’s algorithm
is executed on an undirected graph as the link
cache stores individual links in the ad hoc network.
It counts the number of hops for destination and
then takes the least number of hops as shortest
(best) path to the destination. Link cache
organization is more effective than a path cache
organization because link cache is utilizing
network information for finding routes [5]. Links
discovered from different route discoveries and
overhearing information can be merged together as
a new route in the network. On the other hand, in
path cache each route is stored separately and
merging of two routes to form one new route is
usually not possible.
5.3
Link-Quality Source Routing (LQSR)
LQSR [13] [14] is proposed by Microsoft Research
group. LQSR is based on DSR, where authors
extensively improve its behavior to support linkquality metric. LQSR implements all the basic
functionalities of DSR, including route discovery
and route maintenance. LQSR uses link cache
instead of path cache to measure quality of a link.
LQSR is implemented at network layer 2.5 instead
of layer 2. Due to this change in architecture of
LQSR, it uses 48-bit MAC Address instead of 32bit IP Addresses. Network layer 2.5 is named as
Mesh Connectivity Layer (MCL) which is a virtual
layer. DSR is modified in different ways to support
link quality metrics like Per-hop RTT, Per-hop
PktPair Delay and ETX.
In the route discovery phase of LQSR, when a node
receives a route request packet, it will append link
metric for the link over which the packet had
arrived. When a sender node receives a route reply,
this reply contains node information and link
metric information. Routing will be performed on
this link metric information rather than traditional
hop-count metric. Nodes executing LQSR also
update their cache by adding link metric
information. LQSR uses a proactive background
mechanism to maintain the metrics for all links
[14]. LQSR sends hello messages to its neighbors
for link information named as Link info Message.
This link info message is used to calculate the link
metric information at each node for the link on
which this message is received. All these link info
messages are piggy-backed on a route request
message to flood to the neighboring nodes.
There are some functionalities which LQSR do not
take into account for sending routing packets.
1. In LQSR, nodes do not reply to route request
from their link cache. Only the destination node
will reply to route request with route reply
message. In addition to that, for the propagation of
route request message there is no hop limit.
2. In route maintenance of LQSR, there is no
“Automatic Route Shortening” because the
promiscuous mode is not available.
For testing of LQSR at layer 2.5, MCL is a
windows loadable driver. This driver will
implement a virtual network adapter for windows.
This virtual adapter considers an ad hoc network as
a virtual link. For upper layer software MCL
appears as an additional Ethernet link instead of a
virtual link. For lower layer software MCL appears
as a protocol running above physical layer. Finally,
the result for the performance of LQSR shows that
in mobile scenario, hop-count performs better than
LQSR with any of the above mentioned linkquality metrics. However, LQSR outperforms hopcount with ETX metric, but RTT and PktPair
metrics show poor result because of there loadsensitive nature.
5.4
Optimized Link state Routing
(OLSR)
OLSR [15] is a proactive routing protocol for
wireless networks. It is a link-state protocol which
collects information about the network by flooding
and calculating optimized routing table. Multipoint
relays (MPRs) are an important aspect of this
protocol. An MPR for a node I is a subset of the
neighbors of I which broadcast packets during the
flooding process, instead of every neighbor of I
flooding the network. Due to this selective flooding
in network, OLSR is proven to be an efficient
protocol compared to other traditional proactive
protocols. The node which is selected as multipoint
relays by some neighbor nodes, announces its
availability by sending periodical control messages.
These control messages contain the information
about the links of MPRs and its neighbors. The
main advantage of OLSR over proactive protocols
is that it broadcasts link state information rather
than complete routing tables.
The two main functionalities of OLSR are
Neighbor discovery and Topology dissemination
[4].
1. In neighbor discovery process, each node sends a
periodic broadcast message over the common link
between the two nodes. The message contains the
list of neighbors with their link information. This
message will be broadcast as a hello message and
received by all one-hop neighbors for updating
information and this message will not be forwarded
further. These messages are broadcast once in a
“Hello_interval” period. MPRs are always selected
as one-hop neighbors after receiving information
from hello messages.
2. In Topology dissemination, each node in a
network maintains topology information by TC
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(Topology Control) messages. This message is
broadcast in every “TC_interval” by MPRs. This
message contains the information of all the nodes
which select this node as their MPR. Thus, this
message will be flooded throughout the network to
all nodes. Hence every node updates their routing
table with this information. This helps every node
to compute route for particular destination directly
or via some MPRs.
The
neighbor
discovery
and
topology
dissemination
information
are
refreshed
periodically enabling each node to compute routes
to all known destinations. Dijkstra’s algorithm is
executed on a routing table for computing the
shortest paths which are optimal. If there is a
change in the neighborhood, a new routing table
will be computed. Finally, the comparison of
OLSR performance with DSR in different traffic
and mobility scenarios is not convincing [16]. In
most of the scenarios DSR outperforms OLSR by a
margin. However, some different versions of
OLSR show slight improvements compare to
normal OLSR [17].
5.5
Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
(DSDV) Protocol
DSDV [18] is a table-driven protocol based on the
classical Bellman-Ford routing algorithm [19]. The
improvements made to the Bellman-Ford algorithm
include freedom from loops in routing tables [18,
20]. Every mobile node in the network maintains a
routing table that records all possible destinations
within the network and the number of hops to each
destination. Each entry is marked with a sequence
number assigned by the destination node. The
sequence numbers enable the mobile nodes to
distinguish stale routes from new ones, thereby
avoiding the formation of routing loops. Nodes
periodically transmit routing table updates
throughout the network to maintain consistent
tables. To help alleviate the potentially large
amount of network traffic that such updates can
generate, route updates can employ two possible
types of messages. The first is known as a “full
dump.” This type of message carries all available
routing information and can require multiple
Network Protocol Data Units (NPDUs). During
periods of occasional movement, these messages
are transmitted infrequently. Smaller “incremental”
messages are broadcast to provide only that
information which has changed since the last full
dump. Each of these messages should fit into a
standard size NPDU, thereby decreasing the
amount of traffic generated. The mobile nodes
maintain an additional table where they store the
data sent in the incremental routing information
messages [18, 20].
New route broadcasts contain the address of the
destination, the number of hops to reach the
destination, the sequence number of the
information received regarding the destination, as
well as a new sequence number unique to the
broadcast. The route labeled with the most recent
sequence number is always used. In the event that
two updates have the same sequence number, the
route with the smaller metric is used to optimize
(shorten) the path. Nodes also keep track of the
settling time of routes, or the weighted average
time that routes to a destination will fluctuate
before the route with the best metric is received. By
delaying the broadcast of a routing update by the
length of the settling time, nodes can reduce
network traffic and optimize routes by eliminating
those broadcasts that would occur if a better route
was discovered in the near future [18, 20].
6.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we have presented a comprehensive
study of existing wireless mesh networks’ routing
protocols need. We have also presented a
theoretical details of proactive routing protocols
such as OLSR, DSDV and reactive routing
protocols such as AODV, DSR, and LQSR.
7.
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