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Water Management in the Ancient World
Overview
Water, one of the basic necessities for human life, was the lifeblood of early civilization. Indeed, the
ability of ancient societies to harness the power of water facilitated the rise of agriculture and the first
urban centers. So important was water to these early people that historians refer to these first
societies as "River Valley Civilizations."
Background
The success of these early civilizations was based upon the movement of water into their agricultural
fields. Great irrigation projects directed the substantial amounts of water necessary for agricultural
success. Projects of this magnitude needed extensive planning and supervision. An intellectual elite
arose to deal with the construction and operation of these systems. These individuals were the first
highly skilled engineers in history.
Eventually, they also developed the foundation for the discipline of mathematics and the science of
astronomy. Mathematical concepts, especially geometry, were developed to deal with the challenges
of the construction of the canals, dams, and dikes that controlled the flow of water. The continued
success of these great agricultural civilizations also depended upon the accurate prediction of when to
plant their crops so as to take advantage of the seasonal rains. These early engineers also had to
develop maintenance schedules to repair any structural problems in the irrigation system.
The same held true for planting. If the seeds were planted before the final onset of heavy rain, it would
be washed away. The population would then be faced with potential famine and the political and social
consequences that would follow from such a catastrophe. This required the development of highly
accurate calendars. The recorded movements of the Moon and Sun formed the foundation for the
development of the first calendars, thus many historians of science now believe that astronomy was
humanity's first theoretical science. Detailed astronomical records allowed these early civilizations to
accurately predict the seasonal changes so important to their survival. The most important aspect of
these weather changes dealt with the impact of rainwater on their irrigation systems.
As societies became more accomplished they experienced a population exposition. New ruling elites
developed to control both the distribution of food and the ever-increasing urban population. In time,
written codes of law were produced to help create an orderly society.
Impact
The first successful application of water management was in Mesopotamia. The ancient people known
as the Sumerians conquered and occupied the area bordering the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Historians refer to this highly productive land as the "Fertile Crescent." It is in this area, in about
4000 B.C., that the first successful irrigation projects were created. This land became so productive
that Biblical scholars now believe that the Fertile Crescent is the area referred to as the "Garden of
Eden" in the "Book of Genesis". The weather in Mesopotamia is very harsh and unpredictable. Flash
floods are prevalent; therefore, scholars also believe that the story of the "Great Flood" is a myth
whose foundation is based on the severe flooding that occurs in this region. This unpredictability
necessitated the construction of an intricate irrigation system consisting of canals, dams, and dikes to
control, store, and direct the water for use in the fields.
The result of this successful management was the development of the world's first civilization. During
this time a system of record keeping was developed to keep track of the food stored in various
warehouses throughout Mesopotamia. This system of record keeping evolved into the first written
language, known as "cuneiform." The Sumerians used wedge-style ideographs on wet clay tablets to
express complex ideas. Over time, a Sumerian literature developed that resulted in the first recorded
myth, the "Epic of Gilgamesh." This story centers around the impact of irrigation and sedentary
agriculture on human society. It details the new problems faced by the human community as the result
of this agricultural explosion. It also describes the struggle between the new emerging urban
civilization and the traditional nomadic pastoral peoples. These monumental changes took place as the
result of the successful use of water.
Water was also very important in ancient Egypt and would have a profound impact on both Egyptian
culture and its economics. The Nile River Valley was very fertile and did not require an extensive
irrigation system. Instead, a highly accurate calendar was needed to predict the annual flooding, when
the river would deposit both fertile soil and life-giving water upon their agricultural lands. This
abundant existence led to the development of a belief in the afterlife; it was the hope of every
Egyptian that the fruits of this earthly existence would be extended into eternity. An elaborate system
of funeral rituals developed and was designed to ensure a successful transition to the afterlife. The
body was prepared for the journey through the process of mummification. An extensive system
of water-based waste management was developed in the Egyptian mortuaries to aid in the disposal of
the byproducts of mummification. The Egyptians also constructed pyramids to house people on their
journey to the next world. Since it was believed that basic human needs would remain the same in the
next life, the pyramids were built with sophisticated water systems that included individual bathrooms.
The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus River Valley were similar to Egypt in that
the water flowed freely into the agricultural lands. Fed by the melting snows of the Himalayas, the
Indus provided a steady source of water for its civilization. This resulted in a highly productive
agricultural sector that formed the economic base for the two great cities. Each was laid out on a
square grid pattern that was subdivided into streets. Numerous public baths were supplied
with water by a citywide water system. Archeologists in Mohenjo-Daro unearthed the largest public
bath in the ancient world. Known, as the "Great Bath," it measured approximately 40 ft by 23 ft and it
was about 8 ft deep. The private homes of wealthy aristocrats and merchants also had
intricate water systems that included indoor plumbing.
Today, as in ancient times, water plays an essential role in the lives of every human being. Pollution,
especially from toxic waste, threatens the world's supply of fresh water. If the nations of the world
refuse to implement programs to protect this vital resource, the future of current civilization will be
threatened.
Citation: "Water Management in the Ancient World." Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale World History In Context. Web. 18 July 2011.
What were the environmental conditions that each RVC faced with regards to water?
How did each of the RVCs described above ensure that water was accessible in their civilizations?