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Chapter 11
Prosocial Behavior:
Why Do People Help?
Slides prepared by JoNell Strough, Ph.D. & Philip Lemaster, M.A.
West Virginia University
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
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Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Multimedia Directory
Slide 6
Slide 26
Slide 75
Prosocial and Altruistic Behavior Video
Waiting Room Video
Random Acts of Kindness Video
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Basic Motives Underlying
Prosocial Behavior—Why Do
People Help?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Prosocial Behavior and
Altruism
• Prosocial Behavior
– Any act performed with the goal of
benefiting another person
• Altruism
– The desire to help another person even if it
involves a cost to the helper
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Prosocial and Altruistic
Behavior Video
Click on the screenshot and consider whether the foundation established by
Bill and Melinda Gates is an example of prosocial behavior, or if it could be
considered altrustic?
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Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evolutionary Psychology:
Instincts and Genes
• Any gene that furthers survival and
increases the probability of producing
offspring likely to be passed on
• Genes that lower chances of survival
and reduce the chances of producing
offspring less likely to be passed on
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Evolutionary Psychology:
Instincts and Genes
• Evolutionary Psychology
– The attempt to explain social behavior in
terms of genetic factors that evolved over
time according to the principles of natural
selection.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evolutionary Psychology:
Instincts and Genes
• Darwin realized early on that there was
a problem with evolutionary theory:
– How can it explain altruism?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evolutionary Psychology:
Instincts and Genes
• If people’s overriding goal is to ensure
their own survival, why would they ever
help others at a cost to themselves?
• Genes promoting selfish behavior
should be more likely to be passed on
—or should they?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evolutionary Psychology:
Instincts and Genes
• Kin Selection
– The idea that behaviors that help a genetic
relative are favored by natural selection
• Increase chances genes will be passed
along by ensuring that genetic relatives
have children
• Natural selection should favor altruistic
acts directed toward genetic relatives
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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According to evolutionary psychology, prosocial behavior occurs in part because of kin
selection.
Source: wavebreakmedia ltd/Shutterstock
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evolutionary Psychology:
Instincts and Genes
• Survey research found that people
reported that they would be more likely
to help genetic relatives than
nonrelatives in life-and-death
situations, such as a house fire.
• Anecdotal evidence from real
emergencies is consistent with these
results.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Reciprocity Norm
• Norm of Reciprocity
– The expectation that helping others will
increase the likelihood that they will help
us in the future.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Learning Social Norms
• Adaptive for individuals to learn social
norms from other members of a society
(Simon, 1990)
– Best learners have a survival advantage
– Ability to learn social norms has become
part of our genetic makeup
• Gratitude as an evolved emotion to facilitate
reciprocity
– Evolution favors groups whose members
help each other
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Social Exchange: The Costs
and Rewards of Helping
• Social exchange theory
– What we do stems from desire to maximize
rewards and minimize costs
– In relationships with others, try to
maximize the ratio of social rewards to
social costs
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Social Exchange: The Costs
and Rewards of Helping
• Helping can be rewarding in a number
of ways:
– The norm of reciprocity
• Increase likelihood of future help
– Investment in future
• Someone will help us when we need it
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Social Exchange: The Costs
and Rewards of Helping
• Helping can be rewarding in a number
of ways:
– Relief of bystander distress
– Gain rewards
• Social approval
• Increased feelings of self-worth
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Social Exchange: The Costs
and Rewards of Helping
• The other side is that helping can be
costly:
–
–
–
–
Physical danger
Pain
Embarrassment
Time
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Social Exchange: The Costs
and Rewards of Helping
• Social exchange theory argues that
true altruism does not exist
– People help when the benefits outweigh the
costs
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Helping behavior is common in virtually all species of animals, and sometimes it even
crosses species lines. In August 1996, a 3-year-old boy fell into a pit containing seven
gorillas, at the Brookfield, Illinois, zoo. Binti, a 7-year-old gorilla, immediately picked up
the boy. After cradling him in her arms, she placed the boy near a door where
zookeepers could get to him.
Source: AP Photo/WLS-TV
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Empathy and Altruism:
The Pure Motive for Helping
• Empathy
– The ability to put oneself in the shoes of
another person and to experience events
and emotions (e.g., joy and sadness) the
way that person experiences them
• Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
– The idea that when we feel empathy for a
person, we will attempt to help that person
purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of
what we have to gain
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 11.1
Empathy-Altruism Theory
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 11.2
Altruism Versus Self-Interest
Under what conditions did people agree to help Carol with the work she missed in her
introductory psychology class? When empathy was high, people helped regardless of the
costs and rewards (i.e., regardless of whether they would encounter her in their
psychology class). When empathy was low, people were more concerned with the
rewards and costs for themselves—they helped only if they would encounter Carol in
their psychology class and thus feel guilty about not helping. (Adapted from Toi &
Batson, 1982)
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Three Basic Motives
Underlying Prosocial Behavior
• Evolutionary psychology
– Pass on genes
• Social exchange theory
– Maximize rewards, minimize costs
• Empathy-altruism hypothesis
– Powerful feelings of empathy and
compassion  selfless giving
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Waiting Room Video
Click on the screenshot and look for examples that illustrate basic motives for
helping behavior.
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Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Personal Qualities and
Prosocial Behavior
• Why do some people help more than
others?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Individual Differences:
The Altruistic Personality
• Altruistic Personality
– The qualities that cause an individual to
help others in a wide variety of situations.
– Surprisingly, studies of both children and
adults indicate that people with high scores
on personality tests of altruism are not
much more likely to help than those with
lower scores.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Individual Differences:
The Altruistic Personality
• Individual differences in personality not
the only predictors of helping
• Other critical factors:
–
–
–
–
Situational pressures
Gender
Culture
Current mood
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Gender Differences in
Prosocial Behavior
• Consider two scenarios:
– In one, someone performs a dramatic,
heroic act, like storming the cockpit of
United flight 93 to fight the terrorists.
– In the other, someone is involved in a longterm helping relationship, such as assisting
a disabled neighbor with chores around the
house.
• Are men or women more likely to help
in each situation?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Whereas men are more likely to perform chivalrous and heroic acts, women are more
likely to be helpful in long-term relationships that involve greater commitment.
Source: Tomas Rodriguez/PicturePress/Glow Images, Inc.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Gender Differences in
Prosocial Behavior
• The answer is no.
• Males are more likely to help in the first
situation.
• Females are more likely in the second.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Cultural Differences in
Prosocial Behavior
• People in all cultures are more likely to
help anyone they define as a member
of their in-group than those they
perceive in out-groups.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Cultural Differences in
Prosocial Behavior
• In-group
– The group with which an individual
identifies as a member
• Out-group
– Any group with which an individual does
not identify
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Cultural Differences in
Prosocial Behavior
• When will we help in-group and outgroup members?
– In-group helping
• Help when we feel empathy
– Out-group helping
• Help when it furthers own self-interests
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Cultural Differences in
Prosocial Behavior
• Cultural values and prosocial behavior
• Simpatía
– Prominent in Spanish-speaking countries
– Refers to a range of social and emotional
traits
•
•
•
•
•
Friendly
Polite
Good-natured
Pleasant
Helpful toward others
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Positive Moods—
Feel Good, Do Good
• IV = Mood
– Find a coin—good mood
– Don’t find a coin—control group
• DV = Helping
– Pick up papers
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Positive Moods—
Feel Good, Do Good
• Results
– 84% of people who found coins researcher
left in mall pay phone helped a man pick
up papers in one study.
– Only 4% of those who did not find coins
helped.
• When people are in a good mood, they
are more helpful in a variety of ways!
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Positive Moods—
Feel Good, Do Good
• Being in a good mood can increase
helping for these reasons:
– Good moods make us look on the bright
side of life.
– Helping others can prolong our good mood.
– Good moods increase self-attention.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Feel Bad, Do Good
• One kind of bad mood clearly leads to
an increase in helping—feeling guilty.
• People often act on the idea that good
deeds cancel out bad deeds.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Feel Bad, Do Good
• Since feeling happy leads to greater
helping, it might seem that sadness
would decrease it.
– Surprisingly, sadness can also lead to an
increase in helping, under certain
conditions.
• When sad, people are motivated to do
things that make them feel better.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Feed Bad, Do Good
• Negative-State Relief Hypothesis
– The idea that people help in order to
alleviate their own sadness and distress.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Situational Determinants of
Prosocial Behaviors
• When will people help?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Environment:
Rural Versus Urban
• Example
– Suppose you are walking down the street
one day when you see a man suddenly fall
down and cry out with pain. He rolls up his
pants leg, revealing a bandaged shin that
is bleeding heavily. What would you do?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Environment:
Rural Versus Urban
• Small towns:
– Half the people who walked by stopped and
offered to help the man.
• Large cities:
– Only 15% of passersby stopped to help.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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People are less helpful in big cities than in small towns, not because of a difference in
values, but because the stress of urban life causes them to keep to themselves.
Source: (left): John Lund/Drew Kelly/Sam Diephuis/Glow Images, Inc.;
(right): David Grossman/Alamy
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Environment:
Rural Versus Urban
1. Perhaps people who grow up in a small
town are more likely to internalize
altruistic values.
2. Alternatively, the immediate
surroundings might be the key and not
people's internalized values.
Urban Overload Hypothesis
People living in cities are constantly being
bombarded with stimulation and they keep to
themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Environment:
Rural Versus Urban
• According to urban overload
hypothesis, if you put urban dwellers in
a calmer, less stimulating environment,
they would be as likely as anyone else
to reach out to others.
– Research supports the hypothesis.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Environment:
Rural Versus Urban
• When opportunity for helping arises,
matters more whether the incident
occurs in a rural or urban area than
where the witnesses grew up.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Residential Mobility
• It is not only where you live that
matters, but how often you have
moved from one place to another.
• People who have lived for a long time in
one place more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors that help community.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Residential Mobility
• Living for a long time in one place leads
to:
– Greater attachment to the community
– More inter-dependence with neighbors
– Greater concern with one's reputation in
the community
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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The Number of Bystanders:
The Bystander Effect
• Kitty Genovese's prolonged murder
– 38 witnesses failed to call police.
• Bibb Latané and John Darley (1970)
considered why no one helped.
– The greater the number of bystanders who
observe an emergency, the less likely any
one is to help.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Number of Bystanders:
The Bystander Effect
• Latané and Darley (1970) found that in
terms of receiving help, there is no
safety in numbers.
• The greater the number of bystanders
who witness an emergency, the less
likely any one of them is to help the
victim.
• This is known as the bystander effect.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 11.3
Bystander Intervention: The Presence of Bystanders Reduces Helping
When people believed they were the only one witnessing a student having a seizure,
when they were the lone bystander, most of them helped him immediately, and all did so
within a few minutes. When they believed that someone else was listening as well, that
there were two bystanders, they were less likely to help and did so more slowly. And
when they believed that four others were listening, that there were five bystanders, they
were even less likely to help. (Adapted from Darley & Latan., 1968)
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 11.4
Bystander Intervention Decision Tree: Five Steps to Helping in an Emergency
Latan. and Darley (1970) showed that people go through five decision-making steps
before they help someone in an emergency. If bystanders fail to take any one of the five
steps, they will not help. Each step is outlined here, along with the possible reasons why
people decide not to intervene. (Adapted from Latan. & Darley, 1970)
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Noticing an Event
• Darley and Batson (1973)
demonstrated that something as trivial
as being in a hurry can make more of a
difference than what kind of person
someone is.
– Seminary students who were the most
religious were no more likely to help than
those who were the least religious.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Interpreting the Event as an
Emergency
• To help, the bystander must interpret
the event as an emergency where help
is needed.
– If people assume that nothing is wrong,
they will not help.
– When other bystanders are present, people
are more likely to assume that is not an
emergency.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Interpreting the Event as an
Emergency
• Pluralistic Ignorance
– Bystanders’ assuming that nothing is
wrong in an emergency because no one
else looks concerned
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Emergency situations can be confusing. Does this man need help? Have the bystanders
failed to notice him, or has the behavior of the others led each of them to interpret the
situation as a nonemergency—an example of pluralistic ignorance?
Source: Steve McCurry/ Magnum Photos, Inc.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Assuming Responsibility
• Sometimes it is obvious that an
emergency is occurring.
– Example—when Kitty Genovese cried out,
“Oh my God, he stabbed me! Please help
me! Please help me!”
• Even if we interpret an event as an
emergency, we have to decide that it is
our responsibility to do something
about it.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Assuming Responsibility
• Diffusion of Responsibility
– The phenomenon whereby each
bystander’s sense of responsibility to help
decreases as the number of witnesses
increases.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Knowing How to Help
• Suppose that on a hot summer day,
you see a woman collapse in the street.
No one else seems to be helping, and
so you decide it is up to you.
– But what should you do?
– Has the woman had a heart attack?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Knowing How to Help
• Suppose that on a hot summer day,
you see a woman collapse in the street.
No one else seems to be helping, and
so you decide it is up to you.
– Is she suffering from heatstroke?
– Should you call an ambulance, administer
CPR, or try to get her out of the sun?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Knowing How to Help
• If people don’t know what form of
assistance to give, obviously they will
be unable to help.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Deciding to Implement the
Help
• Even if you know exactly what kind of
help is appropriate, there are still
reasons why you might decide not to
intervene:
– Might not be qualified to deliver the right
kind of help.
– Might be afraid of:
• Making a fool of yourself
• Doing the wrong thing
• Placing yourself in danger
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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The Nature of the Relationship:
Communal Versus Exchange
• Communal relationships
– People’s primary concern is with the
welfare of the other person
• Exchange relationships
– Concerns about equity—that what you put
into the relationship equals what you get
out of it
• How does helping occur in communal
relationships?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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The Nature of the Relationship:
Communal Versus Exchange
• Exchange relationships
– Expect favors to be repaid pretty quickly
– (“What have they done for me lately?)
• Communal relationships
– Pay less attention to who is getting what
than people in exchange relationships do
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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The Nature of the Relationship:
Communal Versus Exchange
• Does this mean that people are more
helpful toward friends than strangers?
– Yes, under most circumstances
– We are less likely to help a friend in
important areas than we are in areas we
don’t care as much about.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Effects of Media: Video Games
and Music Lyrics
• Prosocial video games and songs
– Increase helping
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Figure 11.5
Effects of Playing Prosocial Video Games on the Likelihood of Helping
Participants played a prosocial video game (such as Lemmings) or a neutral video game
(such as Tetris). Then, as part of what they thought was another study, they were given
the opportunity to help in some way. In one study, an experimenter accidentally knocked
over a jar of pencils and the researchers observed how many participants helped him or
her pick them up. In another, participants were asked to volunteer to take part in future
studies for no compensation. In a third, the researchers staged an event where the
experimenter’s ex-boyfriend charged into the room and tried to force her to leave with
him. The researchers observed how many participants tried to help the experimenter in
some way. As seen in the graph, playing a prosocial video game increased the likelihood
that people helped in all of these situations. (Adapted from Greitemeyer & Osswald,
2010)
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How Can Helping Be
Increased?
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Increasing the Likelihood that
Bystanders Will Intervene
• Being aware of the barriers to helping
in an emergency can increase people’s
chances of overcoming those barriers.
• People who know about bystander
effects can realize that if they don’t act,
perhaps no one will.
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Why did this person help, even when several other bystanders witnessed the same
emergency and didn’t help? Perhaps this person learned about the barriers to bystander
intervention in a social psychology class.
Source: corepics/Shutterstock
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Positive Psychology and
Prosocial Behavior
• Positive psychology
– Focuses on people's strengths and virtues
• Social psychological approach
– Investigate the conditions under which
people act in positive (e.g., helpful) and
negative (e.g., unhelpful) ways
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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Random Acts of Kindness
Video
Click on the screenshot to see how people react to prosocial behavior in their
own lives.
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Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert
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Summary and Review
•
•
•
•
Theories of Altruism
Person Variables
Situation Variables
Increasing Prosocial Behavior
Social Psychology, Eighth Edition
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©2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.