Download The Consolidation of Latin America, 1830

The Consolidation of Latin America, 1830-1920
Summary. Four major world areas escaped the imperialist scramble: Russia, the Middle East, East Asia, and
Latin America. Most Latin American nations gained independence from colonial control early in the 19th
century. The political culture of its leaders had been shaped by the Enlightenment, but they faced problems
growing from their own history. Their colonial heritage did not include participatory government; highly
centralized states had created both patterns of dependence and resentment. Class and regional interests
divided nations; wealth was unevenly distributed. The rise of European industrial capitalism placed Latin
America nations in a dependent economic position.
From Colonies to Nations. By the late 18th century Creole elites were questioning the necessity of remaining
colonial subjects. The mass of the population resented government policies. Early attempts at revolution failed
because the elites feared to unloose the power of those under them.
Causes of Political Change. Four external events had a major impact on Latin American political thought. The
American Revolution provided a model for colonial rebellion. The French Revolution offered revolutionary
ideology, but it was rejected by elites as too radical politically and socially. The slave rebellion in the French
island of St. Domingue led by Toussaint L'Overture in 1791 ended in 1804 with the independent republic of
Haiti. The success of the slaves frightened colonial elites and made them even more cautious about social
change. The final and precipitating factor was the confused political situation in Spain and Portugal caused by
French invasion and occupation. In Spain the French deposed the king in favor of Napoleon's brother, but then
had to face prolonged civil war. Latin American Creoles declared loyalty to the Spanish ruler, but began to rule
the colonies themselves.
Spanish-American Independence Struggles. In Mexico a Creole conspiracy caused Miguel de Hidalgo to appeal
in 1810 to Indians and mestizos for support. After early victories Hidalgo lost Creole support and was
executed. The revolution continued and conservative Creoles under Augustín Iturbide won independence.
The new state, a monarchy based upon Creole dominance, collapsed in 1824. Mexico became a republic and
Central America, until then part of the empire, divided into independent nations. In northern South America
an independence movement led by a Creole officer, Simon Bolívar, appeared in Caracas in 1810. Between 1817
and 1822 he won victories in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. The three countries were united as Gran
Columbia until political differences in 1830 caused separation. In southern South America rebellion began in
Rio de la Plata under the leadership of José de San Martín. Buenos Aires opted for autonomy in 1810. In 1816
the independence of the United Republic of Rio de la Plata was proclaimed. Paraguay separated from it in
1813. The remaining Spanish territories fell to San Martín's forces; by 1825 all of Spanish America had won
political independence. All were republics with representative governments.
Brazilian Independence. By the end of the 18th century Brazil was Portugal’s most important colonial
possession. The presence of a large slave population tempered the elite’s thoughts of independence. The
French invasion of Portugal in 1807 led the royal family and many of the nobility to flee to Brazil. Rio de
Janeiro became the real capital of the Portuguese empire. Brazil's ports were opened to world commerce
because of pressure from Britain, Portugal's powerful war time ally. King João VI remained in Brazil until 1820.
The presence of the court made Rio de Janeiro into a great capital city. When João VI returned to Portugal to
deal with a liberal revolution he left his son Pedro as regent. When it became clear that Brazil was to return to
colonial status, Pedro declared its independence in 1822 and became the constitutional emperor, Pedro I.
Independent Brazil maintained the existing social order based on slavery.
New Nations Confront Old and New Problems. Many of the leaders of Latin American independence shared
Enlightenment political and economic ideals. There was less agreement about the role of the Catholic church as
the exclusive state religion. Some leaders had egalitarian beliefs. Slavery was abolished in all the former
Spanish colonies by 1854. Better treatment of Indians and mestizos was blocked by the elite's fears of losing tax
revenue and control. Property and literacy qualifications limited voting; women remained subordinate to men.
Political Fragmentation. Early efforts for political unity quickly failed because of regional rivalries and internal
frictions. The great size of the Spanish colonial world and its poor transportation systems gave the eighteen
new nations a local focus. The mass of their peoples were outside of the political process.
Caudillos, Politics, and the Church. The new nations suffered from the warfare ending in independence.
Armies loyal to their leaders led to the rise of caudillos, men who controlled local areas. They intervened in
national politics to make and unmake governments. At times the caudillos defended the interests of regional
elites, or of Indians and peasants. In general they disregarded representative forms and the rule of law. There
were many differences among leaders about the forms of republican government. Centralists wanted strong
governments with broad powers while federalists favored awarding authority to regional governments.
Liberals, influenced by the French and United States models, stressed individual rights, opposed the corporate
structure of colonial society, and favored a federalist government. Conservatives wanted a centralized state
and wished to maintain a society where corporate groups ruled social action. The role of the church became a
critical political. Liberals sought to limit its civil role, but met strong opposition from conservatives and the
Papacy. The political parties that formed were led by landowners and the urban middle class; they argued
about liberal or conservative ideas, but shared basic class loyalties. The rest of the population was not
concerned with political ideology. The result was enduring political instability, with rapid turnovers of rulers
and constitutions. Only a few nations had general stability: Chile after reforms of its system in 1833 and the
Brazilian monarchy. For most of Latin America the basic questions of government and society remained
unresolved.
Latin-American Economies and World Markets, 1820-1870. After the defeat of Napoleon any plans for ending
Latin American independence were thwarted by the opposition of Britain and the United States. The price for
British support was freedom of trade. Britain replaced Spain as a dominant economic force in a type of
neocolonial commercial system. It became a major consumer of Latin American products and sold its
manufactured goods to the new nations. The free entry and export of goods benefited port cities and
landowners, but it damaged regional industries producing for internal markets. The resulting dependency on
foreign markets reinforced the old order which made land the basis of wealth and prestige.
Mid-Century Stagnation. The Latin American economy was stagnant between 1820 and 1850. The mining
sector had suffered from the independence wars, transportation and port facilities remained underdeveloped,
and investment capital was lacking. The situation changed after 1850 when European market expansion
created demand for local products. The export of coffee, hides, beef, minerals, grains, and guano brought
revenues to governments, urban growth, and transportation improvements. Liberal reformers during the 1820s
and 1830s attempted to break colonial patterns and follow European trends. Latin American societies were not
ready for many of the reforms; the conservative weight of the church, landowners, and army remained potent.
They returned to power by the 1840s and halted or hindered reform. An alliance between them and peasantry
emerged to oppose change.
Economic Resurgence and Liberal Politics. Liberals returned to power during the last quarter of the 19th
century. They based their policies on the positivism of Auguste Comte, stressing a scientific approach to social
problems. The shift was caused by changes in the nature of the Industrial Revolution and the age of
imperialism. Latin American economies expanded rapidly after 1850 and the population doubled. There were
new demands for Latin American products and foreign entrepreneurs and bankers joined liberals, landowners,
and merchants to tie Latin America to the capitalist expansion of the Western economy. The new political
leaders were inspired by the example of Western Europe and the United States, but their distrust of their mass
populations prevented the success of many efforts. The economic growth often occurred at the expense of the
peasantry; landowners and governments expropriated land and developed forms of tenancy, peonage, and
disguised servitude.
Mexico: Instability and Foreign Intervention. The 1824 Mexican constitution was a federalist document that
established a republic and guaranteed basic civil rights. But it did not address the serious issues of inequitable
distribution of land, the status of Indians, the problems of education, or the poverty of most of the population.
Conservative centralists opposed liberal federalists; foreign commercial agents added additional complications.
Liberals during the early 1830s tried sweeping reforms, but they fell before a conservative reaction led by
Antonio López de Santa Ana. He was a typical caudillo and the defects of the regime drew foreign intervention
by Spain and France. War with the United States ended in Mexican defeat and the loss of about one-half of its
territory. The war left a bitter distrust of the United States and caused a serious loss of Mexican economic
potential. Politicians were stimulated to confront their nation's internal problems which had contributed to
defeat. Indian lawyer Benito Juárez led a liberal revolt in 1854 and inaugurated a new constitution in 1857.
Military and church privileges were curtailed and church and Indian communal lands were sold to individuals.
Speculators, however, bought the land and left peasants and Indians poorer than previously. Conservative
reaction led to civil war and the summoning of French assistance. The French placed Maximilian von
Habsburg on the throne, but Juárez refused to accept the foreign ruler. When the French withdrew in 1867
Maximilian was captured and executed. Juárez regained office to lead an autocratic regime until his death in
1872. By 1880 Mexico was about to enter a period of strong central government and political stability.
Argentina: The Port and the Nation. The economy of Argentina was divided between the commercial port of
Buenos Aires and pampas of the surrounding territories. The United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata declared
independence in 1816, but did not long stay together. Liberal efforts to create a strong central government
provoked a federalist reaction which gained power in 1831 under Juan Manuel de Rosas. A weak central
government and local autonomy followed that favored the merchants of Buenos Aires and the surrounding
ranchers. Campaigns against Indians opened new lands in the south. Rosas ruled in a populist, authoritarian
manner and exiled the opponents. Liberals and regional caudillos joined to overthrow Rosas in 1852. After a
confused decade of political turmoil opponents compromised to create a unified republic. Between 1862 and
1890 Domingo F. Sarmiento and other able leaders initiated wide political and economic reforms. Political
stability brought foreign investment; a great boost in exports brought prosperity. The population tripled as
many European immigrants came to take advantage of the good times. Increased revenues allowed
infrastructure development. National unity and pride grew after a successful war against Paraguay and the
defeat of the southern Indians.
The Brazilian Empire. Many problems were present behind Brazil's facade of 19th-century political stability.
Pedro I issued a liberal constitution in 1824 but still acted as an autocrat. He was forced to abdicate in 1831;
regents then ran the country in the name of his young son Pedro II - he came to power in 1840 - in what really
was an experiment in republican government. Internal disputes between liberals and conservatives were
complicated by arguments for and against the monarchy. Provinces opposed centralized rule and many
unsuccessful regional revolts ensued. The development of coffee as an export crop brought economic
resurgence. There was an intensification of slavery until 1850. Prosperity continued after 1850 along with
political tranquillity. The communication and transport systems improved; foreign investment increased. New
political currents included the growth of urban and middle class groups less tied to landholding and slavery,
and the arrival of thousands of European immigrants who reduced dependence on slaves. The abolitionist
movement gained strength, and slaves increased their resistance to their status. Slavery was abolished in 1888.
Support for the monarchy waned. A long war against Paraguay brought the military into politics, and state
quarrels with the church drew them into the opposition. Planters turned away from slavery to positivist ideas.
The Republican Party, formed in 1871, won wide support and a coup replaced the monarchy by a republic in
1889. Social and political problems caused by modernization remained unresolved.
Societies in Search of Themselves. Tension remained in cultural life between European and American
influences, and between elite and folk ways. Social change for the masses and for women came slowly.
Cultural Expression after Independence. Independence opened up Latin America to direct influence from other
European nations. The elite followed Europe's examples in intellectual and artistic life. In the 1830s
romanticism became important and turned interest to Indians and local customs. By the 1870s the focus
changed; a new realism came to the arts and literature along with the ideas of positivism. Mass culture was not
affected by elite trends; traditional forms flourished but were ignored by most of the elite.
Old Patterns of Gender, Class, and Race. Women, despite participation in the revolutions, gained little ground
during the 19th century. They continued as wives and mothers under the authority of males; they could not
vote or hold office. Lower class women had more economic and personal freedom, but otherwise shared in
subordination. Public education did become more open to women to prepare them for more enlightened roles
in the home. New occupational opportunities opened for women in teaching;. Educated women, by the end of
the century, actively demanded increased rights. Most of the new nations legally ended the society of castes
where status depended upon color and ethnicity. In reality, very little changed for Indians and former slaves.
The expansion of the export economy in many ways intensified old patterns. Personal liberties were sacrificed
to economic growth. Control of land, politics, and the economy was dominated by a small, white, Creole elite.
Latin America entered the 1880s as a predominantly agrarian group of nations with rigid social structures, and
dependent on the world market.
In Depth: Explaining Underdevelopment. Latin America, because of its early winning of independence and
entry into the world economy, provides a useful example for study of the problems faced by underdeveloped
nations. Their experience grew from the influences of their Hispanic cultural heritage. When independence
came, the European models of economy, law, and government adopted failed to bring either prosperity or
social harmony. In the search for alternative policies some condemned the Hispanic legacy; others turned to
Marxism. Latin Americans often compared their experiences with those of the United States. Answers for the
questions increasingly were sought in analyses of a world economic and political system. They turned to
modernization theory, a following of the path taken in western Europe. Refinements of the theories led to an
acceptance of dependency theory that envisaged development and underdevelopment as part of the same
process. The process of theorizing continues.
The Great Boom, 1880-1920. The increasing demand in industrializing Europe stimulated Latin American
economic growth. Liberal ideology - individual freedom, open markets, limited government intervention in the
economy - prepared the way for expansion. The ideology was adopted by the small urban middle class,
landholders, miners, and export merchants. These groups forged political alliances to direct governments in
their favor at the expense of the peasants and working class. Export products fueled the expansion and
provided resources for imports of foreign manufactures and local development projects. It was always a risky
business since market prices were dependent on outside conditions. The developing commerce drew the
interest of foreign investors. Germany and the United States joined Britain as major participants. The capital
brought in was useful, but it placed key industries under foreign control, and it influenced the internal and
external policies of governments.
Mexico and Argentina: Examples of Economic Transformation. In Mexico in 1876 Porfirio Díaz was elected
president; he dominated politics for 35 years. Díaz imposed a strong central government and utilized foreign
capital for internal infrastructure development and industrialization. His administration subverted liberal
democratic principles to preserve power and continue modernization. Opposition was suppressed and growth
occurred at the expense of the peasantry and working class. When strikes and unrest increased a national
police force and the army kept order. Regional political bosses rigged elections in support of the regime. By
1910 a middle class reform movement emerged and sought electoral reform. Other opposition groups joined it
and a bloody ten-year civil war followed. In Argentina another path of economic expansion was followed.
Buenos Aires and the rest of the nation worked together after 1880 to bring expansion and stability.
Technological change - especially refrigerated ships for exporting meat - helped the process; labor came from a
flood of immigrants. By 1914 one-third of the population was foreign-born. They fused their various European
identities into a distinct culture. Workers wanted political expression and in the 1890s a socialist party formed.
Strikes and government repression marked the decade after 1910. The Argentinean oligarchy attempted some
reforms. A party representing the emerging middle class, the Radical Party, took shape. Aided by the reforms
of an electoral law of 1912 it came to power in 1916. When it met labor unrest the party was as repressive as its
predecessors. Similar patterns occurred in the economic and political life of the rest of Latin America. Ruling
oligarchies of the traditional aristocracies allied with the middle classes faced rising labor and rural unrest and
rebellion.
Uncle Sam Goes South. American political and economic interest in Latin America grew after the Civil War.
The Spanish-American War of 1898 brought the United States directly into Latin American affairs. American
investment in Cuba predated the war, and following it the door was open for direct involvement in the
Caribbean. Cuba became an American economic dependent and Puerto Rico was annexed. When Colombia
was reluctant to meet American proposals for building the Panama Canal, the United States backed a
revolution in Panama and gained exclusive rights over the canal. Latin Americans as a consequence became
very suspicious of the expansionist United States.
Conclusion: New Nations, Old Problems. Despite all of the economic, social, and political changes occurring in
Latin America after independence its countries remained remarkably unchanged. Revolutions and reforms
changed little. The elite held on to control of economic resources; the urban sector was weak and often
accommodated the elite. Most of the population worked the land without hope of improvement.
KEY TERMS
Toussaint L'Overture: leader of the slave rebellion on the French island of St. Domingue in 1791; led to the
creation of the independent republic of Haiti in 1804.
mask of Ferdinand: term given to the movements in Latin America allegedly loyal to the deposed Bourbon king
of Spain; they actually were Creole movements for independence.
Miguel de Hidalgo: Mexican priest who established an independence movement among Indians and mestizos
in 1810; after early victories he was captured and executed.
Augustín Iturbide: conservative Creole officer in the Mexican army who joined the independence movement;
made emperor in 1821.
Simon Bolívar: Creole military officer in northern South America; won victories in Venezuela, Colombia, and
Ecuador between 1817 and 1822 that led to the independent state of Gran Colombia.
Gran Colombia: existed as an independent state until 1830 when Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador became
separate independent nations.
José de San Martín: leader of movements in Rio de la Plata that led to the independence of the United Provinces
of the Rio de la Plata by 1816; later led independence movements in Chile and Peru.
João VI: Portuguese monarch who fled the French to establish his court in Brazil from 1808 to 1820; Rio de
Janeiro became the real capital of the Portuguese empire.
Pedro I: son and successor of João VI in Brazil; aided in the declaration of Brazilian independence in 1822 and
became constitutional emperor
José Rodríguez de Francia: ruler of independent Paraguay as dictator until 1840.
Andrés Santa Cruz: mestizo general who established a union between independent Peru and Bolivia between
1829 and 1839.
caudillos: leaders in independent Latin America who dominated local areas by force in defiance of national
policies; sometimes seized the national government.
centralists: Latin American politicians who favored strong, centralized national governments with broad
powers; often supported by conservative politicians.
federalists: Latin American politicians who favored regional governments rather than centralized
administrations; often supported by liberal politicians.
Monroe Doctrine: United States declaration of 1823 that any attempt by a European country to colonize the
Americas would be considered an unfriendly act.
guano: bird droppings utilized as fertilizer; a major Peruvian export between 1850 and 1880.
positivism: a philosophy based on the ideas of Auguste Compte; stressed observation and scientific
approaches to the problems of society.
Antonio López de Santa Ana: Mexican general who seized power after the collapse of the Mexican republic in
1835.
Manifest Destiny: belief in the United States that it was destined to rule from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848): ratified Mexican by the United States; Mexico lost one-half of national
territory.
Benito Juárez: Indian lawyer and politician who led a liberal revolution against Santa Ana; defeated by the
French who made Maximilian emperor; returned to power from 1867 to 1872.
La Reforma: name of Juárez's liberal revolution.
Maximilian von Habsburg: Austrian archduke proclaimed Emperor of Mexico as a result of French intervention
in 1862; after the French withdrawal he executed in 1867.
gauchos: mounted rural workers in the Rio de la Plata region.
Juan Manuel de Rosas: federalist leader in Buenos Aires; took power in 1831; commanded loyalty of gauchos;
restored local autonomy.
Argentine Republic: replaced state of Buenos Aires in 1862 as a result of a compromise between centralists and
federalists.
Domingo F. Sarmiento: liberal politician and president of the Argentine Republic; author of Facundo, a critique
of caudillo politics; increased international trade and launched reforms in education and transportation.
fazendas: coffee estates that spread into the Brazilian interior between 1840 and 1860; caused intensification of
slavery.
modernization theory: the belief that the more industrialized, urban, and modern a society became, the more
social change and improvement were possible as traditional patterns and attitudes were abandoned or
transformed.
dependency theory: the belief that development and underdevelopment were not stages but were part of the
same process; that development and growth of areas like western Europe were achieved at the expense of
underdevelopment of dependent regions like Latin America.
Porfirio Díaz: one of Juárez's generals; elected president of Mexico in 1876 and dominated politics for 35 years.
cientificos: advisors to Díaz's government who were influenced strongly by Positivist ideas.
Spanish American War: fought between Spain and the United States beginning in 1898; resulted in annexation
of Puerto Rico and the Philippines; permitted American intervention in the Caribbean.
Panama Canal: the United States supported an independence movement in Panama, then part of Colombia, in
return for the exclusive rights for a canal across the Panama isthmus.
CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What are the causes of political change in Latin America?
2. Contrast the Brazilian move to independence with other Latin American independence
movements.
3. What was the centralist vs. the federalist controversy?
4. Characterize the Liberal politics of the period from 1850 to 1870.
5. How successful was reform at resolving the problems of race, class, and gender?
6. What was the nature of the economic boom of the period after 1870?
7. In what ways did the United States enter the political and economic affairs of Latin
America?
Latin America: Revolution and Reaction in the 20th Century
Summary. Latin American nations in the 20h century shared problems with Third World
countries relating to matters of economic development and relations with more powerful
economic societies. The earlier political independence of Latin America and its Westerninfluenced political and social structures gave it distinct characteristics. Their economies,
dependent upon Western investment and exports, were vulnerable to fluctuations in the world
system. Economic dependency accompanied political and cultural dependency in national life.
Latin Americans struggled to gain social justice, cultural autonomy, and economic security
through either adopting foreign ideologies or formulating indigenous responses. Although
agricultural and mineral production continued, industrial development increased worker
organization, immigration and urban growth. An urban middle class appeared to join the
political process. Economic expansion and preservation of the political status quo alternated
with crisis periods when efforts were made break or political patterns and provide social justice.
Despite the surface changes Latin America remained relatively unchanged as old institutions
adapted to new influences. Very few revolutions resulted in marked political changes, but there
have been significant alterations in social and economic matters.
The Mexican Revolution and the Great War. Two major events influenced 20h-century Latin
American developments,. the Mexican Revolution and World War I. Although most nations
remained neutral, the war disrupted traditional markets and caused a realignment of national
economies. A spurt of manufacturing occurred among nations forced to rely upon themselves.
At the end of the war all had to face the emergence of the United States as the region's dominant
foreign power.
Mexico's Upheaval. Mexico had been ruled since 1876 by Porfirio Díaz. Great economic changes
had occurred as foreign concessions helped to develop railroads and mining and brought
prosperity to the elite. Foreigners controlled much of the economy. The political system was
corrupt and opponents among workers, peasants, and Indians were repressed. In 1910 moderate
reformer Francisco Madero proposed to run against the elderly Díaz but was arrested as the
president won a rigged election. A general rebellion followed led by Madero, Pancho Villa, and
peasant rights proponent Emiliano Zapata. Díaz was driven from power, but the various factions
could not agree. Zapata wanted sweeping land reform and revolted. In 1913 Madero was
assassinated. General Victoriano Huerta unsuccessfully tried to restore a Díaz-style regime until
forced from power in 1914. Villa and Zapata continued in control of their regions while more
moderate leaders controlled the national government under General Alvaro Obregón. The
Mexican revolution resembled other outbreaks in agrarian societies undergoing disruptive
modernization. All had received large investments of foreign capital and became dependent on
world financial markets. The world banking crisis of 1907-1908 then caused distress and
stimulated rebellion. Civil war in Mexico ended by 1920; Obregón was the first of a series of
elected presidents who tried to consolidate the regime and to rebuild from the serious losses of
the civil war. A new constitution of 1917 promised land reform, limitation of foreign ownership,
workers' rights, restriction of the role of the church, and educational reform. President Lázaro
Cárdenas (1934-1940) distributed over 40 million acres, mostly as communal holdings (ejidos),
and extended primary and rural education.
Culture and Politics in Postrevolutionary Mexico. Nationalism and the concern for Indian
culture stimulated many of the reforms. Education stressed Mexico's Indian heritage and
denounced Western capitalism. Artists Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco recaptured the
past and offered a program for the future. Mural art mixed romanticism of the Indian heritage
with Christian and communist ideas. Popular culture celebrated the heroes of the revolution.
Some Mexicans opposed the changes, especially the church and clergy. They backed a
conservative peasant movement, the Cristeros, during the 1920s. The United States, busy with
World War I, had reacted minimally to the revolution. Arguments between the two nations
culminated and were settled when Cárdenas nationalized the oil industry in 1934 and ran it as a
state monopoly. The revolutionary leadership institutionalized the new regime by establishing a
one-party political system. The forerunner of the present Party of the Institutionalized
Revolution (PRI) developed from the 1920s into a dominant political force. It incorporated
peasant, labor, military, and middle class sectors into the party. The need to reconcile the various
interests limited the worst aspects of one-party rule. Presidents were restricted to one six-year
term. By the 1990s many Mexicans believed that little remained of the original revolutionary
principles and new political parties challenged a weakened PRI. A very serious challenge to the
regime was the 1994 armed guerrilla movement in Chiapas. Their demands for reform found
wide support.
Economic Change and New Political Actors. World War I affected most of Latin America
because of the interruption of European demand for its products. Some local industries formed
to produce replacements for unavailable European products. A few exports had increased
European demand. After the war the economy slowed, causing increasing political unrest.
Population growth, swelled by heavy immigration, contributed to urban concentration and
increased social problems.
Labor and the Middle Class. The political culture of Latin America altered as an urban labor
force and middle class grew. The landholding oligarchy opened the political system to the
middle class. They united to defend their interests against labor demands. During the 1920s the
alliance met resistance from reformers, workers, and peasants seeking to redress the inequalities
existing in society. Industrial workers, some of them immigrants influenced by European
ideologies, gained influence on politics from the beginning of the century. Their efforts at
organization and strikes usually were met by government force. The result was a growing sense
of class conflict. Most workers, however, were agrarian and unorganized.
Ideology and Social Reform. By the 1930s the failure of liberalism in solving societal problems
was apparent. Latin America's middle class had entered politics, but only in alliance with the
existing oligarchy or the military. Liberalism's concepts simply were not suited to Latin
American economic and social reality. Intellectuals began to look into their own cultures for
solutions and lost faith in Western democracy. Socialist and communist parties formed.
Criticism also came from a church opposed to the secularization brought by capitalism.
Populist Politics: The Case of Peru. Peru, with a predominantly Indian population, typified the
ferment. It depended upon the export of nitrates and agricultural products; foreign capital
controlled transportation and industry. The government was corrupt. Elites profited from the
system while peasants were landless. Ongoing criticism of the system led to the formation of the
American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) by Victor Raul de la Torre in 1924. The party
drew inspiration from the Mexican revolution, socialism, nationalism, and Mussolini's fascism. It
wanted to spread throughout Latin America, but had its greatest success in Peru by the 1930s.
The military and other sectors kept the APRA from power until Alan García won the presidency
in 1985. APRA represented the new populist groups that mobilized mass support among urban
and rural populations under the direction of personalist leaders who often were military or elite
politicians. Once in power they often did not challenge the existing structure of government.
The Great Crash and Latin American Responses. The Great Depression emphasized the
weaknesses of Latin America's dependent economies and political systems. Foreign investment
ceased and purchase of export products declined. The liberal regimes lacked solutions for
unemployment and economic dislocation. Within three years there were military coups in 12
countries. Experiments with corporatism, an ideology appealing to conservatives and the
military, placed the state at the center and tried to avoid class conflict. Elements of fascism also
were popular. Latin Americans were part of a world trend whereby governments moderated the
principle of unbridled capitalism to attain some type of social reform.
Promises of Social Reform. Among the reforming regimes the most successful was Mexico's
Cárdinas administration. Large-scale land reform created communal farms with a credit system
to support them. Foreign oil companies were nationalized and rural education expanded. A new
regime in Cuba was more typical. A revolution in 1933 aimed at social reform and breaking
United States domination. Moderates won control and reforms resulted.
The Vargas Regime in Brazil. A contested election of 1929 led to civil war and the emergence of
Getúlio Vargas as president. Vargas promised reforms to help ease the crisis caused by the
collapse of coffee exports. He launched a centralized political program, prevented coups by
communists and fascists, and with military support imposed a new constitution in 1937 that
created an authoritarian regime based on ideas from Mussolini's Italy. Vargas joined the Allies
during World War II in return for Allied aid. Little open opposition was allowed to his
corporatist government. When reactions to his policies increased, Vargas sought support from
labor and the communists. He was deposed by the military in 1945 but returned to the
presidency in 1950 with support of labor and the left. A state oil monopoly was established as
part of policies following nationalist and populist themes. Vargas, under criticism from right and
left, committed suicide in 1954; he since has become a nationalist hero.
Argentina: Populism, Perón, and the Military. A military coup by a coalition of nationalists,
fascists, and socialists ended the rule of the middle class Radical Party when the economy
collapsed in 1929. The coup failed but the succeeding conservative governments, despite
industrial growth, did not bring prosperity. The labor movement became stronger. In 1943 the
military, nationalists who wanted to modernize the state, seized control. Juan D. Perón emerged
as leader, gaining support by supporting worker demands. His wife Eva Duarte - Evita - became
his spokesperson among the lower classes. Perón created a coalition embracing workers,
industrialists, and the military, depending upon his personal charisma and repression to
maintain rule. Foreign owned industries were nationalized. Perón's regime by the 1950s could
not solve Argentina's growing economic problems. His coalition fell apart and a military coup
drove him from office in 1955. The country remained under his shadow for the next 20 years as
military governments attempted to solve economic and political problems. Labor groups
continued to support Perón. He was elected president in 1973, but his death in 1974 returned
Argentina to military rule.
Radical Options in the 1950s. There were other responses to the problems of Latin American
countries, but disagreement remained on how to improve economic and social conditions.
Mexico continued one-party rule; the conservative PRI sacrificed social justice to economic
growth. In Venezuela and Costa Rica reform, reform-minded governments triumphed in open
elections. Others turned to Marxist socialism as a guide and became caught up in cold war
struggles. Some radical and revolutionary solutions were attempted. In Bolivia a 1952 revolution
supported by miners, peasants, and urban middle class groups led to mine nationalization and
land redistribution. Fears of moving too far to the left brought the army back to power in 1964
and subsequent governments stressed order over reform.
Guatemala: Reform and United States Intervention. A first radical solution was tried in
Guatemala, a predominantly Indian nation suffering from illiteracy, poor health conditions, and
high mortality rates. The economy depended upon the export of coffee and bananas. In 1944 a
middle class and labor coalition elected Juan José Arevalo as president. Under a new constitution
he began land reform and improvement of worker and peasant life. Arevalo's reforms and
nationalism led to conflict with foreign interests, especially the United Fruit Company. In 1951
the more radical Jacobo Arbenz was elected president. His reformist programs, especially a
proposed expropriation of United Fruit land, led the Cold War American government to impose
economic and diplomatic restrictions on Guatemala. In 1954 the CIA assisted military opponents
to overthrow Arbenz and under the new government reform ceased. Continued violence and
political instability followed.
The Cuban Revolution: Socialism in the Caribbean. Most of Cuba's population was descended
from Spaniards and Africans;. The nation had a relatively large middle class and better literacy
and health conditions than others in the region. Since leaving Spanish rule Cuba had been
subject to American influence in its politics and economy. The economy depended upon the
export of sugar. Economic disparity between rural populations and the middle class was a
problem. Cuba was ruled from 1934 to 1944 by Fulgencio Batista, an authoritarian military
reformer. A 1940 constitution promised democracy and reform, but the government was corrupt
and Batista turned into a dictator. In 1953 Fidel Castro launched an unsuccessful revolution; in
1956, with the help of Che Guevara, a new effort began. By 1958 students, labor, and rural
workers joined in to drive out Batista. Castro’s sweeping reforms included nationalization of
foreign property, farm collectivization, and a centralized socialist economy. Relations with the
United States were broken in 1961 and Cuba entered into a close relationship with the Soviet
Union. An American-sponsored attack by Cuban exiles failed in 1961. When Soviet missiles
were discovered in Cuba a superpower confrontation threatened nuclear war in 1962. Cuba
survived Cold War politics because of the support of its Soviet ally. Castro's revolution has a
mixed balance. Its reforms greatly improved education, health, and housing, especially in rural
regions. But industralization efforts failed and Cuba remained dependent on sugar. Rising oil
costs and falling sugar prices made Cuba dependent upon Soviet economic aid. The Soviet
Union’s collapse brought serious economic distress. Even with its problems, the Cuban
revolution inspired many Latin American revolutionaries in their quest for change.
The Search for Reform and the Military Option. Economic and social structures remained
unchanged in most countries, despite the various reform approaches, into the 1980s. Mexico's
one-party system maintained prosperity, often through repression, until conditions changed
during the 1980s. Others - Venezuela, Chile - followed Christian Democratic approaches. The
clergy was divided politically, although many priests became activists for social justice.
Liberation Theology combined Catholic doctrines and socialist principles to improve life for the
poor.
Out of the Barracks: Soldiers Take Power. The Cuban Revolution worried individuals fearing
reform within a communist system. As the military became more professionalized, soldiers
adopted a creed that made them the true representatives of the nation. During the 1960s they
intervened directly in politics. In 1964 the Brazilian military took over the government when the
president proposed sweeping reforms. Soldiers took over in Argentina in 1966 and in 1973 the
military in Chile overthrew the socialist government of Salvador Allende. Similar coups
occurred in Uruguay in 1973 and Peru in 1968. The soldiers imposed bureaucratic authoritarian
regimes that were supposed to provide economic stability by submerging selfish interests. The
military controlled policy and resorted to repression and torture. Thousands were tortured and
killed in Argentina. Economic policies fell heaviest on workers since any economic development
came at their cost. Basic structural problems persisted. All regimes were nationalistic, but other
policies varied. Peru's leaders had a real social program, including land redistribution. Chile
and Uruguay were militantly anticommunist. Argentina fought an unsuccessful war with Britain
over the contested Falkland Islands that contributed to the regime's loss of authority.
The New Democratic Trend. By the mid-1980s some military governments were returned to
civilian control. Continued economic problems and growing internal dissent contributed to the
change. Fears of populist or communist movements declined. There were elections in Argentina
in 1983; Brazil chose a popularly elected president in 1989. The democratization process was not
easy or universal. In Peru the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) leftist guerrillas disrupted
government into the 1990s. Uneasy truces continued between governments and former rebels in
El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. The United States demonstrated its power by invading
Panama. Latin American governments continued to face major problems. Large foreign loans
had produced a massive debt burden. High inflation provoked social instability, while
compensatory programs had social and political costs. The international drug trade created
cartels that threatened or corrupted national governments. Still, by the 1990s, it appeared that
democratic trends were well-established.
The United States and Latin America: Continuing Presence. The United States had emerged as
the predominant power in the New World after World War I. American investors pushed ahead
of European rivals. There was direct involvement in Cuba and Puerto Rico; in other lands the
Americans frequently intervened - over 30 times before 1933 -to protect economic, political,
strategic, and ideological interests. The interventions usually were followed by support for
conservative, often dictatorial and corrupt, governments friendly to the United States. The
actions produced a growing nationalist and anti-American reaction. The United States changed
course in 1933 when President Franklin Roosevelt introduced the Good Neighbor Policy; direct
interventions stopped. After World War II cold war thinking led to new strategies, including
participation in regional organizations and the support of democratic, anticommunist
administrations. Direct or indirect interventions occurred against governments considered
unfriendly. The belief that economic development would eliminate radical political solutions led
to programs such as the 1961 Alliance for Progress. The approach had limited success. During
the 1970s and 1980s the United States was willing to deal with military dictatorships. Under
President Jimmy Carter an effort was made to influence governments to observe civil liberties
and an agreement gave eventual control of the Panama Canal to Panama. Policy became more
interventionist under conservative presidents Ronald Reagan and George Bush.
In Depth: Human Rights in the 20th Century. The tortures and killings committed by repressive
Latin American and other governments has drawn attention the concept of human rights:
universal rights justified by a moral standard above national laws. The concept of natural law,
perhaps extending back to ancient Greece, also appeared during the 19th century. The
movement to abolish the slave trade was a part of the movement. In the 20th century the concept
was attached to the United Nations and its 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
guaranteeing basic liberties. Under 20% of U.N. members have a consistently good record in
upholding the declaration. The supervising U.N. commission lacks enforcement powers.
Differences in cultural and political values between nations causes varying interpretations of
what constitutes human rights. Priorities and strategies in international relations have similar
results.
Societies in Search of Change. Social relations in Latin America have changed slowly during the
20th century because gender, ethnicity, and class issues remained influential. Population growth,
urbanization, and worker migration continued as persistent problems. Widespread
discrimination against Indians and Afro-Americans persists.
Slow Change in Women's Roles. The role of women has changed slowly. They first gained the
right to vote in Ecuador in 1929, but some regimes did not grant the right until the 1950s.
Reformers at times feared that women, because of their ties to the church, would become a
conservative political force. Women were supposed to remain focused on the home and family.
Activist feminist movements worked to secure political and other rights, but gaining the right to
vote did not mean an ending of male prejudice against equal participation of women in political
life. Women faced similar problems in the labor force. In some countries they controlled small
scale commerce in markets and in others became an important component of the service sectors.
By the mid-1980s the position of Latin American women was closer to the Western pattern than
to that of other world areas.
The Movement of People. Declining mortality and high fertility brought great population
expansion to Latin America. By the 1980s internal migration and movement between countries
soared as individuals sought work or basic freedoms. The process was influenced by the fact that
mechanized industry that did not create enough new jobs. The 20th century also has been
marked by movement from rural to urban areas. By the 1980s some cities reached massive size:
Mexico City had 16 million inhabitants. The rate of growth created problems since urban
economies do not provide enough employment. Shantytowns provided terrible living
conditions. The lack of jobs has prevented migrants from becoming part of a unified working
class movement.
Cultural Reflections of Despair and Hope. Most Latin Americans remain Roman Catholics and
Hispanic traditions of family, gender relations, and social interaction continue. Popular culture,
drawing upon Indian and African traditions, shows great vitality. Latin American music and
dance, such as the tango, samba, and salsa, have an international audience. Poets and novelists,
often drawing upon internal social, economic, political themes, also have world wide appeal.
The general failure to gain social justice in the region caused many writers, such as Jorge Luis
Borges, to abandon traditional forms.
Conclusion: Struggling Toward the Future. The search for economic growth, political stability,
and social justice continues. Deeply entrenched class interests, international conditions, and
political power struggles hindered or blocked revolutionary change. Important results occurred
in Mexico and Cuba and influenced others. Different nations - Bolivia, Nicaragua, Peru attempted radical efforts at change. New ideas, such as Liberation Theology, appeared. Latin
America remains the most advanced sector of the developing world.
KEY TERMS
Third World: term for nations not among the capitalist industrial nations of the 1st world and the
industrialized communist nations of the 2nd world.
Francisco Madero: moderate democratic Mexican reformer; challenged Porfiío Díaz in 1910 and
initiated a revolution after losing fraudulent elections; assassinated in 1913.
Pancho Villa: Mexican revolutionary leader in northern Mexico after 1910.
Emiliano Zapata: Mexican revolutionary commander of a guerrilla movement centered at
Morelos; demanded sweeping land reform.
Victoriano Huerta: gained power in Mexico after the death of Madero in 1913; forced from power
in 1914.
Alvaro Obregón: became leader of Mexican government in 1915; elected president in 1920.
Mexican Constitution of 1917: promised land and educational reform, limited foreign ownership,
guaranteed rights for workers, and restricted clerical education and property ownership.
Lázaro Cárdenas: Mexican president (1934-1940); responsible for large land redistribution to
create communal farms; also began program of primary and rural education.
Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco: Mexican artists working after the Mexican Revolution;
famous for wall murals on public buildings that mixed images of the Indian past with Christian
and communist themes.
corridos: popular ballads written to celebrate heroes of the Mexican Revolution.
Cristeros: conservative peasant movement in Mexico during the 1920s; a reaction against
secularism.
Party of Institutionalized Revolution (PRI): inclusive Mexican political party developing from the
1920s; ruled for the rest of the 20th century.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): agreement between the U.S., Mexico, and
Canada that lowered trade barriers.
Victor Raul Haya de la Torre: Peruvian politician; created the American Popular Revolutionary
Alliance in 1924; gained power in 1985.
Getúlio Vargas: became president of Brazil following a contested election of 1929; led an
authoritarian state until deposed in 1945; became president again in 1950.
Juan Perón: dominant authoritarian and populist leader in Argentina from the mid-1940s; driven
into exile in 1955; returned and elected president in 1973; died in 1974.
Eva Duarte (Evita): wife of Juan Perón; the regime’s spokesperson among the lower social classes.
Juan José Arevalo: reformist president of Guatemala elected in 1944; his programs led to conflict
with foreign interests.
United Fruit Company: most important foreign company in Guatemala; 1993 nationalization
effort of some of its land holdings caused a U.S. reaction.
Fulgencio Batista: authoritarian ruler of Cuba (1934-1944).
Fidel Castro: revolutionary leader who replaced Batista in 1958; reformed Cuban society with
socialist measures; supported economically and politically by the Soviet Union until its collapse.
Liberation Theology: combination of Roman Catholic and socialist principles aiming to improve
the lives of the poor.
Salvado Allende: Chilean socialist president; overthrown by a military coup in 1973.
Banana republics: conservative, often dictatorial, Latin American governments friendly to the
U.S.; exported tropical products.
Good Neighbor Policy: introduced by U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt in 1933 to deal fairly,
without intervention, with Latin American states.
Alliance for Progress: 1961 U.S. program for economic development of Latin America.
LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
1. Discuss the various political responses to political, economic, and social problems in Latin
America and give your opinion on which response has been the most successful. The various
approaches are liberal democracy, one-party rule (Mexico), populist government, populist
nationalists, reformist nationalists, military governments, communist government (Cuba). For an
answer it can be argued that the most successful government in Latin America, in terms of
stability and economic development, has been the one-party system of the PRI in Mexico. The
communist government of Cuba also has provided stability and created a broad socialist system
giving significant improvements in education, housing, and health. Other governments,
including the military, are often only temporary. None of the governments have resulted in the
types of liberal democracy typical of the industrialized nations of the West.
2. Compare and contrast the political and economic development of those economies that
industrialized in the 20th century - the Soviet Union and the Pacific rim - with that of Latin
America. All of the areas have tended to authoritarian governments, whether Marxist,
democratic, or authoritarian. Japan and Mexico developed forms of one-party government.
Urbanization was common to all. Among the contrasts is a lack of political stability in Latin
America. That region also is less industrialized than the others and remains largely dependent
on 1st and 2nd world economies. Latin America has failed to develop a significant middle class,
even when compared to the Soviet Union's managerial class. There is a greater underclass in
Latin America, and much more of the population are peasants. Except for the Soviet Union, there
is less problem with ethnic and racial diversity in other regions than in Latin America.
CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What problems were associated with Latin America's attempt to achieve economic
development?
2. What changes occurred as a result of the Mexican Revolution?
3. How did various Latin American countries react to the failures of Liberal government?
4. How did populist governments in Brazil and Argentina attempt to rule?
5. What three types of radical reform were attempted in Guatemala, Bolivia, and Cuba
and what were the results?
6. Why did the military believe that they offered a viable answer to Latin American
problems?
7. Discuss the role of the United States in Latin America during the 20th century