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Organizational Behavior &
Leadership
PAD3003-03
Organizational Behavior (OB)
vs. Organization Theory (OT)
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OB has its origins in psychology.
Researchers of OB typically concentrate on
individual and group behavior in
organizations. They analyze motivation,
work satisfaction, leadership, group
dynamics, etc.
OT is based more in sociology. It focuses on
topics that concern the organization as a
whole, such as structure and design,
organizational environments, decisionmaking, change and innovation, etc.
Theoretical Background of OB:
Motivation Theory
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The Hawthorne Experiments
The Needs Hierarchy
The Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Theory X and Theory Y
The Hawthorne Experiments
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The Hawthorne experiments refers to the
experiments conducted by Elton Mayo et al. at the
Hawthorne Works of Western Electric Company in
the late 1920s-early 1930s.
These experiments were to examine the
relationship between work environment (Illumination)
and productivity. But Mayo found:
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work situations are first of all social situations;
workers are motivated by peer pressure, the attention paid
to them by managers, and other complex sets of factors
beyond monetary rewards.
The Needs Hierarchy
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Abraham H.
Maslow asserted
that a person’s
needs are not all
equal but arranged
in a hierarchy.
Once lower needs
are satisfied, they
no longer motivate.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
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Frederick Herzberg, et al, in 1959.
Five factors related to “job content” as determiners
of job satisfaction:
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1) achievement, 2) recognition 3) work itself 4)
responsibility 5) advancement are motivators because
they lead to growth and self-actualization.
Five factors related to “environmental context of
jobs” as determiners of job dissatisfaction:
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1) company policy and administration 2) supervision 3)
salary 4)interpersonal relations 5) working conditions serve
as hygiene factors because they prevent job
unpleasantness.
Theory X and Theory Y
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Managers holding a Theory X vision of their
workers tend to be authoritarian, old-style
leaders with a belief that people are lazy,
irresponsible, and must be coerced to work.
Theory Y has a belief in the intrinsic good of
human beings—that it is natural for people
to work hard and creatively if organizational
goals are clear and if there is meaning in
work
Q: Which of the above theories reflects the
assumption of Scientific Management?
The Future of Organizations
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The Postbureaucratic Organization
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Postmodernism
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More democratic, more flexible, and maybe more complex
People tend to be more open and adaptive and no long
act in a fixed way.
Feminist Approaches to Organizational Behavior
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Organizational hierarchies will become less rigid.
Organizational climates will become more cooperative
Values of trust, openness, and acceptance will replace the
quest for individual power.
Leadership
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Leaders are those who get people in
organizations motivated to do things
they may never have done before or
may not wish to do. (p.371)
Leadership
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Leadership is about the exercising of
authority and it is done both formally
and informally.
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Formal: authority, rank, position
Informal: respect of others
Five types of leadership power
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Expert power:
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Referent power:
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the power to give benefits
Legitimate power:
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charismatic personality
Reward power:
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skills or knowledge
the power of decision making
Coercive power:
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the power of punishment
Theories of Leadership
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Trait Approach
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The trait approach suggests that leaders have
unique characteristics or traits that are distinct
from followers, and that leaders are born and not
made.
Contingency Approach
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This approach defines leaders who develop
leadership styles from the situation rather than
following the “one best way”.
Theories of Leadership (cont.)
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Transactional Approach
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Leadership that is based on a simple exchange
between the leader and the followers.
Transformational Approach
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A “selling” style of leadership. A transformational
leader is someone with the ability to change an
embedded organizational culture by creating a
new vision for the organization. This is similar to
trait theories because it posits the belief that
leaders are born and not made.
Program Audit and Evaluation
PAD 3003-03
Learning Objectives
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The difference between audit, program
evaluation, and policy analysis
The different types of audits
Evaluation standards
The Audit
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Definition: any independent examination or
objective assessment of an organization.
Activities:
official examination of a financial report
 the final phase of a government budgetary
process
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Different kinds of audit: i.e. financial audit,
management audit, performance/efficiency
audit, comprehensive audit.
The Government Accountability
Office (GAO)
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The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921
Serves as a support agency to audit federal
government expenditures and assist the
Congress in its legislative oversight
responsibilities.
A comprehensive audit program under GAO
includes
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1. Financial and compliance audits
2. Economy and efficiency audits
3. Program results audits
Program Evaluation and Policy
Analysis
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Program Evaluation: the systematic examination
of any government activity or group of activities to
make a determination of their effects, both short
and long range
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Policy Analysis: a set of techniques that seeks to
answer what the probable effects of a policy will
be if implemented.
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Difference: An analysis undertaken on a program
already in effect is more properly called a program
evaluation.
Program Evaluation and Policy
Analysis (cont’d)
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Legislative Program Evaluation Groups:
GAO, OPPAGA http://www.oppaga.state.fl.us/
Evaluations Standards
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Compliance: accordance with law
Efficiency: productivity being gotten out of the
resources expended
Effectiveness/Relevance: sufficient contribution
to the achievement of the goals
Summary
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Organizational Behavior Theories
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Leadership Theories
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The Hawthorne Experiments; The Needs Hierarchy;
The Motivation-Hygiene Theory; Theory X and
Theory Y
Trait Approach; Contingency Approach;
Transactional Approach; Transformational Approach
Program Audit and Evaluations Standards
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Compliance; Efficiency; Effectiveness/Relevance