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Beatriz Eugenia Saldana Hum 2051: Civ1 April 25, 2014 Dr. Angela Tenga The Synergistic Origin of Civilization: An Analysis of Early River Valley Civilizations A large portion of the two million-plus years of the existence of the human species has been described as the Paleolithic Era. This long phase in human development where both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens sapiens made an appearance lasted until about 14,000 years ago. Homo erectus evolved in Africa and spread throughout the Afroeuarasian landmass. This species disappeared about 40,000 years ago and Homo sapiens sapiens took over as the dominant species. The members of the species were organized into nomadic hunter-gatherer societies; most of the energy consumed by an individual and daylight available was utilized during the quest for food. About two and a half square miles were required for a person to hunt or gather thus, there was a profound need for change in order to inspire population growth. Humans slowly developed a sense for agriculture, and consequently came the Neolithic revolution. This term is given to the development of agricultural societies that germinated in the Middle East approximately 12,000 years ago. The agricultural advancement in our species’ early development allowed for larger social organizations and permanent settlements; a surplus of agricultural production lead to the rise of civilization. With agriculture came job specialization; every member of the society had an occupation that could be completed before sundown, leaving the remaining time for creative thought leading to the development of religion, art, literature, Beatriz Eugenia Saldana politics, science, mathematics, and technical advancement. Specialization also encouraged trade among the members of a society or externally with different groups of people. These complex human societies were forced to inhabit the optimal landscape to support large agricultural production and human settlement, and thus all early civilizations were located close to river systems and are known today as the River Valley Civilizations. The first civilizations developed along major rivers to secure adequate water supply for agricultural production; rivers were essential to early human settlements due to their reliable water supply, and their ability to facilitate trade and fertilize the land. The earliest of these civilizations sprouted in the Middle East between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in a region called Mesopotamia or the Fertile Crescent. This civilization was one of the few that developed with no precedents to set an example of organized society. The area lacked the security often provided by the landscape, and civilizations frequently collapsed due to constant attacks by neighboring nomadic enemies; the area eventually flourished due to the accomplishments of the Sumerians (Krame). By the year 3500 BCE the Sumerians had developed the earliest known form of written language, cuneiform; this encouraged formal bureaucracy and served as a means of keeping written records on trade. This civilization was characterized by their extensive scientific development, extreme religious beliefs, and well-organized city-states. Although the civilization was centered between two rivers to promote agricultural production, trade, and secure water supply, the behavior of the rivers was unpredictable and violent; the land would unexpectedly flood and destroy surrounding buildings. There is evidence of a Sumerian city being “built on top of an earlier one, separated by a layer of mud swept over in a flood” (Stearns, Adas, Schwartz, Gilbert). Despite the irregular flooding, civilization thrived due to various 2 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana technological advancements that helped control the water. With the change from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural civilizations came the need for men to impose their dominance over women. The early civilization in Mesopotamia had strict laws regarding women’s sexual conduct and their inferiority to men. Gender rolls were firmly divided and enforced through political and religious laws. The Sumerians developed religious temples to worship the grim gods they believed controlled human destiny; they also believed in an afterlife of suffering constituting the original version of hell. Although they had strong religious dogmas, their political system was slightly separated from such beliefs and centered itself on well-organized city-states ruled by a single king often advised by local councils. Kings participated in warfare, and their leadership in war was crucial to the Sumerian civilization often plagued with external invasions. Early religious and political systems defined the cultural traditions that endured in the region. The Sumerians improved their agricultural techniques by introducing fertilizers, wheeled carts, bronze tools, and new ideas of crop cultivation; they also adopted silver as a means of economic trade (Hillel). Major cities in the region expanded and some even reached a population of over 70,000, an astounding improvement in population density compared to hunter-gatherer societies. Writing is considered the most important invention between the Neolithic and the Industrial revolutions. Cuneiform at first was used for trading records, but eventually it transformed into religious texts and some literature. Writing was not a common skill, only the most elite people would have the opportunity of learning to write; thus it created a more definite class distinction, which survives to this day. Writing also provides a more reliable source for historical data. Sumerians developed the astronomical and natural sciences; and created a mathematical system based on units of 12, 60, and 360 that is still being used today in 3 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana calculations involving circles and time (Stearns, Adas, Schwartz, Gilbert). The Sumerians intertwined their religious beliefs and their scientific ideas, and thus Priests were responsible for preforming astronomical calculations to predict normal flooding believed to be controlled by gods. Each city had its own god, and they built prodigious buildings to honor their patron deities; these towers were called ziggurats. The Sumerians’ extensive trade and war spread their culture across southwestern Asia; even after the collapse of their civilization, their language and religious beliefs prevailed. Eventually the Sumerian empire fell to Akkadian rule that was later overwhelmed by invasive forces. Within the confusion, the Babylonian Empire arose and unified most of Mesopotamia. Hammurabi who famously codified strict laws ruled this large empire for various years. Again, the empire ultimately collapsed to Hittite forces, that later divided into smaller kingdoms that disputed the region for several centuries until about 900 BCE. Mesopotamia was the region where civilization first sprouted, but shortly after another early society settled around the Nile River. The Egyptian civilization sprouted in the northeastern portion of Africa along the Nile River. Early in its development, Egypt moved towards a strong kingship. These kings were called Pharaohs and were considered the link between humanity and gods; after their death they would often be considered gods. Although Egyptian pharaohs held and incredible amount of power, it is still unknown if the public regarded them as highly as they believed to be. Unlike the Mesopotamian civilization, the Egyptians did not expand across vast lands, but instead centered their civilization strictly around the Nile River. The Nile River helped the Egyptians thrive throughout the centuries. Contrasting the Fertile Crescent, the Nile had a steady northern flow and predictable flooding, thus the Egyptians quickly adapted to the river’s behavior and used its predictability for rapid agricultural 4 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana development and reliable trade routs. The Nile’s benign nature permitted rapid agricultural production with little effort compared to other civilizations (Diamond). The less effort it required, the more time there was for other large projects such as the sphinx and great pyramids. Egyptian civilization moved from small precivilization societies to large government units without the city-state phase that many other civilizations experienced. The area rarely faced political instability; the Nile’s reliable flow maintained persistent unity throughout the kingdom. There were also few invasions; the land was surrounded by dessert, which provided a natural barrier between the Egyptian civilization and external invaders. In 3100 BCE, the king of southern Egypt conquered the northern portion of the modern-day country, and created a unified state stretching about 600-miles along the Nile (Trigger). This region was a unified state for three thousand years. During this lengthy period, Egyptian political rule was divided into three major periods of monarchy; the Old, the Intermediate, and the New Kingdoms. Each kingdom was separated from each other by about a century of confusion. The Old kingdom declined due to attacks by Palestinian forces, followed by Middle Eastern armies. Eventually Egypt’s stable monarchy settled and the Middle Kingdom arose and spread its territory to what is today known as Sudan. Another period of invasion followed and chaos surfaced across the kingdom, which resulted in the last Egyptian dynasty, the New Kingdom around 1570 BCE. During this period Egyptian culture spread further across the Africa, the Mediterranean, and even seeped into the Middle East. After the year 1150 BCE the last dynasty experienced a steady decline caused by invasions and social unrest (Hassan). Egypt’s centralized rule was characterized by the strength of its pharaohs; the rulers would hold divine power and were responsible for the Nile’s flow and flooding, and for agricultural fertility. The Egyptians held a strong respect for death and built elaborate 5 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana monuments to commemorate their greatness even after dyeing. They believed that one could be preserved through accurate mummification, and would take earthy good with them to the afterlife. The Egyptians controlled life and politics through a very centralized and stable manner, and therefore believed that death could also be controlled in such ways. The extensive and orderly death rituals commonly preformed in Egyptian culture suggested an attempt at expanding order into the afterlife. Egyptians were not as scientifically successful as other early societies, but still managed to provide modern day with the twelve-month year, the idea of a week, early medicine, and papyrus paper. They developed a form of written language called Hieroglyphics; it was completely based on simplified pictures representing sounds. Although their complex language appeared on tomb walls and was used extensively for record keeping, there is no evidence of Egyptian literature. Egyptian religion died along with its civilization when Christians took over the land early in the current era; ultimately Arab invaders claimed the land around 600 CE. Many traditions from ancient civilizations remain present in today’s society, but most polytheistic religions were abolished by major monotheistic views such as Christianity and Islam. Despite the monotheistic world we currently inhabit, one religion has prevailed since the dawn of civilization: Hinduism. The Indus river valley civilization was located along the southwestern part of the Indus River in what is today called Pakistan. Hinduism is India’s current official religion, but the belief system began a long time ago. At first is was a standard polytheistic worldview, which during the classical period sprouted into a religion. During the Indus Valley era the religion was not called Hinduism, but was merely composed of the belief in various gods, that eventually evolved into present day Hindu deities. The Indus River was branched into eight waterways that reliably 6 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana flooded twice a year depositing nutrients on the land crucial for efficient agricultural production. Unlike the other two regions where civilization sprouted, there was not a single name or empire for the societies of the Indus Valley, instead major cities developed along the banks of the river such as Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. These two amazing cities had dense, multi-story homes constructed out of uniformly sized bricks along perpendicular streets. The buildings were oriented to catch the wind and provide a natural form of air conditioning; they were also clean due to a central drainage system that used gravity to carry waste and water out of the city. In Mohenjo Daro the largest public building was not a temple or a palace, as it was in other cities and civilizations, it was a public bath known today as The Great Bath. It is unknown what this bath was used for; because later Indian cultures placed such an importance on ritual purity, historians speculate that The Great Bath might have been a giant baptismal pool. The cities also traded with each other and Mesopotamian civilizations; they used seals as identification markers on goods and clay tablets. The seals have been found all around the Indus Valley and even in Mesopotamia, confirming the fact that these civilizations had contact with each other early in their history. Everything that is known about this civilization has been discovered through archeology, although the Indus Valley did have written language, it does not resemble any modern language and there is no Rosetta Stone to aid in its deciphering. Indus Valley society was composed of peaceful people, although the area has been vastly excavated, archeologists have found little to no evidence of warfare. Around the year 1750 BCE the Indus Valley civilization declined until it faded into obscurity, the reason for this collapse is unknown but there are various theories to such a dramatic downfall. The first is conquest, because the area was very peaceful and had practically no weapons it is very possible that nomadic invaders destroyed the cities and took over the land. 7 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana The second theory involves a natural disaster, due to the increasing population and the need for more agricultural production it is plausible that the Indus Valley civilization brought upon their own demise by destroying their environment (Diamond). The Indus valley’s landscape was very different than what it is today, in the past it was full of vegetation and was very fertile, today the area is arid and not ideal for agricultural production. It is believed that this drastic change in the landscape was caused by human manipulation of the environment, thus it becomes evident that Indus River Valley civilizations might have collapsed due to this change in the landscape. The third theory is that a massive earthquake changed the course of the rivers so much that the area dried up; without adequate irrigation, the cities could not sustain themselves and people could not adapt to such changes, and consequently their civilization collapsed. The last and simplest theory is that people merely left the area to find fertile land after the drastic environmental transformations. The Indus River was not the only nursery for civilization in Asia; further east, Chinese societies emerged along the Yellow river. Chinese history is conveniently divided into dynasties, and most of them follow the same pattern of rise and fall in a cycle that lasts from about 1500 BCE until 1911 CE at the time of the Chinese revolution. The first of these dynasties developed along the banks of the Yellow River, and was called the Shang Dynasty. The civilization along the Yellow river developed in almost complete isolation; there was trade with India and Mesopotamia, but it did not come until later in their history and it was very limited. The Shang dynasty ruled through a type of feudal system, where local lords would control their lands but were to remain loyal to the king. The kings would be considered the intermediate between the gods and the humans, mirroring elements of the Egyptian civilization which whom they never had contact. Due to China’s lack of external contact they believed to be located at the center of the Earth, and the kings would consider 8 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana themselves rulers of all humanity. They were also responsible for ceremonies honoring the gods in order to maintain fertility and well being across the kingdom. The Chinese believed in sacrifice and would often make ceremonial sacrifices to the gods in order to assure stability. Like in all other early societies, and most modern ones, the society was ordered into a social pyramid with the kings and priests at the top, then the aristocratic families, and at the bottom the peasants and slaves would be found. Writing was another important element of early Chinese culture. Many history and literary works were made during the Shang dynasty; and just like in other cultures, it created a stronger class distinction. Chinese civilization remained relatively constant throughout the dynasties, some aspects of society changed, but most political systems and social orders remained constant. Thus the Shang dynasty is perceived to have founded Chinese civilization that prevailed until the Civil war in 1911 CE. The people of the Chinese civilizations strongly believed in a concept known as the Mandate of Heaven, this stated that as long as the king behaved according to laws and morale, he or she would remain as the ruler appointed by the gods. If the emperor misbehaved of broke any Chinese traditions he or she would loose the mandate of heaven, and chaos would strike the land until someone else would receive such mandate and become the new ruler appointed by the gods. The Shang dynasty eventually collapsed due to peasant uprising and natural disasters that left the kingdom weak and open to invasion. Wu, a commander, overthrew the Shang dynasty in its time of weakness and became the first king of the Zhou Dynasty. Wu claimed that the Shang ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven and was no longer fit to rule. The Zhou centralized the government and strived to expand its territory. Eventually the empire got too large and the ruler too ambitious that he lost the mandate of heaven, the empire divided into three pieces and was taken over by the Qin dynasty. 9 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana All River Valley Civilization emerged along rivers with distinct characteristics that shaped their outlook on life. The Mesopotamian rivers behaved unpredictably and would often cause violent floods that would wipe out entire cities. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers were their only water supply available and the only one they were familiar with, and thus they believed that the gods behaved as the rivers did; violently and unpredictable. They were constantly invaded by nomadic groups, which enhanced their gloomy perspective on life and divinity; they also believed that the afterlife was composed of suffering. On the other hand, the Egyptian civilization had a completely different view on life, the gods, and the afterlife. They believed their pharaohs to be almost-gods, therefore they were expected to behave as such. People aspired to please their pharaoh because when he would pass away, he would become a god and carry with him the memories of his mortal life. Egyptian gods were benevolent, and would provide the Egyptians with thriving agriculture, and a very stable empire. The people of the Indus Valley were also affected by the behaviors of their river. The Indus River was very calm, predictable, and navigable, the land was also protected by the Himalayas and would rarely experience invasion. These perfect conditions affected the people in such a way that they never developed an army or weapons, and were believed to be quite peaceful. The landscape and the behavior of nature shaped the early civilizations just as much at the people shaped the environment. The early civilizations developed similar political and religious systems. All societies had a polytheistic religious perspective, and many even shared similar gods. Both the Egyptian and the Chinese rulers were believed to be graced with divine power, and all societies aspired to please the gods in order to maintain stability and fertility. In many of these societies, there was a constant power struggle between the religious and political authorities, and at times the true ruler was indistinguishable. Although the societies developed in isolation, all of them experienced 10 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana similar growths in their early years. They began with agriculture and learning to manipulate the water supply. Then they attempted a centralized rule that eventually was overthrown by nomadic invaders. Although civilization brought great technological advances to the daily human life and many other commodities, it is still debatable whether it was indeed a progress or a retrogression of the human experience. Civilization as a concept needs careful evaluation and comparison to societies where this type of human organization did not develop. As the human societies moved towards civilization, distinctions based on wealth increased and gender inequality also augmented. Non-civilized societies were often well regulated and had unique cultural developments. Aggression and anger were also inventions of civilization, disputed within people of non-civilized societies were rarely settled violently, while civilizations were often afflicted by warfare, and regarded war-like behavior as virtuous. This leads to the conclusion that civilization did not promote human happiness, due to the fact that they were removed from the natural cycle and put to work against natural forces. Civilization sprouted from human’s incessant need for expansion and growth. Agricultural production served to supply a surplus of food, that lead to the ability for feeding larger families, settlements, and eventually cities. All ancient civilizations evolved along a river to secure water supply, transport, and fertility. The Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations were very similar in their upbringing even though they shared limited contact and had no previous example of human organization. This concept then leads to questions regarding human’s natural programing; if all civilizations developed relatively similar, was our species destined for civilization since its origin? Those original civilizations continued to develop throughout time; they shaped their environment, expanded, collapsed, and have led to 11 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana today’s current political stance. Modern humans hold all of history in their DNA, every evolutionary step, adaptation, invasion, struggle, pleasure, disease, and fear is engraved into every human’s genetic sequence. The human body is designed to survive and using signals from its environment has perfectly adapted to what is most efficient in today’s world. Every action and experience of our ancestors has affected the way humans perceive the world today. Everything that every human has ever done has shaped the moment we currently experience. 12 Beatriz Eugenia Saldana Citations [1] Adas, Michael, Marc Gilbert, Stuart Schwartz, and Peter Stearns. World Civilizations: A Global Experience. Pearson, 2011. Print. [2] Diamond, Jared M. Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed. New York: Viking, 2005. Print. [3] Hassan, Fekir. Nile Floods and Political Disorder in Early Egypt. 1997. Print. [4] Hillel, Daniel. "Lessons of the Past." Out of the Earth: Civilization and the life of the soil. Print. [5] Krame, Samuel. The Sumerian: Their History Culture and Character. University of Chicago Press. Print. [6] Trigger, Bruce. Early Civilizations: Ancient Egypt in Context. The American University in Cairo Press. Print. 13