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Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
Adler, M. A. (1994). Male-Female power differences at work: A comparison of supervisor and
policymakers. Sociological Inquiry, 64(1), 37-55.

This article spoke of the positions of power between men and women, and how policymakers
and supervisors distribute that power to men and women. In the work place, when considering
for advancement, employers have undefined criteria such as personality characteristics and
potential managerial qualities. These standards become the cause of inequality in authority and
power at work place. Jobs that are available for women have low wages and also less authority.
Similar research studies have shown parallel points, in that inequality is found at the workplace
because of such gender based characteristics. Even though women were shown to be more
educated, they do not accrue the same status. The researcher in this study used methodology to
find these inequalities at the work place. The study consisted of four data points to test and
used 531 women and 619 men for this data. The author collected data for power in wage labor,
employment, sample characteristics and occupation by education. The results showed that men
achieve higher positions and have a higher chance at a supervisory level and more authority
than women. In the workplace, gender is a major part of determining positions of power. Also,
it shows that education is more important to get supervisor positions, which is less effective for
women. This study shows the inequality between men and women that makes men more prone
to positions of power than women. The data and research clearly showed that women have
substantially less access to positions of power and authority at work place than men, and that
gender is the key factor in determining those positions. Policymakers and supervisors may
indeed make regulations promoting equality but gender bias is still obviously exhibited.
Avolio, B. J., Mhatre, K., Norman, S. M., & Lester, P. (2009). The moderating effect of gender on
leadership intervention impact: An exploratory review. Journal of Leadership & Organizational
Studies, 15(4), 325-341.

In this article there are four research questions. The first research question was to evaluate the
effect of leadership interventions directed towards developing certain leadership characteristics
amidst study participants in leadership roles. The second research question was whether the
effect of leadership interventions in laboratory versus field settings varied for male versus
female participants in leadership positions. The third research question was based upon
observing the effect of leadership interventions that were grounded on varied theories of
leadership. The fourth research question had the goal of evaluating the effect of leadership
interventions established upon the specific target of the intervention. A meta-analysis and a
larger meta-analysis were conducted for this study. The team examined 18 databases using 124
search items to obtain appropriate studies. Many variables were used for coding, including
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
leader gender and experimental setting. There were many components to the study, including
gender categorization, experimental setting, criterion focus, leadership theory, and intervention
type. Many statistics such as effect size (d) and outliers were obtained. On comparison of effect
sizes for the effect of leadership interventions for the all-male and all-female groups, the effect
size for the male group was almost equal to the female group. This may imply that leadership
interventions have an equivalent and positive effect in both genders. This is only a preliminary
study on leadership interventions and many more studies must be conducted. However, the
study seems to imply that implementing leadership interventions after taking into account
gender discrepancies may have a positive effect on leadership development for men and
women.
Carbonell, J.L., & Castro, Y. (2008). The impact of a leader model on high dominant women’s selfselectionfor leadership. Sex Roles ,58,776-783.

This study had women observe a leader model of either gender model a task they would have to
complete. The study looked at effects of gender role model in the decision of high dominant
women to be leaders, given a masculine task to complete with a male co-worker. The hypothesis
states that women would become leaders at a higher rate when a woman model is given rather
than a male. The research took a total of 190 students: 95 women and 95 men. Each individual
was given the California Psychological Inventory, measuring: impression, communality, and
dominance. This study looked at dominance in particular. Only 15 pairs were exposed to women
models. Masculine like task needed a leader to takeout bolts and follower to hold bolts for
leader. The study observed 2 groups to support or reject their hypothesis. Focused groups: high
dominant woman pared with a low dominant man with a female model, and high dominant
woman paired with a low dominant man with a male model. A chi square analysis showed a
correlation between leader model and leader emergence (x2 [1, N=35] = 5.6, p<.02). The results:
60% of women took the leader role when given a woman model compared to 20% in male
model. The study concluded in the presence of a female model, high dominant individual would
be the leader. The gender of the leader model did not affect leadership for males. This study
shows importance of woman leader models in professional fields. The lack of exposure of
woman leaders for women reduces the chances that they will take on leadership roles.
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
Goktepe, J.R., & Craig, E.S. (1989). Role of sex, gender roles, and attraction in predicting emergent
leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(1), 165-167.

This research attempts to answer a three part hypothesis: will sex influence choice of leader
within a group, will gender influence emergent leader, will interpersonal attraction influence
who people chose as a leader. A total of 122 Participants were enrolled in a personnel
management/ business policy class 62 men, 60 women. Predictors were measured at the
beginning and end of the course (sex influence, interpersonal attractiveness, gender role).
Gender role was measured with self assessments using the Bemi Sex Role Inventory. Each
member rated group members for interpersonal attractiveness using Byrne’s interpersonal
Judgment Scale. Each individual was to write the name/gender of the group leader without
consulting other members. Results show that there was no bias with in differences in sex of
emergent leaders within groups. Leaders were rated higher on the interpersonal attractiveness
(F(1, 27 = 6.22 p<.025). Masculine gender characteristics emerged as leaders more times than
those with feminine gender characteristics. The study concluded that there was no predictor of
between sexes of who would emerge a leader. Interpersonal attractiveness and sex role
orientation are associated with the emergent leader. The importance of this study is to better
understand group dynamics and group performance. It is important to understand what
influences the emergence of a leader and note any difference between genders.
Jaffee, D. (1989). Gender inequality in workplace autonomy and authority. Social Science Quarterly,
70(2), 375-390.

This article is about the inequality of authority and autonomy between men and women.
Women are considered to be less significant than men in holding higher positions, even if they
are more educated. Researchers show that women are disproportionally represented in the
lower income occupations, and also that men have a greater opportunity to get a promotion
than women. Human capital theory segregates women from men by saying that women are
more engaged in family affairs and house hold labor, rather than working for themselves in a
place of industry. The data for this study was based on telephonic interview, and three
hypotheses. Researchers used two-stages of a cluster sample of telephone numbers in the
United States. The total sample is based on 1,760 adults who are establishment owners, were
self-employed and who were working thirty hours a week, of which 78 percent responded. The
results showed that women have unlikely chances of having authority or making decisions.
Further research tells us that sex composition of the occupation creates differences in genders.
According to the study, autonomy and authority function with educational and occupational
status, there is no explanation of gender discrimination. Human capital theory suggests that
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
women have created the issue that women are not capable of working like men. Women are
considered less competent at making decisions and have negative effects on autonomy while it
is not as important for men. Overall, gender differences in autonomy and authority will not be
reduced to variations in human capital, unless we take women into account as equal to men and
give jobs based on experience and education.
Katz, D. (1987). Sex discrimination in hiring: The influence of organizational climate and need for
approval on decision making behavior. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11(1), 11-20.

Previous studies have elicited the idea that equally competent men and women are assessed
unequally when applying for jobs. The present study observes the influence from different
organizational climates or “the quality of an organization’s internal environment” and society’s
need for approval on the notion of biased personnel decisions. The study sought out three main
hypotheses, if a discriminatory organizational climate would influence personnel to hire a male
applicant over an identical female applicant. Second, that in a discriminatory climate a male
applicant would be ranked as a better fit and more likely to stay with the company longer than a
female applicant. And third, that those subjects with a high need of approval would match
more to the demands of climate on the hire and salary assessments than lower approval
motivation applicants. The study included 161 male undergrads enrolled in a business class.
The subjects were given a booklet which contained experimental materials necessary in
controlling organizational climate. They were also given either a female or male completed
application and asked for their judgments on an applicant’s suitability for the position.
Randomly assigned climate and applicant sex conditions were also in effect. Results from the
experiment showed that as initially expected, males were favored over females in the
discriminatory climate. The results also showed that in the discriminatory climate males were
chosen as fitting significantly better than females, and that men were also offered higher
salaries in the same conditions. The implications of this study can ascertain that the
organizational climate of a workplace can deeply influence the decisions of hiring personnel and
lead to gender bias.
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
Koch, S. C., Luft, R., & Kruse, L. (2005). Women and leadership - 20 years later: A semantic connotation
study. Social Science Information, 44(1), 9-39.

The major research question that this study attempted to answer was, “To what extent have
people’s attitudes towards gender and leadership issues adjusted over the past 20 years as
observed in connotations on semantic differentials?” This research study built off a former
related study. That study showed that women and leadership did not go hand in hand. For
their sample, the idea of woman contained characteristics such as soft, warm, and so on, while
the idea of man held characteristics such as hard, cold, and so on. Their study showed that 1)
women in leadership positions are believed to have manlike qualities 2) female stereotypes and
female leadership are in conflict and 3) the woman leader was perceived differently than both
male leaders and other women. One hundred and one participants, including 54 women and 47
men, primarily students from the University of Heidelberg or professionals from that location
participated in the study. The independent variables were sex of participants, professional title
of participants. The dependent variables were the 25 traits from Osgood’s semantic differential.
The questionnaire contained four parts: 1) demographic data 2) semantic differentials 3) gender
typicality scale (GTS) 4) attitudes towards women scale. Based on the results (a) men tend to
be neutral on issues and b) the professional ideas of leadership, manager, and businesswoman
show more strong polarities than do the mainly gender-based concepts of man and woman.
The conclusion of the study was that from a main grouping of man, leadership, and manager the
grouping went on to also contain leadership, manager, and businesswoman. This shows that we
have headed into a more gender equal realm from twenty years ago.
McTavish, D., & Miller, K. (2009). Gender balance in leadership? Reform and modernization in the UK
further education sector. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 37(3), 350-365.

The research question that this article attempted to answer was “Why are few women
advancing into leadership positions despite a large number of women being employed into the
further education (FE) sector?” The article attempts to provide hypotheses about this gender
disproportion. Colleges were appointed at random to make sure of a varied population in terms
of geography, students, staff, and curriculum balance. The research contained secondary data
analysis and qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The only major difference between
male and female academics was that female academics were twice as given to apply for
promotion if supported by their line manager and male academics were twice as given to apply
if there was an opportunity to influence college governance. Also female academics were twice
as likely to apply if they were obtained feedback via their staff appraisal. There are many
conclusions that were drawn from this study. Reform and structural change have definitely led
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
to a larger number of possibilities for women. This has occurred through feminization of
student and staff populations and changing of the male manufacturing vocationally grounded
realm of study. Changes in organizational policy have led to a friendlier environment for
females. For example, maternity/paternity leave has been implemented along flexible working.
On the flip side there are paradoxes. Women have to adjust to masculine managerial styles, i.e.
competitiveness. In addition, even though it appears that the reforms are creating gender
balance, in reality; women are still going to their stereotypical roles such as teaching and
lecturing.
Roos, P. A. (1981). Sex stratification in the workplace: Male-Female differences in economic returns to
occupation. Social Science Research, 10(3), 195-224.

The study elicits the idea that there is a large earning gap between men and women. Gender
differences in earning are important because it focuses on the gender-based inequalities of
power at the workplace. The author of the study used a literature review to explain the gender
gap in earning, and it showed that sex segregated characteristics still remain at the occupational
level. The study shows that women work at low paying jobs and they are less likely to exercise
authority in those jobs. The main reason why there are sex differences in earnings is the belief
of human capital theory, and it has a huge concern with the supply side of the market. The
researcher used a non-institutionalized English speaking population to explain the data for
gender influenced gap in earning. The sample included 959 men and 670 women. The results
showed that women are paid low wages, and are in positions of low responsibility. Even when a
women reaches a higher level job, their earning is much lower than that of men. The results
also show that women’s low income is mainly because of their job characteristics, in that men
and women are distributed differently across jobs. Men earn more than women, mainly
because women are not considered employers. The study showed that the characteristics of the
workers create inequality at the workplace; this is also a reason for why there is a large gap in
earning between genders. Human capital theory discourages women from working and it
presents women as low rent employees. They have less understanding of the mean of
production. The characteristics of this research show improvement in the earnings of men and
women.
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
Shore, T. H. (1992). Subtle gender bias in the assessment of managerial potential. Sex Roles, 27(9-10),
499-515.

Existing studies have portrayed a definitive pro-male bias in personnel selection and evaluations
of work performance. The authors of the present study show that although there has been
significant advancement in the way society perceives gender in managerial potential, there is
still a subtle bias. The authors compared judgments of the potential for both men and women
employees to successfully execute the title of manager. They also researched the effects of
gender on judgments of managerial potential within the context of a corporate assessment
center program. The experiment included a total of 436 (375 men and 61 women) employees,
who participated in a wide array of group and individual exercises and also underwent several
paper and pencil tests of cognitive ability. Once the data had been collected, the candidates
were evaluated by some assessors, the program administrator, and two staff psychologists, of
which composed the assessment committee. Results from the experiment showed that despite
women’s superior performance on the performance-style dimensions, they did not receive
superior ratings on overall management potential as well as not advancing at a faster rate when
compared to men. These results point to an indication of subtle gender bias that has
contributed to the findings. Previous research has shown that males were more likely to be
offered high level positions. The present study shows that although subtle gender bias had been
exhibited in women’s superior ratings, women were promoted at a rate comparable to that of
men.
Tougas, F., & Beaton, A.M. (1993). Affirmative action in the work place: for better or for worse.
International Association of Applied psychology, 42(3), 253-264.

The study is trying to find out what attitudes and perceptions men and women have of a firm
with a history of failed attempts at reducing discrimination based on sex. The hypothesis the
study predicts is that women express themselves negatively on past efforts and present
situation in group. Women will evaluate preferential treatment more positively than men. Of
the participants, 15,000 were employed in a Canadian firm. The firm created an equity office for
the promotion of women. Researchers conducted a survey in which 600 men and 393 women
were randomly selected to participate. The questionnaire had a return rate of 50% with 197
women and 290 men returning the survey. The survey was based on a 7 point Likert scale.
Questions pertained to past measures, perceptions of unfair disparities, and evaluations of
preferential treatment measures. A discriminant function analysis was performed comparing
women and men’s responses to all dependent variables. Results indicated that men felt their
careers were negatively affected by past measures. Both genders seemed equally satisfied with
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
past measures on situation of women. Results also found women were more dissatisfied and
believed they were not well represented in the category of professionals. The authors found
that both men and women agree to do away with past barriers in regards to women. This study
was important because it showed that there are still different opinions between men and
women and preferential treatment in general. Effectiveness of any affirmative action program
comes from the top down. Men are the majority on professionals. Discrimination according to
sex cannot be stopped without the help of both genders.
Trentham, S., & Larwood, L. (1998). Gender discrimination and the workplace: An examination of
rational bias theory. Sex Roles, 38(1-2), 1-28.

Preceding studies involving the theory of “rational bias” concerning workplace discrimination
have been largely restricted to easily accessible student sample data. The rational bias theory
suggests that there are occasions in which partaking in discrimination may seem acceptable to
an employee‚ despite the fact that he or she may be conscious of regulations eliminating bias
and may personally prefer to treat others equally. The authors of the current study employed
an experimental-survey design wherein genuinely employed participants were questioned on
both how others react to conditions that elicit rational discrimination, and how people conduct
themselves within their own place of business. The experiment included a total of 306 (148
men and 158 women) business graduates, who were subjected to a questionnaire that
contained rational bias cues. The questions make reference to several rational bias conditions
that are projected to influence decision-making involving personnel issues: task significance,
social signal, and position power. The questions elicited were vital in evaluating the background
circumstances most likely to be connected with rational bias. Results from the study showed
that business people were perceived to have a predilection that results in discrimination
towards women; they also showed that the participants believe business people put less
emphasis on their own preferences than those of the customer. However‚ the results suggest
that respondents accept that a norm of discrimination continues within the business world in
that the participant’s responses were significantly different from an ideal neutral stance.
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
Group Contributions
Rahul Ragu: Rahul provided his part of the assignment by annotating the Avolio, McTavish and Koch
articles.
Faiza Raza: Faiza provided her part of the assignment by annotating the Adler, Jaffee, and Roos articles.
Carla Saldana: Carla provided her part of the assignment by annotating the Carbonell, Groktepe and
Tougas articles.
Christian Magallon: I provided my part of the assignment by annotating the Shore, Trentham and Katz
articles as well as being the individual who compiled all the articles to compose one cohesive
assignment submission.
Annotated Bibliography Grading Rubric
Excellent
Satisfactory
Poor
Annotation of
Articles
(9-8 pts.) Annotations of
articles are well-written,
insightful, and thorough.
They effectively address
the key research question,
the primary methodology,
the results, and the
implications.
(7-6 pts.) Annotations of
articles are straight-forward,
but lack connections and
insight. They somewhat
address the key research
question, the primary
methodology, the results, and
the implications.
(5-4 pts.) Annotations of
articles are poorly written
and/or incomplete. They do
not address the key research
question, the primary
methodology, the results,
and the implications.
APA Format
(3 pts.) All sources cited
are formatted accurately
according to the APA
standards.
(2 pts.) Most sources cited are
formatted accurately
according to the APA
standard.
(1 pt.) Some sources cited
are formatted accurately
according to the APA
standard.
(2 pts.) Excellent grammar
and usage. Usage of
sophisticated sentence
structures, appropriate
word choice, and accurate
punctuation. Spelling is
highly accurate, little to no
errors.
(1.5 pts.) Appropriate
grammar and usage, though
not precise. Simple and some
complex phrasing, some
inaccurate word choice, and
notable punctuation errors.
Spelling has several errors,
mainly contextual.
(1 pt.) Poor grammar and
usage, impeding overall
understanding. Frequent
syntax errors that impede
meaning. Spelling with
frequent errors that indicate
a lack of care or significant
struggle with language use.
Grammar,
Punctuation &
Spelling
Total 11 out of 14 possible points
Hi Rahul, Carla, Faiza, and Christian,
I found your Annotated Bibliography about the topic of gender bias in the workplace analytically
insightful and systematically organized. There were many places where it could’ve benefited from closer
editing. Good work overall!
Annotated Bibliography
October 11, 2009
Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu
p.s. To facilitate a quicker turn-around time for grading this assignment, my comments are mostly
focused on higher stakes issues (i.e. annotations/format), rather than lower ones (i.e. grammar,
punction, spelling).
Please let me know if you have any questions.
-M. Truong