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Nationalism
Index
1
Key term glossary
2
Key question encyclopaedia
2.1
The idea of a nation & problems implied in this concept
2.2
The importance and impact of the Napoleonic Wars on nationalist
aspirations at the example of Germany and Italy
2.3
Reorganising Europe after the Napoleonic Wars – the Congress of
Vienna
2.4
German nationalism from 1815 and 1848
3
Italian Nationalism
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
1. Key term glossary
Nation
 A community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, or
history
 Idea developed during the Enlightenment (French Revolution; cf. pamphlet: “What is the
Third Estate?”)
 Community of free citizens/politically active
 Unite upon the basis of equality
 Opposing model to the Estate-System and the monarchy
 Political nation ≠ cultural nation
 People’s sovereignty  nation is its own sovereign
Nation-state
 Connected national territory established within an existing state
 Expression of the politically acting nation
 Common national consciousness
 Multi-ethnic states  members of a cultural nation live in the same territory
 Merging of political and cultural nation
Nationalism
 Idea: the most important band in a society is nationality
 Inclusion vs. exclusion  people who do not fit into system are excluded
 Perception of one’s own superiority
Political vs. Cultural nation
Political nation
A state in which the power ultimately rests
with the people and in which the
government is accountable to them
Cultural nation
Language, art, culture, history
 varies from nation to nation
 values that unify people as a community
Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund)
 Founded in 1806 by Napoleon (lasted until 1813) (bulwark against Prussia)
 Territorial state consisting of 16 German states
 Members: German princes (Fürsten); initially 15, later joined by 19 others, all together
ruling a total of over 15 million subjects
 Contributed to the end of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation
Battle of the Nations (Völkerschlacht bei Leipzig)
 16-19 October 1813
 Fought by the coalition armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria and Sweden against the French
army of Napoleon
 Involved over 600,000 soldiers  largest battle in Europe prior to WWI
 Napoleon defeated, introduced the end of the Napoleonic era
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
Holy Roman Empire of German Nation
 Varying complex of lands in Central Europe
 Existed for about 1000 years from the Middle Ages (10th century) until 1806
 ceased to be a cohesive state during the Early Modern period, served mostly for
peacekeeping and legal protection
 Nearly entirely disabled by the foundation of the Confederation of the Rhine
 Finally dissolved when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis (Franz) II abdicated
Reichsdeputationshauptschluss
 1803; last significant law enacted by the Holy Roman Empire
 Territorial reform, compensated German princes for territory annexed by France
beforehand in the wake of the French Revolution
Mediatisation
 Reorganisation of states by subsumption of one monarchy into another
Secularisation
 Separation of church and state
 Napoleon “secularised” land of the church and distributed it among German princes
Code Napoleon/Civil Code
 Established in 1804
 Ensured constitutional structures
 Forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, specified that
government jobs should go to the most qualified
 replaced the previous patchwork of feudal laws (based on Roman Law)
Wars of Liberation (Befreiungskriege)
= “War of the Sixth Coalition”
 Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the UK, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of
German states against the army of Napoleon
 1812-1814
 European states had adopted the idea of nationalism  most nations had developed a
genuine nationalism
 Ultimately Napoleon was defeated and forced into exile
Continental System
 “Continental Blockade”, 1806
 Foreign policy in Napoleon’s struggle against the UK
 Set up an embargo against British goods in order to weaken them (but unsuccessful, e.g.
b/c of smuggling / British power at sea)
Young Italy Movement
 Movement founded by the patriot Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831 to promote Italian
nationalism
 Lacked support; ended in 1835
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
Congress of Vienna
 1 October 1814 – 9 June 1815
 Meeting of the major European powers’ ruler in order to reshape Europe’s political map
after the Napoleonic Wars
 Participants:
Great Britain
Viscount Robert Stewart Castlereagh
Austria
Prince Klemens von Metternich + Emperor
Francis I
Prussia
Prince Karl August von Hardenberg + King
Frederick William III
Russia
Tsar Alexander I
France
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
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Main aim: change Europe both politically and territorially in order to provide a balance of
power + put down revolutionary aspirations & secure the new peace
Main principles: Solidarity, Legitimacy, Restoration, Balance of Power
Rehabilitation of old dynasties and re-establishment of the privileges of the nobility (e.g.
divine right)
Agreed to balance their power and to form a common European policy (Concert of
Europe)
Control France in the future
Outcome:
 Pre-revolutionary political + social standards re-established (Restoration)
 Italy divided into separate states (break French influence)
 German Confederation founded
 British overseas Empire expanded
 Prussia gained Westphalia
 Russia gained most of Poland
 First (May 1814) + Second (Nov 1815) Treaty of Paris (Napoleon’s “100 Days rule”)
→ first borders of 1792 and lenient treatment of France, then borders of
1790, indemnity of 700 million francs and military occupation)
Solidarity, legitimacy, restoration
Solidarity
Legitimacy
The princes agreed to
Justified the divine right to
balance their power and to
rule
form a common European
policy
Restoration
Pre-revolutionary political
and social standards were
re-established
Concert of Europe
 Congress System after the Congress of Vienna
 Balance of power that existed from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) until the
outbreak of WWI (1914), albeit major alterations after the 1848/49 revolutions
 Founding powers: Austria, Prussia, Russia, UK (Quadruple Alliance; responsible for the
downfall of the First French Empire)
 Later France established as a fifth member of the Concert
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
Holy Alliance
 Coalition formed by Russia, Austria and Prussia in Sep 1815
 France joined in 1818
 Denomination/commitment to religious/Christian principles of justice, love and peace +
agreement to follow these principles in their policy/practising of laws
German Confederation (Deutscher Bund)
 Established in 1815 in the course of the Congress of Vienna
 39 states (+ imperial cities), central assembly chaired by Austria (the Frankfurt Diet) in
Frankfurt a.M.
 Individual states maintained their independence
 German national unity not an issue (princes did not want their power limited by a central
government)  nationalists disappointed
 Little was ever achieved: all representatives had to agree
Vormärz v. Biedermeier:
 Time between the Congress of Vienna and the 1848/49 revolutions  1815-1848
Vormärz (pre-March)
Biedermeier
liberal, radically democratic, progressive,
people are disappointed with politics and
student unions, middle class
retreat into private life; conservative, “petitbourgeois”
Burschenschaften (student unions/fraternities):
 Originated from the so-called “Turnvereine”
 Nationalist movement (often radical)
Wartburg Festival:
 18th to 19th October 1817
 About 800 people (mostly students, a few professors) gathered at Wartburg
 Speeches, torchlight processions, burning of “un-German” books (e.g. Code Napoleon
and “Die Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches” by August von Kotzebue)
 Date chosen carefully: tercentenary (300) of Martin Luther’s nailing of his theses + 4th
anniversary of Battle of the Nations
Carlsbad Decrees (Karlsbader Beschlüsse)
 1819
 Reason/pretext: author August von Kotzebue had been murdered by the
Burschenschaftler Carl Sand
 Restriction of civil rights, introduction of censorship (anything longer than 20 pages),
student unions banned, universities observed, GC could now interfere in the individual
states in the event of riots
 organized police state
July Revolution (Paris)
 1830
 Bourbon King Charles X overthrown  replaced by his cousin Louis-Philippe
 Triggered new social protests and demands for political reform in Germany
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
Hambach Festival
 27th May 1832
 25,000 people (more than at Wartburg Festival) walked to Hambach castle
 Organised by student unions
 Political programme tied in with the one of the Wartburg Festival, though it was
inconsistent due to differences between liberals and democrats (more “European”
though, less “German”)
Customs Union (Zollverein)
 Originally founded by Prussia in 1818 in order to expand Prussian trade; joined by
neighbouring states soon
 Extended to the “Customs Union” in 1834 when Bavaria and Wurttemberg joined
 Abolition of internal duties  brought individual states closer
 Alienation/exclusion of Austria that followed an economic policy of protectionism
(being?)
6 and 10 Articles
 Implemented by the GC in 1832
 Reaction to the Hambach Festival
 Further aggravated the restrictions of civil rights
 Attempt to combat the national and liberal oppositional forces
Göttingen Seven
 1837, new King Ernest August plans to alter or abolish the Hanoverian Constitution
 in the city of Göttingen, seven university professors (among them the Brothers
Grimm) protested and were then dismissed from their university posts
Liberalism
 Endorsement of individual freedom/liberty against paternalism of all kinds (social,
political, etc.)
 “twin sister” of nationalism
 Roots in Enlightenment
 Objects monarchy, wants power based on the community of a “nation”
 Key concepts: constitution, equality, individual freedom, property, reform
 Rather reform than revolution
 Opts for meritocracy (Leistungsgesellschaft), but believes that with property comes
responsibility and respectability  believed in a limited suffrage that was tied to a
person’s wealth or the amount of taxes one paid
Middle class
 Society based on privilege, thus for bourgeoisie no opportunity to climb the social ladder
or participate in politics  frustration  Biedermeier or Vormärz
 Students, academics, lawyers and professionals
 Believed in being held back by the established elites, but were also afraid of the “mob” +
attached high importance to property  unwilling to utter demands in public or
participate in revolutionary activities
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
2. Key question encyclopaedia
2.1 The idea of a nation & problems implied in this concept
What is a nation?
A nation is a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity,
descent, or history, who unite upon the basis of equality. The idea of the nation was
developed during Enlightenment (French Revolution: put into practice) and poses an
opposing model to monarchy and the estate-system. One must differentiate between the
political and the cultural nation. The political nation is the nation’s political body, containing
the people’s sovereignty and the government’s accountability to them. The cultural nation
implies the values that unify people as a community, such as language, art, or history.
Which dangers are implied in this concept?
The identification with people of your own community (inclusion) leads to exclusion of other
people and the disassociation from anything that is considered “different”. Thus, a common
enemy is created. Additionally, the perception of one’s own superiority can lead to genocide
(e.g. Holocaust).
What impact did the French Revolution have on the idea of the nation?
In the French Revolution, people for the first time ever questioned the divine rule of their
king. Additionally, they showed that the people were actually able of overthrowing their
ruler and take rule in their own hands. The spirit of full identification with their fatherland
and their genuine pride of their nationality inspired other European peoples. (as well as their
willingness to fight for this and to spread their “idea of the nation” in Europe, cf.
Revolutionary Wars)
2.2 The importance and impact of the Napoleonic Wars on nationalist
aspirations at the example of Germany and Italy
How was Napoleonic rule in Europe organised?
Napoleon carried out a number of territorial reforms, reorganizing the entire political map of
Central Europe. By introducing the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss in 1803 and the
Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, he largely contributed to the end of the Holy Roman
Empire of German Nation, which had lasted for almost a thousand years.
Napoleon practised secularisation and mediatisation, created satellite states and puppet
states ruled by his relatives. Thus, he made the functioning of political bonds dependent on
himself only.
In order to weaken the still resisting Great Britain, he made use of his European alliances and
cut Britain off of all trade relations, setting up an embargo against them.
In terms of domestic policy, Napoleon introduced the Civil Code or the Code Napoleon which
introduced revolutionary structures: equality of all citizens before the law was established,
freedom of speech as well as public trial by jury were introduced and privilege based on
birth was forbidden.
 Further social and administrative measures?
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
Napoleon in Europe – resented or welcomed?
Napoleon was both resented and welcomed in Europe.
People from the nobility and the Ecclesia resented his reforms, because they deprived them
of their inhered privileges and land they owned. (Well.. how about the people living in the
occupied territories?)
People from the bourgeoisie and the lower classes appreciated the reforms of equality
before the law, constitutional structures and the new liberal rulers that replaced the
absolute ones. The “Kleinstaaterei” came to an end (mediatisation), which allowed more
political action.
Generally resented was the omnipresence of the army and the undermining of the cultural
nations.
Did Napoleon promote nationalism?
In fact, he undermined the nationalist potential of the states he ruled. Still, he had French
culture and values omnipresent, as well as the astonishing national spirit of the soldiers who
served in his Grand Army. By this, Napoleon spread the idea of the nation all over Europe
and people started to develop a genuine nationalism for their own fatherland. Some kings,
like King Frederick William (Friedrich Wilhelm) III of Prussia, supported these feelings among
their people, in order to mobilize them to fight against France. (In general: rise of “German”
nationalism in opposition to Napoleonic rule)
2.3 Reorganising Europe after the Napoleonic Wars – the Congress of Vienna
How was Europe reorganised after the Napoleonic Wars?
The borders of France were reduced to the ones of 1792 in the First Treaty of Paris in May
1814. Additionally, the Bourbon monarchy was restored and King Louis XVIII was crowned.
All over Europe the pre-revolutionary standards were restored, meaning the rehabilitation of
old dynasties and the re-establishment of the privileges of the nobility, such as the divine
right to rule.
Great Britain was able to expand its overseas Empire, while Prussia extended its territory on
the left bank of the Rhine as well as in the old Napoleonic kingdom of Westphalia.
Russia gained most of Poland and Austria received control over three Italian duchies.
Moreover, the German Confederation was founded out of 39 German states, but German
unity was not an issue to Metternich and thus, areas peopled by Poles, Czechs, Danes and
French were included, while provinces with largely German-speaking population were
excluded. The assembly of the German Confederation was to be chaired by Austria.
In 1815, Napoleon returned to France and took over power once more. It took only 100 days
until he was again defeated and exiled (“100 Days Rule”).
Owing to that, the European princes forced (the reinstated) King Louis XVIII to sign the
Second Treaty of Paris, which reduced the French borders to those of 1790 and imposed an
indemnity of 700 million francs on France. Moreover, France was to return all looted art
treasures and had to bear the costs of an army occupation which should remain until the
indemnity was paid off.
The main aim of the Congress was to put down revolutionary aspirations, but also to secure
the new peace by providing a balance of power.
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
What were the interests and attitudes of the participating statesmen and who profited
most?
Great Britain
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Prussia
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Russia
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France
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Austria
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balance of power
establish a Congress system
main European powers should meet
periodically to discuss European affairs
harsh settlement for France (b/c many
Prussians resented the French)
Prussian expansion (preferably to North
Germany)
expand into South-East of Asia
Poland under Russian control
divided Germany (=no threat)
Saxony under Prussian control (in order
to keep them away from Poland)
lenient treatment
assert French power
assert France’s claim to be regarded as a
major power
restrictions on Prussian expansion
threatened by Russia, France + people’s
ambitions from within (multi-ethnic
empire → afraid that people’s
nationalism might cause revolution in
Austria) =>
balance of power
minimize the spread of liberalism and
nationalism
maintain monarchical and aristocratic
leadership
Austria/Metternich profited most. The Congress owed most of its final outcome to
Metternich’s skilful diplomacy, and everything Metternich had opted for was achieved.
(Well… how about Prussia? => cf. Dualism. And who got what of what they wanted?
Were the German nationalists’ hopes fulfilled or shattered?
With the foundation of the German Confederation, German nationalists’ hopes were
shattered. They had hoped for a united Germany with one strong central government. This
was favoured neither by Metternich nor by the German kings and princes themselves, since
they did not wish to have their power and privileges limited by the establishment of a higher
authority. Moreover, large areas of German-speaking people were not included in the
Confederation, while areas peopled by Poles, Czechs, Danes and French were included.
The princes all guarded their independence fiercely, and given that every representative
attending the Frankfurt Diet had to agree on the issue, very little was ever achieved. This
served exactly the wish of Metternich to keep Germany from becoming too strong a power.
(Still, what was POSITIVE about the German Confederation?)
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
2.4 German nationalism from 1815 and 1848
To what extent and why did nationalist and liberal movements develop between 1815 and
1848?
Nationalist and liberal movements were inspired by the French Revolution and mostly
triggered by the outcome of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which shattered the hopes for a
unified Germany by the establishment of the German Confederation.
This confederation excluded large areas of German-speaking population, while including
areas peopled by Poles, Czechs, Danes and French. The government was not strong either,
the Frankfurt Diet was hindered from achieving anything significant by princes and kings
fiercely pursuing their own interests.
The caused frustration led to a splitting of society into Vormärz and Biedermeier.
In these times, student unions arose and held up the nationalist and liberal movements.
It reached a peak at the Wartburg Festival in 1817, to which the Confederation under
Metternich reacted with a severe cut of civil rights.
Further events were the murder of August von Kotzebue by a Burschenschaftler in 1819
(which triggered the imposition of the Carlsbad Decrees) and the Hambach Festival in 1832,
the follow-up event to the Wartburg Festival (which led to the introduction of the 6 and 10
Articles). Additionally, there was the July Revolution of 1830 in France, which inspired people
even further.
To put it in a nutshell, one can say that nationalist and liberal movements radically
developed between 1815 and 1848 and the winding each other up of the radicals and the
government.
 ACTION – REACTION?
 Internal nationalism? Development of nationalism?
 Nationalism as a Janus-faced phenomenon?
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013
3. Italian Nationalism
The origins of Italian Nationalism can be traced back to the Renaissance, when Niccolo
Machiavelli appealed to patriotism against foreign powers occupying the Italian peninsula.
1790-1800

Napoleonic conquest of Italy in course of the Wars of Liberation
 French vassal states
 Kingdoms’ of Italy/Naples remaining parts annexed by France after Napoleon
crowned himself (what?) in 1805
 Code Napoleon/liberal ideas of French Revolution/Enlightenment

French Revolution → Napoleonic rule
1810-1820

Congress of Vienna
 abolition of Napoleonic reforms in Italy
 new structure of Italian territory

Uprisings by revolutionaries in Piemont-Sardinia and in the Kingdom of two Sicilies
(which was under Spanish predominance)
Revolutionaries had secret organisations: Carbonari (charcoal burner) → wanted a
unification 'from below'

1830
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One key figure of the development of nationalism in Italy was Giuseppe Mazzini, the
founder of the Young Italy Movement in 1831
 but the movement lacked support and broke apart in 1835
Mazzini became nationalist in the 1820s and wanted to free Italy from Austrian
occupation
 he was inspired by ancient Rome and therefore tried to create a utopian Italian
republic based on Rome
1847-1849

‘Il Risorgimento’: a newspaper espoused Italian unification under the leadership of
Piemont-Sardinia
 gives the time period of the struggle for Italian unification its name

Revolutionaries declared republic and fought against French troops

A constitutional monarchy under the leadership of King Karl-Albert was established in
Piemont-Sardinia

Uprising against the Austrian predominance in North and Central Italy
 Milan and Lombardy declared independence from Austria and joined PiemontSardinia
 Venice and Tuscany declared independence from Austria and formed a republic
 both failed and were beaten in military terms by the Austrian troops
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013

Pope Pius IX introduced moderate reforms
 went to exile in 1848 and fled to Gaeta after the assassination of chief minister
Rossi and public disorder

Restoration of Papal rule by French conquest of Rome
1850

French alliance with Kingdom Piemont-Sardinia with the aim to weaken Austria
 in 1859: annexation of Nice and Savoy as compensation for support

New King Emmanuel II and minister-president Cavour of Piemont-Sardinia from the
alliance with Napoleon III against Austria was a victory

Piemontese troops march to South Italy in 1860 to prevent revolutionaries from
conquering Rome
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As a consequence of the defeat of Austria, Lombardy ceded to Piemont-Sardinia
Princes abdicated in Parma, Modena and Tuscany which led to an accession to PiemontSardinia

The revolutionaries accused King Victor Emanuel II of treason ceding Nice and Savoy to
France which resulted in Garibaldi organising 1000 volunteers mowing towards South
Italy/Sicily to conquer Naples
1860

After Italian unification the constitution of Piemont-Sardinia limited political
participation for upper classes (suffrage according to taxes one paid)
 new taxes
 territorial questions
 remaining conflicts with Austria in North Italy

On 17th March 1860 King Victor Emanuel II proclaimed the kingdom of Italy in Turin

In 1866 Venetia was ceded to Italy from Austria after the loss of the Austro-Prussian War

There was a referendum because the people of the Kingdom of the two Sicilies wanted
to join Piemont-Sardinia

Garibaldi, head of the revolutionaries, stepped back and greeted Victor Emanuel II with
'King of Italy'
1870

Conquering of the Papal state which resulted in Rome joining Italy
 THUS: similarities to “Germany”; rise of nationalism in the wake of
Napoleonic rule… disconnected territory …
Jessica Baker, Jiyu Chen, Pauline Klein
Geschichte bilingual GK Q2.2, 2013