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VIRTUE ETHICS
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Sir Leslie Stephen(1832-1904)
“Morality is internal. The
moral law…has to be
•
expressed in the form
“be this,” not in the
form “do this”… The
true moral law says
“hate not,” instead of
“kill not”.. The only
mode of stating the
moral law must be as a
rule of character.”
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Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE)
We are not concerned
to know what
goodness is, but how
we are to become
good men, for this
alone gives the study
(of ethics) its practical
value.
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Virtue Ethics
• Virtue ethics is currently one of three
major approaches in normative ethics.
• Normative ethics takes on a more practical task,
which is to arrive at moral standards that regulate
right and wrong conduct.
• This may involve articulating the good habits that
we should acquire, the duties that we should
follow, or the consequences of our behavior on
others.
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The 3 Major normative Ethical
Theories:
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Virtue Ethics
• Virtue ethics believes in the possibility of
universal moral value, but it has a
decidedly different approach than
utilitarianism and deontology.
• Utilitarianism, evaluates moral actions
based primarily on the consequences:
morally good action are those that bring the
greatest amount of happiness to the greatest
number of people.
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Virtue Ethics
• For deontologist like Kant, the moral
reasoning is quite different, focusing
on the logic of the moral action.
• Is the moral choice one that could be
rationally universalized?
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Virtue Ethics
• Virtue Ethics may, initially, be identified
as the one that emphasizes the virtues, or
moral character.
• In contrast to the approach which
emphasizes duties or rules (deontology) or
that which emphasizes the consequences of
actions (consequentialism).
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Virtue ethics contrasted with
other ethical systems:
• The methods of virtue ethics are in
contrast to the dominant methods in ethical
philosophy, which focus on actions.
• For example, both deontological ethics and
consequentialist systems try to provide
guiding principles for actions that allow a
person to decide how to behave in any
given situation.
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Virtue ethics contrasted with
other ethical systems:
• Virtue ethics focuses on what makes a
good person, rather than what makes a
good action.
• As such it is often associated with a
teleological ethical system - one that
seeks to define the proper telos (goal or end)
of the human person. (Happiness)
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Happiness
• Happiness, or Aristotle, is expressed in the
Greek word eudemonia, which means
“actively exercising your soul's powers.”
• What exactly does this mean? It means that
achieving happiness necessarily involves
fulfilling your distinctive function of a
human being, living your life in accordance
with reason and virtue.
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Virtue Ethics
• From the ethical perspective of Virtue
Ethics, it is not the moral quality of the
action that is paramount.
• It is instead the moral quality of the
person that is fundamental.
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Act vs. Moral Quality of the Person
• Example: A person giving donation
to a college.
• Motivation for such a gesture.
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Greek Roots
• The origins of this theory date at least back to
Plato and Aristotle.
• Virtue Ethics shows that its roots are in
ancient Greek philosophy by the employment
of three concepts derived from it.
• These are arête (excellence or virtue) phronesis
(practical or moral wisdom) and eudaimonia (usually
translated as happiness or flourishing.)
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Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE)
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Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE)
• Aristotle was an ancient Greek
philosopher, a student of Plato and
teacher of Alexander the Great.
• He wrote on diverse subjects,
including physics, poetry, biology and
zoology, logic, rhetoric, politics and
government, and ethics.
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Aristotle
• For Aristotle and other believers in virtue ethics,
it is the cultivation of a virtuous character that
is the goal of ethics, to become a virtuous
person.
• The assumption is that genuinely virtuous
people will act in morally principled ways as
natural expression of the moral goodness.
• And these moral actions will in turn strengthen
their virtuous nature.
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Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
• In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle
categorized the virtues as moral and
intellectual.
• Aristotle identified nine intellectual virtues,
the most important of which were sophia
(theoretical wisdom) and phronesis (practical
wisdom).
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Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
• The moral virtues are somewhat
different in nature, and they include
qualities such as being temperate, just,
courageous, compassionate, generous,
friendly, and truthful.
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Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
• Moral virtues are also developed over time, but
unlike intellectual virtues that require a great
deal of formal instruction, Aristotle believes
that moral virtues are mainly developed
through consistent and ongoing practice.
• Becoming a compassionate person necessarily
involves engaging in ongoing acts of
compassion toward other deserving people.
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Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
• Gradually, acting compassionately becomes a
habitual way of thinking and behaving, an
important element in the shaping of your
character.
• People who know you expect you to be
compassionate in appropriate situations because
this virtue reflects an intrinsic part of “who” you
are.
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VIRTUES: You Strive for the
Golden Mean
Golden Mean: A moral philosophy that
is based on the concepts of temperance
(moderation), self-discipline, and
balance.
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Golden Mean
• For example, the virtue of courage is a mean
between the two vices of cowardice and
foolhardiness.
• Where cowardice is the disposition to act more
fearfully than the situation deserves, and
foolhardiness is the disposition to show too
little fear for the situation, courage is the mean
between the two: the disposition to show the
amount of fear appropriate to the situation.
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Golden Mean
VICE
(Excess) VIRTUE (Mean)
VICE
(Defect)
Foolhardiness
Courage
Cowardice
Shamelessness
Modesty
Bashful
Wastefulness
Liberality
Stinginess
Vanity
Proper Pride
Undue Humility
Boastfulness
Truthfulness
Sarcasm
Promiscuity
Monogamy
Celibacy
Flattery
Friendliness
Surliness
Buffoonery
Wittiness
Boorishness
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VIRTUES: You Strive for the Golden Mean
• Virtue ethics is the theory that moral goods involve
acquiring a virtuous character.
• Virtues are either moral or intellectual.
• Moral virtues involve acquiring a character through
practice, by engraining habits or dispositions to act well.
• Making good choices, practicing good habits, and acting
well all involve good moral judgment.
• Good moral judgment, good actions, and a good character
ultimately make a person happy. They lead to the wellbeing of the soul.
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Problems with Virtue Ethics
and the Golden Mean
• Although the Golden Mean approach has a
certain commonsense appeal, it’s an approach
that also raises serious questions.
• For example, if the ideal virtue—the mean statevaries from person to person, situation to
situation, how can we know for certain if we are
“hitting the mark?”
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Problems with Virtue Ethics and
the Golden Mean
• And in the case of conflicting opinions
regarding what “hitting the mark” actually
means, what standard can we use to decide?
• One person’s pleasure may be another
person’s self-indulgences and another
person’s exaggerated self-denial.
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Problems with Virtue Ethics
and the Golden Mean
• Aristotle tries to address this concern by
introducing proposed criteria: “Virtue then is a
state of deliberate moral purpose consisting in
a mean that is relative to ourselves, the mean
being determined by reason, or as a prudent
man would determine it.”
• But this only delays the problem: how precisely
do we determine what “reason” is advising or
who a “prudent man” is?
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Problems with Virtue Ethics and
the Golden Mean
• Being virtuous is a difficult and complicated
process, according to Aristotle.
• Take some thing like generosity: what is the
Golden Mean, the ideal virtuous state?
• Giving the right amount” to the “right persons and
the “right time” and for the “right cause.”
It’s no wonder that he ends on the cautionary note
that: “It is rare and laudable and noble to do
well.”
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Another problem when applying
to specific moral dilemmas
• One of the perennial criticisms of virtue-based
ethical systems is that such theories provide no
guidance on how to resolve an ethical dilemma.
• In Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, precious
little is said about what we are supposed to do.
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Another problem when applying
to specific moral dilemmas
• One would think that ethics should be, at least
to some extent, action guiding.
• Aristotle's answer seems to be: do what a good
person would do. But the question arises, Who
is the good person, and how will we recognize
him or her?
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Another problem when applying
to specific moral dilemmas
• Aristotle writes as though the right action is
that intermediate, or Golden Mean, between
two extremes, but it is often difficult if not
impossible to determine how to apply this.
• In summation, virtue ethics has problem of
application: It doesn’t tell us what to do in
particular instances in which we most need
direction.
(end)
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