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ELSEVIER Using a Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach to Gauge the Effectiveness of Corporate Social Responsibility to Generate Goodwill Toward the Firm: Financial versus Nonfinancial Impacts Keith B. Murray BRYANTCOLLEGE Christine M. Vogel VOGELASSOCIATES Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has long been widely acknowledged as something business should be more concerned with. However, few management models that encourage this to happen and by which managers can assess the impact of such activity on either stakeholders and~or the firm have been offered. This article describes why and how prosocial activities of the firm should be managed--and evaluated--in a conscious and explicit manner using another accepted, market-relevant paradigm. A management perspective that encourages the evaluation and control of prosocial activities by business using a hierarchy-of-effects technique to gauge impact on attitudes and behaviors of stakeholders is offered. Pilot study data derived from a controlled experiment support the view described and illustrate how goodwill can be evaluated using an affects approach to CSR. © ] 9 9 7 Elsevier Science Inc. j BUSNRES 1997. 38.141--159 he role of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs in U.S. companies is potentially very important and frequently pivotal to the success of the firm (Drucker, 1954, 1977; Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Robin and Reidenbach, 1987). However, the reluctance of many firms to develop an explicit CSR program suggests that these types of activities represent, in effect, a cost-intensive and problemfraught effort with no obvious payoff for the firm. Indeed, compelling evidence of prudent management practice technique, strategic relevance, and expected benefit to the firm-financial or otherwise--of CSR has not been amply demonstrated. Considerable research on whether prosocial firms experi- T Address correspondence to Keith Murray, Department of Marketing, Bryant College, Smithfield, RI 02917. Journal of Business Research 38, 141-159 (1997) © 1997 Elsevier Science Inc. 655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010 ence a financial payoff for being socially responsible (Arlow and Gannon, 1978; Abbott and Monsen, 1979; Alexander and Buchholz, 1978; Cochran and Wood, 1984; Aupperle et al., 1985; Lehman, 1985) has produced anomalous findings. The term "prosocial" comes from social psychology and management literature and describes voluntary behavior that is expressly intended to benefit others with no apparent probability of immediate extrinsic reward to the benefactor [see Brief and Motowidlo (1986) or Organ (1988)]. While conceptually founded in the behavior of individual actors within an organization, this term is useful in describing corporate actors who seek the well-being and satisfaction of societal stakeholders without the proximate prospect of financial gain. Thus, the term prosocial is used to be, at a minimum, functionally equivalent of behavior otherwise referred to as corporate social responsibility. In short, viewing prosocial corporate endeavors as integral to the business operations and a vital part of the firm's offerings is not understood nor fully appreciated by all scholars and managers. The effectiveness of prosocial activities of the firm is predicated on the expectation that CSR plays a fundamental role in cultivating corporate goodwill on the part of key stakeholders (Blair, 1986; Sen, 1993; Black, 1994). However, the critical nature of external goodwill to the smooth operation of the firm (Emery and Trist, 1965; Freeman and Reed, 1972) has been long noted, underscores the relevance of CSR to an organization's success, and points to the need for specific strategic management and evaluation techniques. While methodologies that provide business with a framework to effectively evaluate and manage the public image of the firm and its conventional product offerings exist, such methodologies have yet to be applied to the external evaluation of the organization's CSR activities and goodwill strategies. ISSN 0148-2963/97/$17.00 PII S0148-2963(96)00061-6 142 J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 Given the importance of the sociopolitical environment in the long-term success of the firm, this article examines a management process that targets key stakeholder groups with relevant, issue-focused social programs and proposes, in effect, a "market" approach to cultivating public goodwill. Specifically, a hierarchy-of-effects framework is used to describe the impact of CSR on goodwill. Experimental data that demonstrate the efficacy of this technique as well as non financial, individual-referent effects of prosocial activities by the firm on one or more potential constituencies are offered. A Context for Managing Goodwill "Exchanges" between the Firm and Stakeholders In terms of a practical definition, a stakeholder is any entity, typically (but not necessarily) outside of the firm, that impacts the organization and that the organization seeks to influence. Generic stakeholders include customers, competitors, the financial community, government and regulatory agencies, and/ or political-activist groups. Since it has long been recognized that one or more of these groups can significantly alter the viability of the firm (Dill, 1958), knowledge of relevant stakeholder groups is of considerable interest to business. The relevance of pertinent stakeholders is dramatized when one views the firm's environment in terms of concentric elements including its competitive, political/regulatory, and sociocuhural venues of operation. To the degree that the task environment of the firm impinges on one or more of these external realities, the opportunity for individuals in that environment--stakeholders acting either informally or formally, individually or collectively--to positively or negatively affect the operation of the organization is readily apparent (see Montanari et al., 1980; Fischer, 1983; Dess and Beard, 1984). For example, labor groups can dramatically affect operations; similarly, external groups can rally political and regulatory support or obstruction. Clearly, the firm's relations with all key stakeholder groups should be a primary concern of management. How the firm is viewed and evaluated by stakeholders underlies all subsequent interactions. Whether the organization is perceived to be ethical and socially responsible is a matter of managerial interest (Freeman, 1994; Langtry, 1994; Schlossberger, 1994). Indeed, CSR offerings represent an important "exchange" between the firm and its societal publics, or stakeholders. This exchange is one in which the firm offers something of value--typically a social benefit or public service-to an important constituency and, in turn, anticipates receiving the approval and support of key individuals and/ or sociopolitical groups in its environment. In view of this transactional framework, it is reasonable to expect managers to look to the firm's constituencies and stakeholders when determining and planning CSR activities. K. 8. Murray and C. M. Vogel Indeed, a market perspective to goodwill planning offers at least two benefits to the firm. First, a market approach to CSR maximizes the opportunity for positive exchanges to occur between the firm and its sociopolitical environment. Clearly, having what the firm does in terms of CSR directly influences individuals and groups it seeks to elicit support from and substantially increases the likelihood that a mutually positive and reciprocal transaction will occur. While the desirability of the firm to manage the social and political environment (e.g., Zeithaml and Zeithaml, 1984) in a manner that results in increased goodwill is readily apparent, a procedural context for managing the social environment has been largely ignored. Consequently, when CSR market orientation is used, a second attractive aspect is that managers are able to put established and relevant management heuristics to work, including market research techniques, cost-benefit analysis, and product line management approaches. In essence, a market transactional approach to corporate goodwill activity facilitates an evaluative framework to guide managers in their corporate decisions affecting the social milieu and the deployment of organizational resources. In such an exchange framework, three phases characterize the effective management of sound goodwill strategy: (1) management's understanding of and inclination to be responsive to the social environment; (2) stakeholder identification and the subsequent development of action strategies that influence key publics of the firm; and (3) social program effectiveness measurement. Each of these topics is briefly explored in the discussion that follows. Management Approaches to Social Aspects of the Environment How a firm views the social environment and has mechanisms in place to respond to external events is critical in the management of goodwill transactions. In effect, how management is prepared to act predisposes how responsive a firm might be and how subsequent social exchanges will occur. Ackerman and Bauer (1976), for example, describe a three-phase pragmatic response process whereby the importance of social issues becomes acknowledged by top managers. This phase is potentially followed by the addition of staff positions that focus on social issues that lead to greater organizational involvement through institutionalization. In turn, societal engagement by management can be of a primary (i.e., central core relationships that arise from specialized functions of the firm) or secondary (i.e., consequential or derivative effects flowing from primary activities of the firm) nature (Preston and Post, 1975). In any case, the posture of the firm with respect to the greater external environment is critical to understanding the cultivation of corporate goodwill. Several have acknowledged that social issues affecting business follow a fairly predictable life cycle (e.g., Chase, 1977; Chase and Ewing, 1980; Renfro, 1987; Mahon and Waddock, Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach 1992). When public expectations are ignored and social influence is allowed to take its own course, political and legislative pressures build, frequently leading to negative consequences for the firm. Briefly, the hfe cycle of social and political issues develops in terms of four stages characterized by social expectation, political issue development, exertion of social influence, and a resolution phase, leading to enactment of legislation and/or social sanctions against the firm (Marx, 1986). The initial phase of an issue's life cycle occurs when a gap occurs between the perceptions and the expectations of a stakeholder group regarding a firm's actions and represents a particularly critical period. Left unattended by the firm, discrepancies between stakeholder expectations of the firm and its actual (or perceived) performance can become the catalyst that transforms perceived shortfalls by the firm into important social and political issues. At this early stage, the level of interest and/or activism on the part of one or more stakeholder groups becomes apparent and may be detected in the alternative press or newsletters of special interest groups. If a firm chooses to ignore expectational differences at this point, the probability increases that a conventional issue's life cycle will continue to unfold with adverse market forces prevailing and the gap closed by regulation or legislation, enforced by the courts. When societal discontent is allowed to develop to the final stages of the social issue life cycle, the company may pay in the form of costly lobbying and legal expenses, compliance with regulation or legislation mandates, and immeasurable ill will from various publics. Thus, when a firm acts during early stages of stakeholder dissatisfaction, costs to the firm are minimized. Following the inception phase of any social issue, a period of increased public interest, debate, and eventually social influence occurs. Debate is conducted in the popular press, the evening news, and other mass media. Government regulation of business is contemplated, legislative alternatives are explored, and consumer and special interest groups become more active. The phase of heightened public awareness and increased social pressure is followed by a resolution period. During the resolution phase, stakeholders' concerns are either effectively addressed by the firm or ameliorated through the legislative and/or regulatory process or market-related sanctions against the firm, including boycotts and judicial remedies. Goodwill Management Options That exchanges occur between the firm and society is indisputable (e.g., Shocker and Sethi, 1973; Zeithaml and Zeithaml, 1984; Silverstein, 1987) and the failure of business to perform in a manner consistent with social expectations is--certainly in the long run--likely inevitable. The potential extent for organizations to exert harm, if only inadvertently, has been delineated by Collins (1989). However, how a company-either explicitly or implicitly--approaches the management of such problematic transactions encompasses a range of possible J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 143 responses. Three potential response patterns by business have been described [see Sethi (1979) for a more complete discussion] and are briefly noted below. Avoiding Stakeholder Pressure By ignoring many public demands, many executives assume, mistakenly, that the company's position is adequate and that stakeholders are interfering in the firm's private affairs. Confronted by social demands and externally imposed expectations, less progressive firms attempt to disregard dealing with public issues. Management may deny being responsive to public expectations by employing various tactics (see Strand, 1983). Avoidance approaches include, for example, efforts to distort stakeholder demands in order to avoid responding to underlying constituent dissatisfaction; to co-opt members of constituent groups in order to change their goals; to lobby for laws in favor of the firm or implore the courts to delay demands or press for company rights; to use corporate advertising or public relations to minimize damage to the company's image; or to attribute blame among the constituent groups and attempt to redirect the perceived cause of dissatisfactions. However, as stakeholder dissatisfaction is allowed to build, when corporate practices do not fulfill societal expectations and the gap (see Sethi, 1979) between the company and stakeholders widens, costs to the firm mount and public trust erodes. Ironically, many firms are ill equipped to deal with public dissatisfactions at early stages of the social issue life cycle. Public relations programs do not address issues until they have reached media recognition. Governmental relations or public affairs departments generally do not typically handle issues until they have escalated to the legislative or regulatory level. In any case, the avoidance by management to respond to stakeholder pressure frequently carries an eventual price, albeit disguised in the short run (see Hutt et al., 1986). Reacting to Public Pressure When discrepancies become evident between stakeholder expectations and actual corporate behavior, the firm can pursue one or more of several alternatives. For example, the firm could alter its behavior sufficiently to reduce or eliminate stakeholder pressures. This might involve changing corporate practices or policies in various functional areas and is frequently a very effective means for dealing with social pressures. Johnson & Johnson, a consumer health products firm and analgesic purveyor, significantly reduced the gap between public expectations and corporate performance during the Tylenol-tamper scare by redeeming all previous purchases, withdrawing and replacing all products on store shelves, and instituting a new product seal. Indeed, as a result of its public actions as a responsible pharmaceutical producer, Johnson & Johnson enhanced its public image by taking decisive action. Firms that take voluntary measures are perceived as responsive and are often spared more rigid and costly legislative or regula- 144 J Bush Res 1997:38:141-159 tory strictures. Furthermore, they achieve or retain a strong consumer franchise both in terms of sales and public esteem. Alternatively, the firm might try to alter the expectations of stakeholders to bring public expectations closer to likely perceptions of corporate performance. This may involve educating stakeholders about realistic company behavior, using a corporate communication campaign. Dunng periods of oil import shortages caused by military conflict or action by producer cartels, petroleum companies have sought to diminish public furor over price hikes by explaining how market forces account for rapid increases in gasoline prices. Also, the firm might choose to contest the issue in the public arena. Confrontational debates, public testimony before regulatory panels or the legislature, editonal articles, and other forms of defensive communications tactics are typical of this response. Unfortunately, when stakeholder groups face opposition they often solidify, gain media attention, and then recruit others to their cause. Taking a Proactive Approach By contrast to reactive and sometimes ineffectual approaches, well-managed CSR programs represent a unique alternative to foster goodwill and bring company practices into line with public expectations at early stages of issues development. Indeed, more progressive, socially responsible firms will seek to honestly address the fundamental desires and dissatisfactions that are at the core of societal stakeholder demands. Instead of ignoring discrepancies between what the firm does (or fails to do) and what its public expects, well-managed companies seek to handle social issues proactively (see Mescon et al., 1981; Morris and Biederman, 1985; Grahn et al., 1987; Mescon and Tilson, 1987; Vogel, 1994). Rather than waiting for grievances to reach the legislature, regulatory commission, the courts, or even the media, progressive businesses employ alternative dispute resolution or a public involvement strategy to confront potential goodwill problems at the earliest possible stage of social issues development. This approach fundamentally consists of managers identifying important issues of threat and/or mutual interest between the firm and stakeholder groups and subsequently initiating promising, feasible response activities on the part of the company that address potential and relevant disputes. However, to effectively influence the environment, the company must focus social program offerings in a timely and strategic manner to achieve the most favorable payoffs for both the firm and its important stakeholder group(s). Prosocial programs should be developed and sustained with the expectations of key publics explicitly in mind. Corporate social programs need, in a word, to be "targeted." What the firm does must be designed to specifically appeal to stakeholders it deems important and seeks to serve the interests of. Acknowledging that a smorgasbord or shotgun approach to social programs may likely be inadequate, CSR activity must, indeed, be aimed to effect and influence specific stakeholder groups K.B. Murray and C. M. Vogel or segmented populations. See Table 1 for a summary of goodwill management options. Need to Know Who Stakeholders Are and What They Expect From a market perspective, the management of corporate social programs begins with an examination of the social environment in which the organization operates. Since changes can--and do--occur frequently in the ecological, cultural, political, and social setting of the firm, the environment must be systematically and periodically monitored to determine sociopolitical opportunities and threats to the firm (Fahey et al., 1981; Fischer, 1983; Arrington and Sawaya, 1984; Mesch, 1984). Indeed, systematic assessment of the social milieu of the firm is potentially as enlightening to CSR planning as the monitoring of various other aspects of the external context is to strategic planners. Since most firms operate in an environment composed of groups with diverse social expectations, it is likely that a generic or universal approach to conducting CSR endeavors will be neither particularly effective nor efficient in addressing the specific interests of key stakeholder groups. Further, such an orientation is unlikely to provide strategic advantage to the firm. While "issues management" is frequently considered a way to anticipate and handle problems, it is not truly possible, in a strict sense, to manage issues. Instead, companies can only solidify their relationship with key groups by addressing issues of interest to important stakeholder constituencies. Nonetheless, even proactive problem-solving is not likely to redefine or allow the firm to superimpose what the agenda of issues is--or will be--for various publics of that firm. Instead, social issues must be seen as frequently formidable realities and fundamentally independent of being controlled by the firm. That the external context of the firm is, in some sense, "fixed" is not to suggest that the company is not without options. Instead, given the desire of the firm to enhance the impact of its social programs to influence key groups, the first step in delineating a CSR-derived goodwill strategy calls for management to identify key stakeholders of the organization. This task presumes a thorough knowledge of the social and cultural environment of the firm and, ideally, an understanding of the strategic role and relative importance of various groups, both internal and external to the firm. Potential stakeholder groups constitute a wide range of publics, including employees, prospective employee applicants, special interest groups, consumer-action organizations, community residents in the vicinity of company's operations, socially minded investors, regulators, legislators, the media, other business leaders, elected officials, and others. Based on research data, this analysis phase requires the firm to formulate a plan to systematically survey key stakeholders to understand their respective expectations. Clearly, the strategic interests of the firm are best J Busn Res 145 1997:38:141-159 Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach Table 1. Types of Finns and Their Response Characteristics to Stakeholder Pressure Firm Avoids Social Pressure Firm's response Social action timing Proscriptive: Firm executes social obligations with respect to strict economic and legal criteria. Subsequent to perceived harmful impact by firm and the organization of entrenched opposition by social forces. Opportunity to foster goodwill Minimal. Specific strategies • Deny societal displeasure • Co-opt constituent leaders Firm Responds to Social Pressure Firm's response • Seek civil or legal protections • Sponsor institutional advertising defending company position(s) Prescriptive: Firm makes corporate performance congruent with prevailing social norms and expectations. Social action timing Subsequent to perceived harmful impact by firm but prior to formation of significant environmental pressure. Opportunity to foster goodwill Preservation of extant goodwill. Specific strategies • Take decisive action in the face of product problems • Stem legislative and regulatory actions by voluntary compliance • Focus on maintaining positive company image • Educate public regarding company behavior Firm is Responsive to the Social Environment Firm's response Proactive: Firm exhibits anticipatory and preventive actions to minimize "gaps" between social expectations and corporate performance. Social action timing Prior to the occurrence of perceived corporate social deficiencies. Opportunity to foster goodwill Considerable. Specific strategies • Manage CSR product portfolio • Relate social program to multiple stakeholder groups served when as many key societal segments as possible are identified so that few relevant exchanges between the firm and key stakeholders are overlooked. Addressing Stakeholder Expectations In terms of conventional product offerings, the key to the success of any business is the organization's ability to be knowledgeable regarding--and ultimately to address the needs and desires of---prospective customers. Similarly, for a company to achieve an optimal level of goodwill requires that management meet the societal expectations of important stakeholder groups (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978; Dersmith and Covaleski, 1983; Freeman, 1984, 1988, 1991; Freeman and Gilbert, 1992). Attention to key stakeholders' social demands with respect to CSR offers managers an opportunity to gauge the effectiveness of specific social programs and, in turn, the achievement of strategic payoffs to the firm (see Business Week, 1982; Hamaker, 1984; Reiss, 1984; Norris, 1985). Indeed, it is potentially feasible to calculate the impact of CSR activities in terms of resources allocated to social programs. While optimal product planning and production of conventional offerings are • Systematically seek out social needs • Track impact of corporate activities on social environment predicated on careful market analysis and segmentation, relevant goodwill planning similarly requires a detailed understanding of the various needs, interests, and "problems" of important stakeholders (Murray and Montanari, 1986). Thus, the underlying purpose of stakeholder analysis is twofold: first, to discover unmet social needs or expectancies and to uncover opportunities and threats that exist in the social environment and that may benefit or adversely affect the firm. The discovery of which social problems, needs, interests, or demands exist that a firm can logically address is essential for continued goodwill and support of the firm by relevant publics. Second, stakeholder analysis can also provide ongoing evaluations of CSR program effectiveness. Unfortunately, in some organizations, CSR programs, if offered at all, lack real-world impact. Such programs typically render social offerings that hearken back to a previous social-political climate or an earlier period in the company's history. Typically, these programs fail to serve the current strategic interests of the firm and are lacking in relevance, largely because they fail to address the needs, interests, and "problems" of current stakeholders (Wood, 1986). Thus, stakeholder expectation analysis and subsequent monitoring are critical first- and second-step measures corporate planners and managers must 146 J Bush Res 1997:38:141-159 take to ensure that what the firm subsequently does with respect to prosocial behavior should be relevant to both the external environment and the strategic interests of the firm. Evaluating the Goodwill Strategy of the Firm While managers' knowledge and understanding of the social and political environment is fundamental to corporate planning and implementation (Meyer, 1982), the specific evaluation of prosocial programs ensures that a company's offerings are on target and effective in engendering positive support behaviors from key stakeholders that contribute to the overall success of the firm (Murray and Montanari, 1986). Precisely how social programs of the firm are evaluated, however, is critical, since poor evaluative measures can provide erroneous information and lead to faulty decisions. With weak or irrelevant measurement techniques, sound and effective CSR programs may be terminated. Likewise, worthy programs can fail to win the support of top management when evaluative measures are inadequate and, therefore, do not demonstrate the positive effects that are intended or desired by the firm. The most frequently reported measures of CSR effect has been financial performance in terms of profitability, stock value, etc. Unfortunately, it is not evident from the literature whether this is an appropriate indicator of CSR effects or if CSR is even associated--positively or negatively--with this factor (see Spencer and Taylor, 1987). Indeed, it is reasonable to expect that corporate goodwill efforts do not result in immediate, short-term payoffs-financial or otherwise--to the firm. In the short run, expenditures for CSR activities consume both financial and nonfinancial resources of the firm, thus diminishing opportunity of favorable "bottomline results." Instead, positive program effects can be expected to build over time to produce favorable market responses with potential benefits of either a financial or a nonfinancial nature accruing to the firm over time. Nonetheless, the need to determine the current impact of CSR programs and by extrapolation--to predict future effects on stakeholders are important tasks of management vis-a-vis the organizational tasks of evaluation and control. Dimensions of Pro-social Evaluation Relevant management concerns are "What can prosocial programs realistically be expected to accomplish for the firm?" and "Are our prosocial offerings evoking a favorable response on the part of key stakeholders." Few simple answers to these questions exist, since various social programs have different targets, duration, and program objectives. Indeed, immediate benefit to the firm is probably best viewed only in the context of an extended time period, multiple social program objectives, and in terms of particular stakeholder groups. Only in ideal circumstances will a firm's social programs manifest an immediate impact on stakeholders' profirm behavior. Instead, a more likely outcome of the initial phase of a K.B. Murray and C. M. Vogel firm's prosocial activities is for stakeholder awareness level of the firm's programmatic efforts to be affected first. The longterm effects of corporate prosocial activity, in contrast, can be expected to lead stakeholders to respond positively or, at a minimum, be predisposed to act favorably toward the firm. Thus, two temporal and substantive endpoints in stakeholder effects exist and are relevant in gauging benefit to the firm stemming from the CSR program. Further, they imply a range of response outcomes and provide a basis for planning and tracking program effects for any one or more stakeholder groups. Thus, to evaluate the impact on stakeholders of prosocial programs against strategic or corporate objectives, a multiple effects approach would appear to be most appropriate; this is particularly true when it is desirable to estimate long-term consequences from current attitudes. Indeed, a hierarchyof-effects model offers such a measurement technique in that it addresses cognitive and affective dimensions as well as behavioral outcomes, which, taken together, capture how individuals process and use information (see Ray, 1973; Feick, 1987; Berry, 1987; McGinley and Hawes, 1991; Thorson et al., 1991) regarding the firm. In turn, this knowledge is useful in understanding how stakeholders form judgments and make subsequent decisions about appropriate behaviors toward or on behalf of the firm. Using an Effects Hierarchy to Gauge Goodwill Impact From a strategic perspective, one or several long-term objectives of a firm's social policy is to create support for the firm on the part of various stakeholders. However, it is readily apparent that individuals in any stakeholder group can rarely be expected to offer allegiance to the firm immediately upon learning of its social policy. Instead, it is more likely that a longer-term impact of prosocial behavior occurs. Nevertheless, for there to be a longer-term impact, there inevitably must be some kind of short-term effect operating. Indeed, a hierarchy-of-effects framework describes the logical process of how an individual moves from unawareness of the firm and its activities to stakeholder support. Although potentially very complex, a modest effects framework includes stages beginning with unawareness, knowledge, attitudes formation, and behavior. For example, were a firm to seek the support of key constituent groups with respect to pending legislation, it would likely examine short-term attitude effects (which precede subsequent and more complex behavioral effects) in order to gauge the likelihood or extent of desired long-term outcomes. In such circumstances, knowledgeability, of awareness, of a firm's perceived position with respect to the issues surrounding the proposed law--which ostensibly would be a function of the firm's external affairs or community awareness programs-would be of interest and represent an initial, first-level analysis of program impact. Subsequent stakeholder attitudes with respect to the firm are also of interest. Finally, stakeholder Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach intention to act measures are also of consequence to the firm and might include behaviors such as contacting elected officials, writing letters-to-the-editor, and voting. In short, the desirability of applying such a model resides precisely in its ability to evaluate the social benefit to both society and the firm at several relevant levels, instead of solely financial measures, which focus essentially on the economic well being of the firm. Awareness, attitudes and intentions are dependent variables often used to assess information impact and are components in most accepted hierarchical conceptualizations of the communication process (e.g., McGuire, 1976; Engel et al., 1993). Derived from long recognized marketing communication impact techniques (Lavidge and Steiner, 1961), both the present and expected impact of corporate prosocial efforts can thus be assessed by a hierarchyof-effects approach, assisting managers to better understand the effectiveness of goodwill programs undertaken by the firm. This multivariate evaluation strategy offers freedom from dependence on quantitative, indirect, or spurious financial measures--which represent, in the short run at least, relatively obscure and imprecise measures of program success (e.g., Folger and Nutt, 1975; Alexander and Buchholz, 1978; Abbott and Monsen, 1979; Chen and Metcalf, 1980; Aupperle et al., 1985). Further, an effects approach offers the opportunity to quantify multiple stakeholder measures--from simple program awareness to motivated action that reflects desired actions by stakeholders. A hierarchy-of-effects approach to prosocial evaluation provides direct and relevant indications of immediate program impact as well as a basis for estimating long-term CSR success in cultivating goodwill. In effect, a hierarchical perspective to CSR effectiveness assessment is based on a series of predictable information processing stages through which stakeholders proceed, from indifference toward the firm, at best--or hostility, at worst--to more favorable dispositions and/or inclinations. Fundamentally, these stages delineate a range of stakeholder response to the organiration, from initial awareness of the firm and its key image components; familiarity with various CSR programs and the formation of attitudes regarding the firm; and, finally, to likelihood measures of positive action toward, or on behalf of, the company. Consistent with its application in other business contexts, a hierarchical model essentially approaches the analysis of prosocial program impact by identifying two broad categories of effects: attitudinal and behavioral characteristics of stakeholders (e.g., Beatty and Kahle, 1988). Examples of attitude measures include awareness regarding the company (and/or its prosocial programs), beliefs about various activities, and evaluative statements regarding the firm, prosocial responsibility programs, and/or perceived benefit of as well as satisfaction statements regarding consumer programs. Behavior measures would typically include respondent likelihood to engage in specific support actions on behalf of the company, including inclination to buy stock, for example, or respondent predisposition to influence others favorably regarding the firm. J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 147 The real-world impact of the firm's sociopolitical activities can be expected to follow a predictable course. Initally, stakeholders become aware of company's consumer programs. In turn, awareness leads to knowledge about the company and its corporate and social values. Over time, familiarity regarding the firm serves to evoke favorable attitudes and response approval by stakeholders. Positive evaluations of the firm stem from the realization that the company is concerned with stakeholder interests and strives to address their vital expectations. In effect, informed stakeholders, acknowledging that the prosocial firm is a positive societal force, become predisposed to manifest support for the firm. Thus, for the firm that seeks to exert a deliberate influence on its social milieu, the evolution of events are in an entirely different direction from the issue life cycle spiral noted earlier. Instead of external forces imposing or prompting the firm to act, a managed goodwill program allows the firm to cultivate--in the context of preexisting and independent social expectations--a favorable arena for the firm to operate. Subsequent pro-company behaviors can be viewed to occur largely on the part of stakeholders who have "moved through" the attitude stage and who have developed a conviction regarding the firm's integrity to take stakeholder concerns seriously and to deploy resources that address those expectations. Consequently, some stakeholders become inclined to engage in profirm behaviors. Corporate support behaviors can potentially take many forms, including initiating positive contact with legislators or regulatory agencies, defending the firm in a conversation with friends and acquaintances, buying stock in the company, or affirming the organization in public opinion surveys. In short, prosocial programs can be viewed to impact stakeholders at varying levels of effects and, thus, prosocial programs can logically be evaluated in terms of a range of possible program outcomes. Based on an orderly sequence of events-occurring at both an individual and aggregate level--a hierarchy-of-effects approach simultaneously encompasses a variety of response variables that are associated with a firm's prosocial program strategy. By implication, the use of a hierarchy-ofeffects approach allows CSR program objectives to be directly and meaningfully linked to program effectiveness measures via-a-vis key stakeholder groups. Since management practice in other functional areas supports the validity of this approach, CSR evaluation employing a hierarchy-of-effects approach can be viewed to detect meaningful changes occurring in the short run, as well as predictive of long-term outcomes, and thus vital to the executive or CSR manager committed to efficient resource deployment and effective program oversight. Research Questions Regarding Prosocial Evaluation The research undertaken for this study is organized to provide an empirical critique of using a hierarchy-of-effects approach to evaluating CSR activities and the generation of goodwill 148 J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 toward the firm. In view of the lack of demonstrated measures focusing on manager-relevant considerations with respect to CSR, several questions are feasible with regard to evaluation of prosocial activity of the firm using a hierarchy-of-effects methodology. First, as noted previously, prior research in the field of CSR has been implicitly premised on two fundamental assumptions: that the appropriate measure of CSR effects is (a) financial in nature and (b) fundamentally long term in duration. Since much of the literature regarding CSR is implicitly moralistic and normative in nature (e.g., Goodpaster and Matthews, 1982; Byron and William, 1982), the emphasis of research heretofore that focuses on long-term financial measures is arguably defensible in its convergence on an independent, quantitative, and generally accepted measure of business success, namely profitability. Irrespective of whether these assumptions are theoretically sound or not, however, generalizations regarding previous findings are inconclusive (e.g., Arlow and Gannon, 1978). Arguably a test of CSR effects against independent firms in varying industries across differing time and economic period may pose, at best, too stringent a test of outcomes and highlights the need for an alternate approach. In any case, different measures of effect and, in turn, the inherent methodologies associated with those measures are called for. However, since transactions between the firm and other external parties include a wide range of possible exchanges (see Bagozzi, 1974, 1975, 1979) that are transitory and noneconomic in nature, examination of more immediate effects is called for. Thus, a principal research question is: Research Question 1: Are short-term, nonfinancial, and individual effects measures of CSR impact observable and amenable to empirical verification? Second, although business scholars have long asserted that the effects of social responsibility in terms of the firm are positive (e.g., Davis and Bloomstrom, 1975; Dalton and Cosier, 1982), subsequent findings regarding this outcome-certainly with regard to the use of financial measures--are equivocal, hence the need to examine CSR effects for favorable impact on agents external to the firm. Examination of effect of CSR on the firm's stakeholders represents a logical alternative to monetary calculations, since such individual or collective parties, either directly or indirectly, represent the potential to act in a manner that affects the firm favorably (e.g., engage in purchase behavior, serve as an employee, refrain from regulation, buy stock) or adversely (e.g., diminish the reputation of the firm, sell stock, buy from firm competitors). Clearly, research evidence regarding such complex transaction behaviors is predicated on corresponding cognitive and affective effects (see Mowen, 1990). These observations lead to: Research Question 2: Does information regarding CSR programs have a measurably positive effect on stakeholders attitudes and behavioral intentions toward the firm? K.B. Murray and C. M. Vogel There is little prior evidence that CSR effects, while predicted to be positive, are likely to have the same impact on all types of stakeholders. Understandably, some parties might reasonably be expected to be more interested in and thus involved with a particular firm, industry, etc. Conversely, various stakeholders differ in terms of their relative importance to any business enterprise. Constellation of stakeholders, by definition, represent different interest groups, each with particular demographic and qualitative profiles. Consequently, a priori equivalency among stakeholder groups relative to underlying characteristics, strategic importance, and response inclinations is not expected, underscoring the importance of strategic planning and targeting of CSR activities and information by the firm (see Murray and Montanari, 1986). It follows, then, that CSR activities by the firm might produce uneven effects among various stakeholders, leading to: Research Question 3: Do CSR programs have a differential effect on various types of stakeholders of the firm? Although the use of a hierarchy-of-effects model is an accepted paradigm with respect to branded offerings of the firm, it has yet to be demonstrated as viable insofar as a tool for evaluation of the prosocial activities. An empirical examination of these questions is called for and the description of such a study is noted in the section that follows. An Experimental Test The authors conducted a controlled study to test the impact of prosocial programs on corporate goodwill as indicated by a hierarchy-of-effects evaluation model. Although not longitudinal in nature, this study seeks in a controlled setting to examine the efficacy of estimating goodwill effects stemming from CSR activities using a hierarchical evaluation approach. The sample composition, experimental procedure, data analysis, and findings are described briefly in the sections that follow. Sample The subject pool was composed of a quota sample of 82 respondents employed in a managerial position within the past 5 years. Managers were selected as participants in the study for three reasons. First, managers represent professional decision makers and, as such, those whose orientation approximates that of many other formal stakeholder groups (e.g., suppliers, regulators, media). In their capacity as managers, subjects with this background, by virtue of their professional orientation, routinely contemplate engaging in specific courses of actions consistent with their attitudes and opinions, thus representing a group of interest with respect to CSR policy and decision makers. Second, managers represent a relatively homogeneous subject pool. The particular merits of such an approach to sampling in an experimental context is persuasively argued by Greenberg (1987). Third, managers constitute Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 149 Table 2. Sample Demographic and Quota Factor Profile Age (in years): Gender: Reports managerial experience currently or within last 5 years: Belongs to a firm that takes a stand on local issues. Belongs to a firm that takes a stand on national issues. Sees self as local issues thought leader. Sees self as state issues thought leader. Reads a daily newspaper. Reads a weekly news magazine. Frequently gets news from CNN. Watches Sunday morning news/talk programs. 25-34 7% Proportion of Subjects 35-44 68% Women 49% Yes 100% Agreed a 63% 44% 63% 6t% 76% 83% 54% 64% 45-54 25% Men 51% No 2% Disagreed 37% 66% 37% 39% 24% 17% 46% 36% .'Itemsreportedin this sectiondenoteaggregated,"collapsed"responsesfor the sampleon itemsmeasuredon a Likert7-pointAgree-Disagreescale. a mature subject pool that, despite being recruited in a management training setting, was deemed to be superior to a more traditional student sample. Subjects invited to participate in the research were participants in a management development program at a large university in a major eastern U.S. metropolitan area. Subjects were qualified for inclusion in the study by indicating having voted in an election (national, state, and/or local) within the previous 5 years. Voting behavior data, in effect, was viewed as operationafizing the capacity of subjects to engage in social action--a desired outcome from the point of view of the firm vis-a-vis the ideal effects of CSR. Median age of respondents in the sample was 41 years. To substantiate the social and opinion leadership of subjects included in the sample, subjects were asked to report on their voting behavior, self-perceptions with regard to social-political activity, as well as appetite for news information (as evidenced by magazine readership and television programming. A composite description of the subject pool is shown in Table 2. By virtue of homogeneity with regard to managerial experience the respondent pool was deemed a worthy sample against which to test empirical effects associated with the research [see Calder et al. (1981) for an extended discussion of the merits of this approach]. With random assignment of subjects, n of 40 per treatment group was viewed as more than adequate for a test of the principal effects of CSR (see Mason et al., 1991). An overall participation rate of 90% was achieved; to derive the total sample of 82 subjects, 91 individuals were approached to participate in the research procedures. Design and Procedures The research design constitutes a classical, randomized between-groups comparison laboratory study (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). Experimental prospects were invited by the authors to participate in a study under the pretext of examining the issue of "fairness of the press" to business (vis-a-vis editorial and reporting style). Subjects were individually asked to read an ostensibly "reprinted" newspaper feature story describing an electric utility under the supervision of one of the authors. All subjects were told that they would be asked to make judgments regarding how fairly the press had reported the information on the utility. Subjects' participation in the study was voluntary and without compensation; prior to participation in the study, subjects were assured that the information they provided would be held in confidence and that personal identities would not be revealed. The administration of the experimental (reading) materials and subject completion of the data collection instrument was not time limited. Instead, respondents were encouraged to proceed at their own pace. Average time spent by subjects in reading and completing the research materials was approximately 15 rain. Individuals who consented to participate in the study were debriefed subsequent to their reading task on the collection of all dependent measures involving fairness of the press as well as other studyrelevant matters. Subjects qualifying for inclusion in the sample were randomly assigned to one of two conditions, control versus experimental. The control group was assigned the task of reading a general description of the (fictitious) electric utility company, including positive financial and management information. In addition to viewing the same narrative read by control subjects, the experimental group was also provided additional information mentioning various CSR and consumer affairs programs of the firm. Prosocial activities were described in the "reprinted" material provided to the experimental group and included brief mention of the following: energy conservation, a consumer panel program, an employee training program to assist senior citizens in need of social services, the utility's participation in the economic development of the region, a latchkey children's program, an employee volunteer 150 J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 program, and electric safety education for school children. In short, the general description of the utility provided to both groups was identical; the experimental group, however, was given exclusive information regarding how the utility conducted a meaningful prosocial program, whereas the control group was not. Subsequent to exposure to the assigned utility description, the experimental and control materials were removed from subjects' view and each participant in the study was individually asked to respond to a series of questions pertaining to journalistic style, perceptions of the utility, and personal reactions to the utility described in the "reprinted" article. The collection of these data was consistent with the stated experimental pretext and was intended to diminish subject reactivity to the independent variables of the study. Subsequent to being given the opportunity to respond to editorial fairness issues, subjects were, using hierarchy-of-effectsmeasures, specifically queried regarding their personal reaction to and behavioral intention toward the firm. Employing a seven-point Likert scale (i.e., from "Strongly Agree" to "Strongly Disagree"), respondents were asked to indicate their agreement with statements that measured cognitive awareness, affective response, and support intentions relative to the utility described in the experimentally controlled manipulations. Subjects were also asked to provide data with respect to demographic and behavioral measures. Demographic measures included age, gender, and employment status. Included in the nonexperimental behavioral measures were items that addressed voting and various social and political activities engaged in by the respondent as well as media habits. A test of respondent group equality was conducted. Beyond demographic factors that address obvious aspects of group equivalency, other relevant measures were examined. Since dependent measures of interest sought to explore firm-related attitudes and behaviors, relevant media lifestyle as well as social-political activities of respondents were considered germane. Absent the determination of group comparability, potentially discrepant experimental outcomes might arguably be attributed to factors other than experimental conditions. Consequently, respondent groups were compared for differences with respect to media habits and social and political behavior. No statistically significant differences between the two groups were evident. The statistical equivalency of the control and experimental groups on all relevant considerations with respect to demographic, occupational, voting behavior, political and social behavior, and media habits is shown in Table 3. Measures Experimental relevant aspects of the data collection instrument contained l0 items intended to capture subjects' attitudes of the firm as well as 7 items to gauge their behavioral inclinations. A five-point Likert type scale was used (5, strongly agree; 4, moderately agree; 3, neither agree or disagree; 2, moderately disagree; 1, strongly disagree). Implicitly, state- K.B. Murray and C. M. Vogel ments regarding the firm were assumed to tap cognitive and affective reactions of subjects. Thus, each dimension of research interest was constituted by multiple measures, i.e., 10 in the case of attitude and 7 in the case of behavioral items. Note that cognitive and affective elements of attitudes are closely intertwined and a large number of sources provide an extended discussion of attitude theory relative to the integration of cognitive and affective aspects (see Wilkie (1994) or Solomon (1994) for an overview treatment; see Fishbein (1983) for a more technical treatment of the topic). However, to specify the precise cognitive and affective content of each aspect of interest associated with the dependent variable would have required a measurement device more lengthy and elaborate than was feasible without undermining the experimental purposes. Thus, cognitive and affective aspects of subjects are treated as perceptual, nonbehavioral attitude factors. Attitude items included statements that characterized the firm with respect to its responsiveness to employees; responsiveness to customers and consumers; truth in advertising; safety; use of natural resources; product quality; honesty; financial performance; pricing; and customer satisfaction. Behavioral items related to respondents' inclination to support the company in a government dispute; to write legislative representative or newspaper editor; to recommend a job application to a friend; to believe a negative report about the firm; to read the annual report; to support the firm in a labor dispute; and to consider buying stock in the company. Preceding the elicitation of subjects' reaction to the firm described in the experimental and control conditions, respondents were asked to respond to questions (also using a Likerttype, five-point agree-disagree scale) regarding the fairness of the press in coverage of business in the "reprint." Questions of this nature were consistent with the explanation provided subject prospects prior to the administration of the independent variable. Subjects were asked to respond to statements regarding whether information in the article was interesting to read; balanced in its coverage; fairly presented; easy to read; etc. Although these items were not analyzed, they served to reduce experimental reactivity by serving as a time and activity "distraction" between the administration of the independent variable and the collection of the data. In addition, items concerning the personal characteristics of subjects were included in the data collection instrument. These items related to subjects' age, gender, income, marital, and employment verification as well as media habits, voting behavior, and other social and/or community activities. Prior to use of the administration of the data collection device in the research setting described above, a pilot test of the instrument was conducted with a convenience sample. In the context of this pilot trial the final version of the data collection instrument was examined in terms of reliability and modestly refined with respect to typographical-grammatical problems as well as, on the basis of pilot respondent debriefing, revision copy with respect to vague or unclear instrnctions, item statements, etc. Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 151 Table 3. Test of Respondent Equivalency: Control Group (N=42) versus Experimental Group (N=40) a Key Measures of Respondent Equivalency Demographic Factors Gender Age Occupational Setting Current or recent executive/manager Voting Behavior Registered to vote Usually votes in national elections Usually votes in local elections Has worked in political party in a local, state, or national election Political and Social Behavior Belongs to organization that takes a stand on local or state issues Belong to national organization that takes a stand on national issues Views self as a local, state, or national issues thought leader Comfortable talking with others about local, state, or national issues Would consider writing to an elected official about an issue Would consider writing to an editor or a mass medium to voice views Media Habits Frequently reads major metropolitan newspaper Frequently reads Time Magazine Frequently reads U.S. News and World Report Watches CBS's 60 Minutes regularly Watches ABC's 20/20 regularly Listens frequently to talk radio Frequently views Sunday morning news programs Frequently gets news from CNN t-Test Value Two-Tail Probabilityb 0.67 1.30 .385 .196 0.68 .498 1.10 1.00 0.19 1.43 .276 .319 .852 .156 0.17 0.13 0.72 1.64 1.85 1.16 .862 .895 .471 .105 .069 .248 1.10 0.60 0.13 1.09 1.09 1.15 0.79 1.65 .275 .552 .894 .279 .279 .254 .431 .103 a Since the experimental procedures were conducted on an individual basis and thus involved the sequential recruitment of the total sample, data for two additional subjects was inadvertently collected, tabulated, and thus included in the data analysis. Since randomized groups approaching n = 3 0 are considered "large" sample (see Mason et al., 1991), the authors did not view slightly unequal experimental groups as statistically relevant. h In all cases of the t-test analysis, the F value and corresponding two-tail probability was determined to assess the appropriate use of a pooled variance estimate of the underlying t test of significant differences between the two sample groups. Without exception the F values for all comparisons were not statistically significant and thus supported the use of a pooled variance estimate based on 80 degrees of freedom. Subsequent to test administration, the quality of the final data collection device was assessed for internal consistency (see Cronbach, 1951; Cronbach et al., 1963, 1972; Churchill, 1979; Peter, 1979). Reliability analysis of the dependent measures were consistent with those acceptable for research of this nature (Nunnally, 1967) and their estimated correlation with errorless true scores is noteworthy. Item to total correlations are also examined. See Appendix for estimates of reliability, correlations with errorless scores, and item to total correlations. Data Analysis Consistent with an effects approach, response items were classified in terms of attitude and behavioral elements. To preclude analytic dependence on single-item measures, each item set (i.e., attitude and behavioral) was operationally defined as a multi-item, aggregate measure of dependent measures of attitude and behavior, respectively. Thus, aggregate measures of effect were determined by calculation of a simple mean score of all attitude and behavior items, respectively, for each individual. In turn, statistical tests of the a priori states propositions employed these aggregate data. Ten attitude items were intended to denote subjects' fundamental perceptions regarding the utility and its activities, ira- plicitly reflecting respondents' evaluative judgment regarding the firm, its products or services, or its position on specific matters of social interest. In addition, seven behavior items (e.g., "I would be willing to write a letter to my congressman on behalf o f . . . [Firm XYZ]") were intended to denote the inclination, or action-response intention, of the subject to personally engage in profirm activities. Taken together, these attitude and behavioral items were intended to reflect relevant measures of market response on the part of a firm's target audience to the prosocial activities of the firm. For each item gauging the effects of corporate goodwill, a Student's t-test was performed between mean scores for experimental and control groups, both across aggregated attitude and behavioral items as well as separately between specific items. Findings In the following section the empirical data are described as they may relate to the previously noted research questions. Because an appropriate test of Question 3 requires a nonrandom assignment of subjects based on information disclosed during the data collection phase of the research, the analysis of that data was, strictly speaking, not a priori in nature. In 152 J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 view of the fact that in the context of this study a test of Question 3 involves a post hoc assignment and analysis of the data, findings with respect to Questions 1 and 2 are reported as a priori type findings. By contrast, Question 3 is reported as post hoc analysis results. Findings Based on a Priori C r i t e r i a Empirical evidence with respect to each question is discussed in order of presentation. With regard to Question 1, the data were examined insofar as their capacity to effect notable empirical differences in information processing pertaining to CSR on the part of experimental subjects despite its incidental presentation to the declared "purpose" of the experimental task. In contrast to established financial approaches previously used to detect CSR effects, this question presents the opportunity to examine its impact using nonfinancial (albeit quantitative), individual effects measures. Two lines of evidence were noted with respect to Question 1 and fundamentally constitute a verification of the experimental conditions. First, a test of the two experimental manipulation items was carried out. Subjects were asked to respond to two statements regarding the article "reprint" they read. Subject agreement to the declaration that the "feature article stressed matters of social and political importance" was statistically significant (c~ ~ 0.000) for a Student's t-test of 7.84, reflecting a control group mean of 4.48 and an experimental group mean of 6.50 (on a sevenpoint scale). The data also show mean values for control and experimental subjects of 2.19 and 6.55, respectively, for agreement to the statement the "article address(ed) how socially responsible the firm was." Student's t-test value for difference between these statistics is 17.55 and is statistically significant (~ ~ .000). These specific findings are consistent and indicative that the experimental procedures were, indeed, efficacious and evoked a notable perceptual difference with respect to key elements relative to CSR effects. Further, subjects were debriefed subsequent to the experiment. When queried as the intent of the task, none of the subjects raised a question as to the possibility of the experimental assignment(s) being a subterfuge to study the social activities or effects, per se, of the firm. Instead, with respect to experimental distracter items, control and experimental subjects reported statistically nonsignificant mean agreement scores regarding how interesting the article was to read, how easy the article was to read, as well as how favorable the reporting was regarding the activities of the firm. Thus, the data provide findings in support of the notion that CSR information is of sufficient interest to individuals participating in the study to evoke a perceptible effect on experimental subjects. In addition to subsequent evidence reported below, there appears to be empirical evidence for the use of human effects measures to gauge CSR impact. In terms of Question 2, whether subjects' knowledge of CSR aspects are demonstrably positive with respect to attitudes and behavioral intentions, both aggregate and individual measures of the dependent variables were examined. Aggregate K.B. Murray and C. M. Vogel attitude measures (on a seven-point scale) were 3.92 and 5.00 for control and experimental subject groups, respectively. The Student's t-test value for difference between these data is 3.92 and statistically significant (o~~< .000), indicating that composite attitude measurement data support the notion that CSR produces measurably positive effects in test subjects. Of the 10 individual items tapping attitude factors, all are statistically significant (c~ ~< .05) excepting two. Exposure to prosocial information regarding the firm failed to exert any effect on perception of product competitiveness as well as evaluation of the financial record of the company. While these two factors were not positively influenced by the prosocial information, neither were the perceptions of the firm negatively affected on these dimensions. Instead, experimental and control groups viewed these two items in a statistically indistinguishable manner. In a test of behavioral effects of CSR information, composite scores for control and experimental subjects were 3.96 and 4.81, respectively. The Student's t-test score for this difference is 5.88 (o~ ~< .000). Of seven specific items tapping behavioral aspects of subject effect, five reflect positive CSR impact and are statistically significant (oL ~< .05). Prosocial information failed to exert a statistically different response on the part of experimental subjects in terms of their inclination to read the firm's annual report or buy company stock. Statistical data relative to the experimental manipulation values as well as composite and individual items for attitude and behavior measures are shown in Table 4. Findings Based on Post Hoc Criteria Question 3 raises the issue whether CSR effects, although positive for experimental subjects generally, induce uniform outcomes on the part of all individuals in that group. Since the favorable CSR effects of the independent variable represent a random (albeit positive) variable among individuals exposed to the experimental treatment, there is reason, absent Question 3, to expect that dependent scores for any one set of subjects within the experimental group would be equivalent with any other group. In essence, Question 3 tests whether the impact of the independent variable has a differential effect on subjects, based on some basis of stakeholder status. In post hoc analysis, the authors assigned respondents in the treatment group to one of two groupings predicated on subjects' self-reports regarding membership in any type of organization that takes a stand on local (i.e., state or regional) issues. For the purposes of this test, subjects were operationally classified in terms of two distinct groups for the purpose of this test. One group was defined as avowed "community stakeholders," based on their explicit agreement with the statement, "I belong to an organization that takes a stand on local or state issues such as housing, better local government, schools, etc." By contrast, subjects who disagreed or were undecided in their response to the statement were deemed to constitute unavowed stakeholders, i.e., a relatively disinterested group of community participants. The operational deft- J Busn Res 153 1997:38:141-159 Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach Table 4. Effects Attributable to Corporate Social Responsibility Information on Key Stakeholder Measures Test of Between-Subject Likert Scale Statement Agreement Differences Regarding the Firm Attitude Measures Firm is responsive to needs of its employees Firm is responsive to its customers and consumers generally Firm is concerned about truth in its advertising Firm is an environmentally safe company Firm is concerned about better planning of natural resources Firm's services or products are of higher quality than competitors Firm is honest Firm has a good financial record would be pleased to be customer Firm helps to control inflation Composite Attitude Measure Behavior Measures Respondent would be included to . . . Support company if in a dispute with the government Write letter to congressman or editor if firm was attacked unfairly Recommend job application to friend Think twice before believing a negative report about the firm Read the annual report of the firm Support firm in labor dispute Consider buying stock Composite Behavior Measure Experimental Conditions Manipulation Checks Feature article stressed matters of social and political importance Feature article addresses how socially responsible the firm was Student's t-test Value Prob. Control Group Experimental Group n=40 n=42 3.90 4.24 3.29 3.90 3.62 3.71 3.57 5.24 3.95 3.76 3.92 4.95 6.10 3.95 5.05 5.80 4.05 4.60 5.45 5.35 4.70 5.00 3.05 7.65 2.66 4.70 8.76 1.14 5.15 .83 5.58 3.12 8.71 .003 a .000 a .010 ~ .000 ~ .000 a .258 .000 ~ .411 .000 a .003" .000 ~ 3.19 2.86 4.81 2.81 4.90 3.80 5.33 3.96 4.90 4.15 5.65 4.30 5.10 4.45 5.10 4.81 7.29 3.64 3.48 5.05 .58 2.16 .88 5.88 .000 ~ .000 a .001 a .000 ~ .361 .034 a .381 .000 ~ 4.48 2.19 6.50 6.55 7.84 17.55 .000 a .000 ~ "Two-tailStudent'st-test findingsstatisticallysignificantat c~<~ .05 level. nition of "stakeholder" status between those who responded affirmatively, in contrast to those who did not, with respect to the specified statement was meant to provide a basis on which to examine the influence of overt membership in a constituency grouping. (Incidently, the resulting dichotomy between "stakeholders" and "nonstakeholders" was not intended to definitively suggest that individuals without explicit recognition of interest group status might not, in fact, be potential, albeit unacknowledged, stakeholders per se). This operational definition is consistent with segmentation strategy involving respondent psychographic analysis. This is an approach whereby activities, interests, and o p i n i o n s - - o f t e n referred to in segmentation literature as A I O - - a r e used to delineate a group of individuals in terms of a nondemographic, lifestyle variable (see Plummet, 1974; Anderson and Golden, 1984; Wells, 1985; Dichter, 1986; Lastovicka et al., 1990). Indeed, there are good reasons to expect that lifestyle-personal or professional--will affect individual behavior, and therefore would be a useful segmentation variable. W i t h AIO, instead of categorizing individuals on the basis of standard demographic criteria, some relevant variable with explanatory value is relied upon to classify individuals in a manner that has meaning with respect to a higher-order concept of interest in defining a market, public, or stakeholder group (Pernica, 1973; Wells, 1975; Mehrotra and Wells, 1977; Lesser and Hughes, 1986). Indeed, it should be noted that stakeholder identification for both theoretical as well as practical research is a fundamentally subjective process, one in which discretionary judgment and intuition frequently play a vital role. To that end, the authors classification designation was intended to provide a real, albeit tentative test of the prepositional statement in question. In an appropriate examination of the data with respect to Question 3, the dependent measures were tested to determine whether differences exist between self-designated stakeholder and undeclared subjects with respect to attitude and behavior measures. In the case of attitude measures, the discrepancy between the two groups was estimated using a between-subject t-test analysis, which resulted in a specific value of .31 (eL ~< .756); thus, the expected difference for an aggregate attitude measure was not statistically significant (i.e., at a necessary e~ ~< .05 level). For behavior estimates, the t-test value was 2.87 (or ~< .009) and consequently indicative of a statistically significant difference. These aggregate measures of attitude and behavior responses as well as individual measures of each are shown in Table 5. Discussion Consistent with Questions 1 and 2, measures at each level of the hierarchy-of-effects appear to show both a positive and systematic impact on experimental subjects. The data suggest 154 J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 K.B. Murray and C. M. Vogel Table 5. Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility Information on Key Measures Attributable to Stakeholder Measures Test of Between-Subject Likert Scale Statement Agreement Differences Regarding the Firm Attitude Measures Firm is responsive to needs of its employees Firm is responsive to its customers and consumers generally Firm is concerned about truth in its advertising Firm is an environmentally safe company Firm is concemed about better planning of natural resources Firm's services or products are of higher quality than competitors Firm is honest Firm has a good financial record I would be pleased to be customer Firm helps to control inflation Composite Attitude Measure Behavior Measures Respondent would be included to . . . • . Support company if in a dispute with the government •. Write letter to congressman or editor if firm was attacked unfairly • . Recommend job application to friend • . Think twice before believing a negative report about the firm • . Read the annual report of the firm • . Support firm in labor dispute • . Consider buying stock Composite Behavior Measure Treatment Subjects with Stakeholder Designation Yes No n= 14 n=26 Student's t-test Value Prob. 5.00 6.00 3.57 5.43 6.00 3.57 4.57 5.71 5.71 4.85 5.04 4.92 6.15 4.15 4.85 5.69 4.31 4.62 5.31 5.15 4.62 4.98 . 13 .57 1.29 1.33 1.21 1.68 .11 1.33 1.41 .62 .31 .901 .575 .212 .199 .238 .106 .914 .193 .170 .538 .756 5.57 4.43 6.14 3.86 5.29 5.57 5.57 5.20 4.54 4.00 5.39 4.54 5.00 3.85 4.85 4.59 2.99 .74 2.56 1.22 .67 5.33 2.38 2.87 .006a .467 .016 a .241 •505 .000a .025 a .009 a ~Two-tailStudent'st-test findingsstatisticallysignificantat ~ < .05 level. that corporate prosocial endeavors are influential and that a hierarchical evaluative approach is, indeed, sensitive to changes in attitude as well as potential behavior. Except in the case of four specific dependent measures spanning attitude and behavior items, respondents reacted to the firm with prosocial programs in a markedly more favorable manner than the "same" utility for which no prosocial activities were disclosed• Mean score differences for all such items were statistically significant (i.e., ~t ~< .05). Three of the four nonsignificant factors are ones that address the direct, short-term financial judgments or decisions with respect to the target firm. Specifically, the investment inclinations of experimental subjects was fundamentally identical to those of control subjects (i.e., propensity to read annual report, buy stock, or give differential financial assessment are statistically equivalent). This research provides evidence that short-immediate financial effects may not be (1) attainable, (2) detectable, or either. Consistent with previous research, these findings indicate that direct financial "payoff' to firms engaged in CSR is not, at the very least, a likely immediate gain. Whereas previous studies have employed financial measures (e.g., stock valuation, profitability) to gauge CSR impact, this effect is similarly not supported from the particular financially related aspects of this particular study. These "negative'findings could simply be attributed to the incapability of CSR behaviors to produce short-term financial payoffs• It should be noted, however, that although evidence of direct, short-term impact of CSR behaviors is largely absent with respect to financial gain to the firm, long-run economic benefits via indirect effects may be considerable• Such impacts may accrue by means of favorable treatment in the press, the ability of the firm to attract (and manage) superior management and staff personnel, the firm's ability to forestall undesirable regulation, etc. Needless to say, financial advantage attributable to these factors would be difficult to determine and evaluate• In any case, the results of this research are consistent with previous findings on the topic• For item nonsignificant factors it is possible that factors other than information regarding prosocial programs would likely affect the respondents' appraisal of the firm. Perhaps it is unrealistic to expect that information on the prosocial activities of the firm would necessarily be salient in affecting whether an individual would be willing to read an annual report, buy stock, etc. In the context of this research, it is clear why there was an absence of distinguishing characterizations relative to perceived quality differences in the underlying product output of the firm. This is readily understandable, since by definition what constitutes the "product" (i.e., electricity) in the context of this research is uniform across all electric utilities• Insofar as goodwill on the part of particular stakeholder groups is valuable in the strategic ambitions of the firm, a hierarchical measurement approach to estimating those effects is especially instrumental, as highlighted in the analysis of the Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach data with respect to Question 3. That positive effects may be differentially distributed among various stakeholder groups is intuitively reasonable but previously not demonstrated. Precisely why a majority of behavior measures were significant and all attitude measures were not is open to conjecture. At a minimum it is evident that attitude impact of CSR information awareness may be, if only for these particular stakeholder subjects, comparable while action predisposition is different. Whether similar results for other stakeholders--that behavior but not attitude factors are affected--holds will be determined by subsequent research. Of seven behavior items, four were statistically significant, while three were not. One of the three nonsignificant items (i.e., read annual report) was nonsignificant between experimental groups as well in a test of Research Question 2; the other two equivalent items (i.e., write to Congress . . . and think twice before believing a negative report...) likely denote a heightened skepticism among all individuals comprising the respondent sample as to how businesses operate. Compared to subjects who did not view themselves as organized stakeholders, per se, the equivalent behavior predisposition responses of those that received positive CSR information is limited and apparently does not extend to these factors. In summary, then, positive results with respect to Questions 1 and 2 are self-consistent and demonstrate a generally favorable pattern for the effects of CSR on a stakeholder audience. While financial payoffs seem--at least in the short r u n - unlikely, other benefits to the firm are possible and evident. Although "intangible" (in terms of financial denomination, at least), a wide range of goodwill payoffs appear to accrue to the socially responsible firm, some of which are likely to have favorable, albeit indirect, financial consequences. If the social milieu presents a venue of either threat or opportunity to the firm, this research demonstrates that management can now substantiate or, at a minimum, evaluate expenditures directed to CSR activities with empirical evidence. At the very least, this research demonstrates empirically the effects of CSR in terms that are relevant and meaningful to both managers and social activists, certainly compared to previously pursued avenues of tracking CSR impact. Limitations of the Research Several shortcomings of the research reported should be acknowledged. First, in view of the exploratory nature of this research, the post hoc determination of how "stakeholders" were operationally defined--while defensible--merits some discussion. To being with, it is important to note that there is potentially a large number of ways in which stakeholders might be operationally defined. This is the case because the stakeholder concept is potentially quite variegated, whereby there is a very wide range of obvious as well as subtle groupings of individuals who could arguably have an interest in (as well as exert influence on) the firm. As a practical matter, other J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 I55 stakeholder groups are possible to define; indeed, a large number of other publics are feasible. Examples include whether a person belongs to a professional organization that takes a stand on relevant issues; what relevant media habits, lifestyle, professional identity, political views, or social positions an individual may have are others, to name a few. For the purposes of this research, however, defining stakeholders in terms of their affiliation with a local, issue-oriented organization appeared to have face validity with respect to testing whether subjects so classified would exhibit distinctive reaction to the independent variable. While the definition of other stakeholder profiles was feasible, the size of the total sample pool limited the test to only one stakeholder classification. Were other stakeholder types to have also been examined, there would be unacceptable levels of redundancy in the data analysis. Nonetheless, the data as analyzed provide tentative support that stakeholders are differentially affected. Ensuing studies may disprove this finding, but this early evidence is positive in this regard and invites replication insofar as other groups may be concerned. Indeed, subsequent research should examine the effects of CSR knowledge on other types and configurations of publics to test how robust this effect may be. Another relevant issue is the recognition that this study does not fully explore the implications associated with a hierarchical approach to measuring particular phenomena. While the tenets of this technique were neither violated nor obviated, it is important to recognize that longitudinal data represent the most powerful test of their merits. This is true because only when data samples are collected over time with respect to attitude and behavior, for example, can one fully determine the predictive value of prior effects in terms of latter ones. In view of the findings of this research, subsequent examinations of such a measurement technique might well incorporate this aspect to more fully support its relevance and importance to strategic planning and social responsibility management. Contributions and Future Research Although more empirical scholarship is called for as a result of this study, there is encouraging empirical support from this study that provides evidence that CSR activities exert a positive impact on potential stakeholders. Specifically, the findings appear to be supportive of a hierarchy-of-effects approach to corporate prosocial planning and management. These data provide evidence that the effects of CSR are both measurable and empirically demonstrable, at both the individual and group level. Estimating the impact of prosocial activities of the firm--and the goodwill effects--using a hierarchy-of-effects approach contrasts sharply with anecdotal, ambiguous, or frequently insensitive financial measures otherwise used by managers to justify and assess social programs. Instead of dependence on spurious measures, this evaluative perspective provides a range of ways to measure the effectiveness of social 156 J Busn Res 1997:38:141-159 programs. This research offers at least two advantages over extant views of this function of the contemporary firm. First, explicit CSR planning and evaluation maximizes the effectiveness of the prosocial endeavors of the firm in terms of societal benefit and goodwill to the firm. Despite a long tradition in the United States calling for greater social responsiveness by business, little in the form of management heuristics has been forthcoming. To the degree that firms devote more conscious management attention to societal expectations, the more likely it is that meaningful transactions will occur between business and the greater social and political environment. Thus, both society and the firm are benefited: the social environment is likely to receive greater attention (and corporate resources) from business leaders. On the other hand, the firm achieves increased and (potentially) strategic advantage in terms of demonstrable goodwill. By examining stakeholder responses at various levels of public response, executives are able to gauge the relative effectiveness of various programs and to anticipate long-term benefits to both stakeholder groups and the firm. Consequently, executives are encouraged to engage in CSR activities to the benefit of stakeholders of the firm, specifically, and society in general. Second, a market approach to prosocial program development and corporate goodwill evaluation makes management sense. To the degree that prosocial endeavors of the firm are encouraged--and result in the mutual benefit of society and the firm--the need to develop sophisticated management approach to guide these kinds of activities is obvious. Taking a stakeholder approach to CSR provides the impetus to apply and refine extant management techniques to this function. This article has described how planning and evaluation might be viewed when a market approach is adopted. To the degree that business-societal transactions exist, it seems reasonable to expect that selective marketing heuristics, those that guide managers in decision making relative to the conventional offerings of the firm, would be helpful in terms of prosocial activities as well. New and pragmatic management paradigms are needed to facilitate positive, prosocial transactions between the firm and society. Clearly, more research should be conducted in the area of CSR. However, a hierarchy-of-effects approach suggests a promising starting point for future work in this area. Future research endeavors should seek to replicate the findings reported here in several important ways. First, specific efforts should be undertaken to examine stakeholder and/or firm configurations different than those focused on in this research, to determine if the conclusions with respect to managers-as-stakeholders applies to other publics and types of firms. Future research ought to include the examination of CSR effects by type of respondent (i.e., investors, type of employees, politicians, voters, etc.) as well as type of firm (i.e., foreign, domestic, multinational, etc.). While there is reason to believe that a uniform conceptual basis underlies the effects described in this research, that has yet to be shown. K.B. Murray and C. M. Vogel Second, a more theoretical basis for CSR effects needs to be demonstrated. While this research suggests ample evidence in favor of the real-world impact of CSR activity by business, a more elaborate and conceptual framework is called for from a management perspective. Leading this effort is a decomposition of attitude effects such as a decomposition of attitude effects (i.e., what are relevant evaluative criteria with respect to CSR judgments) as well as the determination of the relative impact of CSR "knowledge" vis-a-vis other corporate attributes (e.g., financial stability, new product development strategic profile). Finally, future empirical research should seek to estimate the longitudinal effects of CSR and the merits of a hierarchyof-effects technique in doing so. In this regard, an understanding of the effect of time and other information regarding the firm (or industry) is necessary to extend the contribution of management literature of CSR planning and execution. Future research ought to focus on differential effects of strategic CSR actions by firms in various industries and over time to examine if there are franchise effects attributable to the firm. APPENDIX: Item Reliability Analysis of Data Collection Instrument Correlation Standardized Estimate Coefficient Item of Errorless Alpha Alpha True Scores Reliability Coefficients Attitude items (10) Behavioral items (7) Aggregate measures (17) .78 .60 .80 .78 .60 .80 .88 .77 .89 Item-to-Total Correlation Values Firm is responsive to needs of its employees .34 Firm is responsive to its customers and consumers generally .63 Firm is concerned about truth in its advertising .32 Firm is an environmentally safe company .58 Firm is concerned about better planning of natural resources .57 Service or products are of higher quality than competitors .13 Firm is honest .51 Firm has a good financial record .26 Pleased to be customer .55 Firm helps to control inflation .59 Inclined to support company if in a dispute with the govern- .69 ment Write letter to congressman or editor if firm was attacked .49 unfairly Recommend job application to friend .56 Think twice before believing a negative report about the firm .23 Interested in reading annual report .13 Support firm in labor disupute .43 Consider buying stock - . 17 The impetus for this article was the funding of a study of electric utility consumer affairs programsby VogelAssociates funded through the Edison Electric Institute. 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