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Mata kuliah : J0782 - Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial Global
Tahun
: 2010
Keberagaman, Antar Budaya dan
Atribusi Kepemimpinan
Chapter 10
Learning Objectives
•
Understand why cross-cultural research on leadership is
important.
• Understand different types of cross-cultural research.
• Understand the difficulties of studying cross-cultural
leadership.
• Understand how cultural values are related to beliefs
about effective leadership.
Learning Objectives (Cont.)
•
Understand how cultural values can influence leader
behavior.
• Understand how gender issues have been studied and
the limitations of this research.
• Understand the findings in research on gender
differences in leadership.
• Understand how to manage diversity and provide equal
opportunities.
Introduction to Cross-Cultural Leadership
• Importance of Cross-Cultural Research
– Increasing globalization
– Leaders need to influence people from other cultures
– Leaders need to understand how others interpret their actions
• Cultural Influences on Leadership Behavior
Cross-Cultural Leadership Research: Types
and Difficulties
• Types of Cross-Cultural Studies
• Methodological Problems
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–
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Lack of equivalence of meaning for measures
Confounding effects
Response bias
Lack of representative samples
Level of analysis problems
Cross-Cultural Leadership Research: Types
and Difficulties (Cont.)
• Cross-Cultural Research on Behavior Differences
• Examples of Research on the Effects of Behavior
– Lowe, 1999
– Dorfman and colleagues, 1997
– Schaubroech, Lam, and Cha, 2007
The GLOBE Project
Cultural Value Dimensions and Leadership
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Power Distance
Uncertainty Avoidance
Individualism (vs. Collectivism)
Gender Egalitarianism
Performance Orientation
Human Orientation
Evaluation of the Cross-Cultural Research
1. How does actual behavior of leaders differ across
cultural value clusters and for different countries?
2. How are leader values and behaviors jointly influenced
by personality (and developmental experiences),
company culture, and national culture?
3. How useful is the distinction between actual and ideal
cultural values for understanding implicit theories of
leadership and patterns of leadership behavior?
Evaluation of the Cross-Cultural Research
(Cont.)
4. How difficult is it to change an organization’s cultural
values when they are not consistent with the societal
values where the organization’s facilities are located?
5. How fast are cultural values changing, and what are the
primary determinants of culture changes that are
relevant for leadership?
6. What types of leadership traits, skills, and
developmental experiences are most useful to prepare
someone for a leadership assignment in a different
culture?
Gender and Leadership
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Sex-Based Discrimination
Explanations for the Glass Ceiling
Theories of Feminine Advantage
Findings in Research on Gender Differences
Limitations on Research on Gender Differences
Identifying Causes and Reducing Discrimination
Summary of Leader Gender Research
Managing Diversity
Managing Diversity (Cont.)
• Fostering Appreciation and Tolerance
• Providing Equal Opportunity
Dyadic Relations, Attributions, and
Followership
Learning Objectives
• Understand why different dyadic relationships develop
between a leader and individual subordinates.
• Understand the major findings in research on leadermember exchange theory and the limitations of this
research.
• Understand how leader behavior is influenced by
attributions about the motives and skills of subordinates.
• Understand appropriate ways to manage a subordinate
who has performance deficiencies.
Learning Objectives (Cont.)
• Understand how leaders and followers attempt to
manage impressions about their ability and motivation.
• Understand how attributions and implicit theories
influence follower perception and evaluation of a
leader.
• Understand what followers can do to have a more
effective dyadic relationship with their leader.
• Understand how follower self-management can
substitute for some aspects of leadership.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
• Initial Version of LMX Theory
• Role-Making Stages
• Measurement of LMX
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Cont.)
• Research on Correlates of LMX
• Evaluation of LMX Theory and Research
– Ambiguity about the nature of the exchange relationship
– More elaboration about how exchange relationships evolve over
time
– Clearer description of how a leader’s dyadic relationships affect
each other and group performance
– Incorporation of attributional processes
– Incorporation of situational variables
– More longitudinal research
Leader Attribution About Subordinates
•
Two-Stage Attribution Model
1.
2.
•
The manager tries to determine the cause of the poor
performance
The manager tries to select an appropriate response to
correct the problem
Types of Attributions
–
Internal
• Effort
• Ability
–
External
Reasons for an External Attribution
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The subordinate has no prior history of poor performance
on similar tasks
The subordinate performs other tasks effectively
The subordinate is doing as well as other people who are
in a similar situation
The effects of failures or mistakes are not serious or
harmful
The manager is dependent on the subordinate for his or
her own success
The subordinate is perceived to have other redeeming
qualities
The subordinate has offered excuses or an apology
Evidence indicates external causes
Managers with prior experience doing the same kind of
work as the subordinate
Leader Attribution About
Subordinates (Cont.)
• Research on the Model
• Attributions and LMX
– Type of exchange relationship influences manager’s attribution
• Less critical when there is a high-exchange relationship
• Effective performance more likely to be attributed to
internal factors where there is a high-exchange
relationship
• Ineffective performance more likely to be attributed to
external factors when there is a high-exchange
relationship
• Opposite is true for low-exchange relationships
Correcting Performance Deficiencies
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Gather information about the performance problem
Try to avoid attributional biases
Provide corrective feedback promptly
Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms
Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior
Stay calm and professional
Correcting Performance Deficiencies (Cont.)
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Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance
Ask the person to suggest remedies
Express confidence in the person
Express a sincere desire to help the person
Reach agreement on specific action steps
Summarize the discussion and verify agreement
Follower Attribution and Implicit Theories
• Determinants of Follower Attributions
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Timely indicators of performance
Direct versus indirect actions
Response in a crisis
External conditions
Constraints on leader’s decisions and actions
Leader’s intentions and competency
Leader’s personal qualities
• Implications of Follower Attributions about Leaders
• Implicit Leadership Theories
Impression Management
• Impression Management Tactics
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Exemplification
Ingratiation
Self-Promotion
Intimidation
• Impression Management by Followers
• Impression Management by Leaders
Follower Contribution to Effective
Leadership
• Follower Identities and Behavior
– Need to implement decisions made by a leader and challenge
misguided or unethical decisions
– Willing to risk leader’s displeasure
– Take time and effort to help a leader grow and succeed
– Strong commitment to the organization and its mission
Self-Management
• Strategies
– Behavioral Strategies
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Self-reward
Self-punishment
Self-monitoring
Self-goal setting
Self-rehearsal
Cue modification
– Cognitive Strategies
• Positive self-talk
• Mental rehearsal
• How Leaders Encourage Self-Management
Guidelines for Followers
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Find out what you are expected to do
Take the initiative to deal with problems
Keep the boss informed about your decisions
Verify the accuracy of information you give the boss
Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback to you
Guidelines for Followers (Cont.)
• Support leader efforts to make necessary changes
• Show appreciation and provide recognition when
appropriate
• Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by leaders
• Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the boss
• Provide upward coaching and counseling when
appropriate