Download PascaleJoseph1983

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
THE EFFECTS OF A SHORT TERM THERAPEUTIC CAMPING
EXPERIENCE ON RAISING THE SELF-CONCEPT OF DRUG
ABUSING DELINQUENT ADOLESCENTS
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in
Educational Psychology- Counseling and Guidance
by
Joseph Fitzgerald Pascale
January, 1983
The Thesis
Of Joseph Fitzgerald Pascale is approved:
Ja
Chairperson
California State University, Northridge
ii
This thesis is dedicated to my family whose support and COfltinuing belief
in my efforts to obtain my goals enabled me to complete this study.
iii
I wish to thank the residents and staff of Pride House for their
cooperation which enabled me to complete this study.
I wish additionally to express my sincere appreciation to the following
people for their guidance, assistance and/ or support:
Richard Thiel
James Crane
Don Dorsey
Jan Lacy
Nancy Gottlieb
August Pascale
Jane Prettyman
Marie Treichler
Les Kuberski
and
Little Joe
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
.................................................
Acknowledgement ..................................................
Dedication •••••••
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
iii
iv
vii
Page
1.
INTRODUCTION ..........•....•........•................
1
2.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
............................
9
The Development and Definition of Self-Concept
9
Self-Concept and Its Relationship to Drug Abuse
and Delinquency in Adolescents
29
Therapeutic Camping and Its Effect on the Self-Concept
of Adolescents ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.
4.
5.
38
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
43
Research Hypotheses
43
Subjects •.••••••••••
43
Research Instrument
45
Procedure . • . . • • • • . . • • . • . . . • • • . • • • . . • . . . . • . • • . . . . • • . • • . • .
47
Treatment of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
RESULTS .............................................. .
50
Descriptive Statistics and One-Way Analysis of Variance
50
DISCUSSION ••
60
Review of the Study ••••••
60
Analysis of the Hypotheses ••••
62
Interpretations of the Study
...............................
63
Limitations of the Study
67
Practical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
v
Suggestions for Further Research • • • • • • • • • • . . • . • . • • • • • • • • • •
68
Bibliography . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
Appendix A-
Permission for Study • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Appendix B-
Portions of the admission questionnaire used to
gather demographic information • • • • . . . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • •
78
List of Tables
Table I
Mean scores- total self-concept, pre-test and
post-test Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale..................................
Table II
Analysis of Variance Pre-Test and Post Test Total Scores,
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale • • • • • • • • • • . . .
Table III
51
52
Mean Scores- Pre-Test and Post-Test, Physical Appearance
and Attributes and Happiness and Satisfaction, Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •
Table IV
Analysis of Variance, Physical Appearance and Attributes,
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale • • . • • • • • • . • • •
Table V
54
56
Analysis of Variance, Happiness and Satisfaction,
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale • • • • • • • • . • • • •
vi
58
ABSTRACT
THE EFFECTS OF A SHORT TERM THERAPEUTIC CAMPING
EXPERIENCE ON RAISING THE SELF-CONCEPT OF DRUG
ABUSING DELINQUENT ADOLESCENTS
by
Joseph Fitzgerald Pascale
Master of Arts
in
Educational Psychology - Counseling and Guidance
The effects of a short term therapeutic camping experience on raising the
self~concept
of drug abusing delinquent adolescents as measured by the Piers-
Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale was investigated.
Forty adolescent
residents of Pride House, a drug-free treatment facility, participated in the
study.
The subjects were divided into four equal groups:
experimental groups and two same sexed control groups.
two same sexed
The experimental
groups participated in a short term camping experience and the control group
remained at Pride House.
Both groups were administered Piers-Harris Child-
ren's Self-Concept Scale prior to and following the camping trips.
It was
hypothesized that there would be a significant difference in the self-concept of
drug abusing delinquent adolescents who participate in a short-term therapeutic
vii
camping experience compared to a control group of peers.
treated using a one-way analysis of variance.
The data was
A significant difference in the
total self-concept scores of the males who participated in a short term camping
experience was found, when compared to the control groups of their peers, but
not for the females.
There was no significant difference in the self-concept
cluster scores of Physical Appearance and Attributes and Happiness and
Satisfaction for either males or females who participated in a short term
camping experience when compared to a control group of their peers.
viii
Chapter 1
Introduction
This study is undertaken to add to the empirical information on the
effects of a therapeutic short-term camping experience upon the self-concepts
of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents in a residential treatment facility. This
researcher will try to determine whether there is a move toward a more
positive self-concept because of a short-term therapeutic camping experience.
The question of whether self-concept can be changed once an individual reaches
adolescence will also be addressed. It will, as well, be asked whether there are
differences between the sexes in terms of the effect of a short-term therapeutic camping experience on self-concept.
Organized camping has existed in America for more than 100 years.
McMeil (1957) saw camping in America as having its origin in the Protestant
Ethic. The original goal of organized camping was to improve the mental health
of the normal child. Initially, the improvement of mental health was seen as
the result of fresh air and return to the natural environment for the child. As
organized camping progressed in the United States, there were other more
specific therapeutic gains proposed such as in the areas of emotional growth,
personality growth, elimination of childish behaviors, and promotion of first
steps toward emotional independence.
One of the specific areas studied in
relation to the therapeutic value of camping has been self-concept. This study
is one attempt to add to the data-base in that area.
Kaplan and Reneau {1974), and Shea (1977) have reported that a brief
camping experience - one not necessarily part of an ongoing camp program -has
therapeutic value. Hobbs and Shelton (1972) used a brief camping experience to
"enhance and consolidate" the effects of ongoing psychotherapy groups.
1
This
2
study is set up to measure changes in self-concept as being a part of the
therapeutic value of a short-term organized camping experience of adolescents
in a psychotherapeutically oriented treatment center.
Rosen (1974) found significant increases in self-esteem and internal locus
of control in a summer camp consisting of 30 emotionally disturbed and 131
normal adolescents.
One major drawback of th1s study is the lack of
sophistication of instruments used to measure changes in self-esteem and
internal locus of control. This present study will use a standardized instrument,
the Piers-Harris Children's Self Concept Scale. The lack of documentation and
assessment of the effects of a therapeutic camping experience is one of the
leading drawbacks to research in this area.
One of the other major deficits in the studies done on the therapeutic
value of camping is the lack of control groups. This study has been set up with
the use of control groups which were matched on the demographic variables of
sex, race, and age.
The relationship between low self-concept and drug usage and juvenile
delinquency was demonstrated by Samuels and Samuels in their 1974 study of 37
adolescent members of a drug rehabilitation program in which 75.5% felt that
low self-concept was one of the causes of their turning to drugs.
It has also
been indicated that non-drug-abusing adolescents have a higher self-esteem
than drug-abusing adolescents {Rees 1979).
In another comparative study
conducted by Sunlight (1980), it was concluded that delinquent adolescent males
in residential treatment have a pattern of low self-concept when compared to
non-delinquent adolescent males not in treatment. Therefore, it seems a low
self-concept may be associated with both drug use and juvenile delinquency. It
would appear to be beneficial to find therapeutic treatments that increase the
3
level of self-concept when dealing with both these phenomenas.
The purpose of the study at hand is to examine and compare the changes
in self-concept which take place in drug-abusing delinquent adolescents from a
residential treatment facility who participate with tnose wno do not participate
in a short term therapeutic camping experience.
This study is not a replication of any previous research; indeed, it was
inspired by the lack of empirical research on the therapeutic value of camping
to enhance tne self-concept of adolescents. Tne purpose of this research is to
see if the self-concepts of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents can be changed
in a positive direction by participating in a short-term camping experience. It
attempts to demonstrate that adolescents participating in a short-term camping
experience will snow positive changes in their self-concepts relative to adolescents who do not participate in a short-term camping experience.
Although the focus of this effort will be upon demonstrated results of the
camping experience in relation to self-concept, it is worthwhile to convey how
the notion evolved tnat camping in particular might nave therapeutic potential.
These preliminary reflections touch upon the ecological/mythical perspective
enunciated most notably by
collective unconscious.
c.
G. Jung in his ideas about tne personal and
Briefly, the collective unconscious consists of man's
instinctual, natural experience as a member of the species nomo sapiens. Jung
saw the collective unconscious as nature itself, as well as that part of us which
connects us with the living process. In a modern-day technological society man
develops his intellectual, ego-centered side with neglect of his collective
unconscious. According to Jung {1963), in order to develop a balanced psyche,
men and women must rediscover the long-ignored natural wellsprings within
themselves.
Camping may help serve this purpose by giving man the actual
4
physical experience of living in close touch with nature.
Bernstein (1972) asserts that the wilderness is a positive setting for
working therapeutically with clients with poor self-images.
His rationale is
that settings in which the physical environment dominates over tne social
environment tend to elicit coping behavior and therefore improved selfsufficient functioning.
One of the possible benefits of developing a positive
self-concept is to become more self-sufficient and less dependent. The various
components of developing a positive self-concept will be discussed further in
the literature review, Chapter 2.
The length of time of each camping experience is quite varied in the
literature. This study is using a five-day experience.
Middleman and Seever
(1963) make the claim that a short-term camping experience may be the best
arrangement, especially with adolescents who have a hard time getting along
with each other. The intimacy and the intensity of the experience demands a
great deal from the boys in particular. Since there is a question as to how long
emotionally disturbed adolescents can sustain intimacy without acting out
behaviors, it seems advisable to set a time restraint on the camping experience
to prevent exhaustion of the adolescents' inner resources.
Rawson (1973) conducted a 10 day camping experience for children with
behavior problems, but the results of this study were not significant in showing
effectiveness.
A five-day camping experience was utilized by Hobbs and
Shelton (1972). The participants were 12 emotionally disturbed adolescents who
had been in hourly weekly therapy sessions which had been unsuccessful.
Camping was proposed to take the place of the therapy sessions. The Hobbs and
Shelton study is not an empirical one, but the results do discuss a number of the
benefits of a camping trip, including the emotionally disturbed adolescents'
5
needs to be exposed to adventure. The adventurous component in camping has
been identified by other researchers (Hughes and Dudley, 1973; Lounghmiller,
1965; Rickard, 1971). The prolonged exposure to positive role models was also
reported as a benetit of their camping experience. (Other therapeutic benefits
of camping will be discussed in the section on camping in the review of the
literature, Chapter 2.)
There have been a few studies done on the influence of camping upon the
self-concept of adolescents. Risk (1976) did a study involving 11 individuals who
participated in a 12 day camping trip.
There were positive changes in self-
concept on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Conversely, another study done
by Konle (1976), using the Piers Harris Children's Self Concept Scale, showed
that there was no increase in the self-concept of 20 adolescents as a result of a
camping experience.
That researcher used an experimental group and control
group. The methodology of this study inspired the use of an experimental group
and control group in this current investigation. The Konle study also inspired
the use of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale as the instrument for
the current investigation to assess the change in self-concept as a result of
participating in a therapeutic camping experience.
It will be this study's hypothesis that there will be a significant difference
in the self-concept of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents, as measured by the
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, who participate in a short-term
therapeutic camping experience compared to a control group of peers.
This
study also hypothesizes that there will be a significant difference in the change
in two of the cluster scores on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale,
Physical Appearance and Attributes and Happiness and Satisfaction.
6
For the purposes of this study, self-concept will be operationally defined
as the total score on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (PiersHarris, 1969).
Self-concept as used by Piers-Harris is in accord with the
phenomenological approach as stated by Wylie (1974) which postulates that the
self-concept of an individual is made up of a group of feelings and cognitive
processes which are inferred from observed behavior. Therefore, self-concept
can be seen as a person's total appraisal of his abilities and feelings, background, origins and appearance which culminate as a directing force of behavior
(Thorne, 1967).
Camping will be operationally defined for this study as a five-day outdoor
experience in a National Park where the campers live in tents.
On each
camping trip there were two counselors from Pride House, a residential drugfree therapeutic community, and 10 same-sexed drug-abusing delinquent adolescents who are also classified as emotionally disturbed.
jointly to coordinate daily survival functions:
The campers worked
food preparation and clean-up,
setting up the campsite, supplying wood and water, etc.
The recreational
activities of the camping trips consisted of hiking, swimming, fishing, climbing,
sunbathing, singing around the campfire, and various communal sports. There
were group meetings in the mornings and evenings supervised by the counselors,
where any problems that arose were discussed and plans for the following time
period were set up.
The population of subjects for the camping trips and
control groups was gathered from the total residential population from Pride
House. More specific information regarding Pride House and the subjects will
be discussed in Chapter 3; however, it is important to note at this point that the
population sample does impose limitations on this study.
7
Although the residents of Pride House came from a variety of California
counties, the primary distribution of residents was from the Southern California
area, and most specifically, Los Angeles County. Pride House is a residential,
drug-free facility for substance-abusing adoloscents; thus, all subjects range
from 13-18 years in age. Residents who participated in the camping trips were
selected by the clinical staff at Pride House; therefore, the subjects did not
openly volunteer to participate in the study. Although no one was forced to
participate in the camping trip or complete the Piers-Harris Children's SelfConcept Scale, no one refused to cooperate. The control group was selected in
the same way.
Because of the limited sample size, results of this study will not be
analyzed in terms of demographic information but rather by population sample.
This study will also not take into account the environmental variables which
may influence the outcome, such as the weather on each camping trip, nor
involvement in specific activities while camping, nor the different peer-group
configurations on each camping trip, counselor-counselor and counselor-resident
interactions, nor the fact that there were two different camping trips in two
different weeks, one for males and one for females.
This study
IS
designed
solely to determine whether the self-concepts of the drug-abusing delinquent
adolescents who went on a short-term camping trip changed in relation to those
drug-abusing delinquent adolescents of the control group who remained in the
treatment facility.
In discussing the results of this study these limitations
should be considered.
The remainer of this study will be organized as follows:
Chapter 2 is a review of the related literature. Chapter 3 describes the
subjects, measuring instruments, research procedure, research design and
8
treatment of the design. Chapter 4 is a discussion of the results related to the
stated hypothesis.
recommendations.
Chapter 5 is a summary of the study, conclusions and
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
As stated in the introduction, this study attempts to compare the extent
of change in self-concept for a group of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents
who participated in a short-term camping experience with that of a similar
group of adolescents who did not participate in such an experience.
Research studies and experiments that relate to this area of inquiry can
be classified into three main sections.
The first reviews the theoretical and
empirical research concerned with tne development and definition of selfconcept. The second section narrows the discussion of self-concept to examine
its relationship to tnose adolescents wno are drug-abusing, delinquent and/or
emotionally disturbed. The final section of this discusses therapeutic camping
and its effects on the self-concept of adolescents.
The Development and Definition of Self-Concept
Initial concern for tne self was popularized Dy tne writings of Sigmund
Freud in the early 1900's (Freud, 1900, 1911, 1923, 1933).
Following Freud's
writing, there is a lapse in the literature in the area of self-concept, due in part
to the influence of Behaviorism between 1920 and 1940, typified by J. B. Watson
(1925). Ruth Wylie (1961) notes tnat during this period, little attention was paid
to research on the self from research-oriented psychologists because the self
was seen to be beyond tne realm of measurement and therefore beyond
experimentation. To understand fully why there is such a dearth of literature
during this period, one must look at the impact of European phenomenologists
in the fields of sociology and psychology in the West. Phenomenology developed
9
10
quickly in the 20's and 30's in reaction to the supposed lack of a "scientific"
basis for Freud's theories. Behaviorism was able to lend itself quite nicely to a
scientific approach, whereas phenomenology, because of its lack of measurability and conciseness, suffered in popularity. Despite its shortcomings in
terms of "measurability", phenomenology nevertheless soon gathered supporters
who were looking for a way to respond to questions about the self raised by
Freud.
The phenomenological investigation of the self during this period was
philosophically oriented, as can be seen in the theoretical writings of George H.
Mead (1934), Kurt Lewin (1935), and Kurt Goldstein (1939).
Following that period, clinical psychologists began to give increasing
emphasis to the notion of self.
The self has been perceived as an exclusive
phenomenon, particularly because it cannot be directly observed. Nevertheless,
inferences are made through indirect means of measurement.
As an idea, or
construct, researchers have come to define the unobserveable element called
self-concept in terms of observeable behaviors that are measured. The self is
greatly phenomenological in nature and is built upon the general principle that
men or women react to their phenomenal world in context of the way he or she
perceives this world (Fitts, et al., 1971).
The modern-day phenomenological
approach to self-concept is the approach used in this study which is operationally measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale.
The phenomenological approach to self-concept is concerned with a
person's perception of reality, not reality itself.
This perception of reality is
selective, both in quantity and quality, with the concept of one's self expanding
or limiting the richness and variety of perception (Burns, 1979). The phenomenal field approach was based on Lewin's field theory. Lewin proposed that all
behavior arises from a total field which is not the "real" field, but the field as
11
the behaving individual sees it.
He saw an individual's behavior being
determined by this life field and never completely free or independent of its
impinging forces (Burns, 1979).
The phenomenological field theory was expanded by Snygg and Combs
(Combs & Soper, 1963).
Combs and Snygg believed that conscious feelings,
perceptions and cognitions were the predominant aspect of the self-concept and
that behavior was determined by awareness. They maintained that individuals
perceive themselves as they are treated by others and through their experiences
(Samuels, 1977).
Carl Rogers' self theory is in agreement with the notion that a person
learns to perceive himself as others view him.
Self-concept 1s defined by
Rogers as the "organized, consistent, conceptual gestalt composed of the
relationships of the "I" or "Me" to others and to various aspects of life, together
with the value attached to those perceptions," (p. 88). The ideal self-concept is
then the self-concept the individual would most like to possess and on which he
places the most value (Burns, 1979).
Rogers (1951)
theorized that once the self-concept is developed, all
motivations and interpretations are channeled through it. The developed selfconcept resists all efforts at disruption.
When the needs of the organism for
positive self-concept (or as Rogers calls it, self-regard) is incongruent with
actual experience, psychological maladjustment occurs.
A number of other
modern self theorists have written about this contention in terms of the need to
strive for individual identity, that is, to know oneself and to gain a positive
self-image is a universal human characteristic (Wylie, 1961; Laing, 1969). The
purpose of therapy, according to Rogers, is to decrease the discrepancy
between the real and ideal self-concepts by working toward more self-
12
acceptance and a more realistic ideal self (Burns, 1979).
Another central assumption of modern phenomenological theories of self
is that the enhancement and maintenance of the perceived self is the motive
behind all behavior (Snygg & Combs, 1949; Rogers, 1951; Combs & Snygg, 1959).
Viewed in this way, the person constantly strives to protect, maintain and
enhance self-concept. Moreover, an individual's experience is perceived by its
relevance to the self-concept and thus behavior is determined by those
perceptions (Purkey, 1970). All people, therefore, evaluate the world and its
meaning of it to them in terms of how they view themselves.
The assumption that self-concept is a major influence in determining
human behavior has received a great deal of attention in the modern literature
on self. Bledsoe and Garrison (1962) contend that an individual's perception of
himself may well be the central factor influencing his behavior.
William A.
Fitts (1965) states that self-concept has become a means of studying and
understanding human behavior in general, and that an individual's concept of
himself influences much of his behavior. La Benne and Green (1969) tinds that a
person's self-conception is the principle dynamic of all human behavior.
Dinkmeyer (1965) contends that the individual who is developing an adequate
personality has positive perceptions of self that give him the courage to
function.
With the growth of theoretical research on the notion of the self, there
came the need to define the term "self-concept". In the available literature on
self-concept, self-concept and self-esteem are used interchangably.
It is
difficult to ignore these studies simply because of a difference in terminology,
but their ambiguous nature needs to be recognized (Beane and Lipha, 1980).
Also, it should be noted that many ot the definitions of self-concept include an
13
aspect of self-evaluation which has to do with self-esteem. A good example of
this latter point is the way Vitro (1957) defines self-concept as " ••• the total
appraisal or evaluation which a person has of himself. It is thought to include
such compliments as feelings, attitudes, opinions, etc., which a person holds
about himself and which may or may not be reflected in his behavior," (p. 58).
Vitro is not alone in referring to the evaluative component of the self-concept
as self-esteem (Osgood et al., 1967).
Duval and Wicklund (1972) and Branden
(1969) define self-esteem as self-evaluation.
Confusion about the terms self-concept and self-esteem is evident in
Sears and Sherman's (1964) view which defines self-esteem as "possession of a
favorable opinion of the self, or a favorable selfconcept," {p. 65).
They
postulate that the self-concept is made up of areas or "facets" which vary in
terms of importance to the individual because of the reward value attached to
each. Expectancies are learned with regard to each o1 these areas so that selfconcept determines whether the child will predict failure or success in a given
area.
"Self-esteem results when the child is able to predict success for
important facets of experience," (p. 79).
It is evident from Sears and Sherman that self-concept not only includes
"favorable opinion of the self," but also how an individual perceives himself,
how he evaluates himself and what kind of an image he has of himself. The
development of self-concept is influenced not only by the child's perception of
his abilities but also by the opinions of significant others in his world.
As above, Fitts (1965, 1~69, 1971, 1972) is yet another major theorist in
the field of self-concept who identifies the notion of the evaluative component
of self-concept as being one's self-esteem. In his 1971 study he contends that
the self is made up of three dimensions: the identity self, or self as object; the
14
behavioral self, or self as doer; and the judging self, or self as evaluating
observer. The main operation of the judging self is that of evaluator, but it also
operates as standard-setter, comparer, observer and dreamer. The judging self
observes the identity self and the behavioral self, and makes judgments
expressing pleasure or disapproval with the other dimensions of the self. This
evaluative tendency of the self, according to Fitts, is a primary component of
self-perception, and provides the material sustenance for self-esteem.
Bower and Bower (1976) used the term self-concept interchangeably with
self-esteem. They defined self-concept as a "blueprint or mental picture that
you maintain of your strengths, your weaknesses, your personality," (p. 42). It is
then postulated that self-concept comes into play when you predict whether you
will succeed. Self-concept is acquired as a result of judgments other people
make about one's behavior, as well as observations the individual makes about
his own behavior and its consequences.
The individual is judged, first, by
parents who compare him to his peers assessing the extent to which he
measures up to norms set up for regulating his behavior.
Again, emphasis is
given to significant others, especially parents, in an individual's development of
self-concept.
Stanley Coopersmith (1967) made major progress toward an operational
definition of "self-esteem": "By self-esteem we refer to the evaluation which
the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself; it
expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to
which the individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful and
worthy.
In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is
expressed in the attitudes the individual holds toward himself. It is a subjective
experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other
15
overt expressive behavior" (pp. 4-5).
Thorne (1967 also developed an opera-
tional definition of self-concept by be capable, significant, successful and
worthy.
In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is
expressed in the attitudes the individual holds toward himself. It is a subjective
experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other
overt expressive behavior" (pp. 4-5).
Thorne (1967 also developed an opera-
tional definition of self-concept by asserting that it is a group of feelings and
cognitive processes which are inferred from observed behavior. Self-concept is
the person's total appraisal of his appearance, background and origins, abilities
and feelings which culminate as a directing force of behavior.
For the purposes of this current investigation, self-concept will be
operationally defined as the total score on the Piers-Harris Children's SelfConcept Scale (Piers-Harris, 1969).
Self-concept, as used by Piers-Harris,
refers to self-attitudes which are not only descriptive, but also evaluative. The
evaluative dimension is reflected by the scoring of the items on the PiersHarris Children's Self-Concept Scale in a positive or negative direction. A high
score on the scale is presumed to be an indicator of a favorable self-concept,
which thus becomes interchangeable with the term "self-esteem, 11 or "selfregard." (Piers, 1977). The terms positive self-concept and self-esteem will be
used interchangeably in this study, in order to encompass the material collected
which is relevant to this study of self-concept.
The areas of research relating to relevant aspects of the present
investigation can be classified in the following manner:
(1) Self-concept
development and parent-child relations, (2) consistency of self-concept, (3)
general characteristics of high and low self-esteem, (4) sex differences in selfesteem, and (5) importance of a positive self-concept.
16
Self-Concept Development and Parent-Child Relations
Self-concept development begins early in life in its most fundamental
form, self-recognition.
Wylie (1979) reports that infants at 18 months of age
recognize themselves in a mirror with a dot of rouge on their noses and would
respond to themselves correctly (Wylie, 1979).
An increasingly differentiated
sense of self occurs as a function of the developmental process. As with other
cognitions, the child's self-concept develops from a more concrente view to a
more abstract conceptualization. Pietrofesa and Splete (197 5) suggest that as
an infant begins to develop, it forms a concept of itself in both physical and
psychological terms.
That self-concept becomes progressively more complex
and open to change. Montemeyer and Eisen in their 1977 study of 262 students
in grades 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 have found that descriptions of self changed from
physical appearance and possessions to interpersonal and psychological descriptions. As the child grows older, he becomes more aware of himself in relation
to others. The child then sees similarities and differences between himself and
others, and this gives rise to self-identity. As children become more developmentally mature, they can reflect on, and control, their own individuality. This
development is only possible with the help of linguistic and cognitive development.
The child's ability to differentiate himself from other people is also
related to his ability to differentiate between his real sel:t 1mage and his ideal
self-image. This ability to comprehend the real-ideal self-image disparity can
be seen as an indicator of developmental level.
It is seen that as the child's
cognitive abilities develop, he also becomes more aware of how others may
value him. The values of society become internalized and, in turn, atfect the
evaluation of the self. The child increasingly puts more emphasis on the
17
qualities he feels are desired by society and compares these with his actual
qualities.
Leahy and Huard (1976) have postulated that this comparison is a
manifestation of role-taking. In essence, as the child becomes increasingly more
aware of the roles required by society, he becomes more critical of his own
performance.
Supporting this theory on role-taking is a study done by Katz and Zigler
(197 5).
In their investigation, they compared normal and maladjusted males
between the ages of 9 years, 6 months and 14 years, 6 months in reference to
their self-image disparity. Self-image disparity was not found to be greater in
the maladjusted group, but greater in the older ages. The real self-image was
more negative in the maladjusted boys.
In discussing the development of self-concept, one must look at what
influences come into play.
behavior.
Vitro (1957) says " ••• self-concept is a learned
Persons learn to hate or love self from significant others, based on
feedback at home or other places of environment, such as schools, teachers,
peers and parents." (p. 33). This present study will initially address the effects
of the family on the development of self-concept. The majority of the research
in this area leans heavily on the concepts of imitation and learning (Wylie,
1979).
Bandura (1973) believes human behavior is learned observationally.
Consequently, if a child observes his mother behaving in such a way that says to
h1m that she is worthy and capable or if she behaves in such a way that says she
disvalues her abilities or herself, the child, observing this behavior from a young
age, may imitate the behavior as the acceptable manner in which to present
himself.
There are many parent-child mannerisms and similarities and this
phenomenon seems to carry over into evaluations of the self as well.
18
The correlation between self-concept and parental attitudes is acknowledged in the literature. Sears (1970) significantly associated high self-concept
with parental warmth.
In his study of 159 sixth graders who were tested for
self-concept and whose mothers were interviewed seven years prior, he found
parental warmth to be predictive of a good self-concept in the child. This was
particularly true in the case of boys, and maternal permissiveness was almost as
predictive in girls. Sears goes on to speculate that the parents seemed to exert
equal influence. On the average, one warm parent was seen to be sufficient to
produce a good self-concept.
Family form has also been examined as a possibility of having an effect on
self-concept of children.
In a study by Martz-Baden, et al. (1979) it was
reported that family form has no relationship to self-concept.
The less
traditional family constellations such as the communal family, the single-parent
and child, or an unmarried couple and a child, when compared to traditional
family structures, have much less effect on the child's development than the
actual process in the family iteself. Behavioral problems were attributed more
to conflict in the home than to the father's absence. This can be seen in the
case of juvenile delinquency where the father's absence is much less an effect
than the lack of family cohesiveness.
In this view, the type of family organization appears to be much less
significant than the parental effects on the development of a child's selfconcept.
The overall attitudes of the parents toward the child are more
significantly correlated with positive self-regard than any particular family
form or child-rearing practice.
Warmth, guidance, acceptance, interest and
consistent, reasonable punishment helped contribute to higher self-esteem.
Harsher punishment or negative control and lack of parental guidance and
19
interest were related to lower self-esteem.
Higher self-esteem, self-accept-
ance, and feelings of adequacy of the parents were communicated and modeled
by the child. Coopersmith (1967), also investigating parent-child relations and
self-esteem, has found that high self-esteem boys had firm discipline with
comprehensive rules and limits. Coopersmith not only emphasized parent-child
relations in developing a positive self-esteem, but also the importance of
significant others which would include peers and counselors.
The child's parents and family are the primary influences on
the
development of the self-concept and the peer group is the second most
important socializing influence (Bogers & Andrews, 197 5). Adult-child relations
teach social reality while the peer group offers protected environment for
testing where there are no rights or wrongs (Youniss, 1980). The child in peer
relationships learns to re-evaluate self-judgment of competence and selfesteem and build more realistic attitudes about himself. The peer group is also
influential in the development of social skills, teaches role-taking and sexappropriate behavior, all of which are directly or indirectly related to selfconcept (Bogers & Andrews, 1975). An individual's perceptions of how others in
their peer group view them are more important to the posture of the selfconcept than are the actual perceptions of those others (Goodman, 1973). There
has also been a positive correlation found between self-concept and social
adjustment and between self-acceptance and respect for others (La Beane &
Greene, 1969). When one's feeling for self changed, feelings for others changed
in the same direction.
The importance of the peer group in developing self-
concept increases with the age of the child.
becomes the major factor in self-concept.
In adolescence, peer influence
20
In summary, the self-concept is the view an individual has of himself,
formed from childhood through perceptions of the individual by himself and by
his parents and significant others throughout his life. This view of the self is
formed by forces both internal and external to the self. Whether it is relatively
stable or unstable will be discussed in the following section.
Consistency of Self-Concept
There are conflicting points of view in the literature on whether selfconcept is stable or unstable. Coopersmith feels that a general impression of a
person's self-worth is formulated during childhood and is then consistent over a
period of years.
Combs & Snygg (1949; 1959), Brookover (1959; 1964), Charles
Patterson (1961; 1969), and Purkey (1970) all present evidence that the self-image
is quite resistant to change. In order to maintain and enhance the self-image, a
person utilizes various defense mechanisms such as fantasy, compensation,
.
.
projection, repression, regression, rationalization, and sublimation (Purkey,
1970).
It is believed by Coopersmith that individuals who use these defense
mechanisms do so in order to present a public 1mage that may be different from
their private self-image. Nonetheless, one image that is expressed publicly is
thought to be appropriate and in accordance with society's acceptable norms
and mores.
Coopersmith also believes that in order to feel comfortable and
accepted by others, many people with low self-esteem use defensive reactions
that reflect a denial of their own subjective experiences. Some defenses are
not totally negative, and they may in fact serve a valuable function in most
interactions. The key factor is not whether or not an individual uses his defense
mechanisms, but to what extent he uses them. High self-esteem is a type of a
21
defense mechanism, providing the individual with confidence in his own
judgment and abilities, and increasing the chance that he will feel more capable
of dealing with the environment (Coopersmith, 1967).
Engle (1959) investigated the test-retest reliability of self-concept Q-sorts
taken by 172 high school students. One group was tested in the eighth and tenth
grades, while the second group was tested in the tenth and twelfth grades. The
results for 23 of the students found the average self-correlation was .68 over a
ten-day period and .53 over a two-year period.
Engle also found the self-
concept was less stable over time for those whose initial self-concept was more
negative. This notion of a more negative self-concept being less stable over
time has relevance to this study because the subjects are drug-abusing
delinquent adolescents. And, as mentioned in Chapter 1, delinquent adolescent
males have a more negative self-concept than non-delinquent adolescent males
(Sunlight, 1980).
Drug-abusing adolescents also have a more negative self-
concept than non-drug-abusing adolescents (Rees, 1979).
There is also contrary evidence in the literature that self-esteem fluctuates. Walster (1965), and a number of other researchers lend credibility to this
assumption by their research in which self-esteem was manipulated. Personal
attention from individuals can result in dramatic changes in behaviors, attitudes
and
achievements
(Ashton-Warner,
1963;
Herndon,
1965;
Rosenthal
and
Jacobson, 1968; Rist, 1970). The success of personal contact by counselors is
detailed by Roger, 1961, and Jourard, 1964. Rogers believes the function of the
therapist is to increase self-awareness, self-understanding and self-acceptance
within the client. Rogers (1959) states that for an individual to have a high selfconcept, all aspects of the self must agree in large part with others' perceptions
of them. Therapy is only one mode in which an individual can receive personal
22
attention from another individual. The present study is proposing that the close
and prolonged personal attention from the counselors on the camping trip is one
of the possible enhancers of the campers' self-concept. In addition, camping
can be looked upon as a success experience to these youths, which in turn is a
key factor in their learning that they are worthwhile. Hamacheck (1969) spoke
of the need of students to be helped toward success experiences oy personal
contact in order to increase their self-esteem.
We have arrived at a focal question: Is self-concept changeable and what
helps it change?
Although other researchers have shown self-concept to be
relatively stable, the factor of enhancement has not been significantly evaluated.
The study at hand contends that it is indeed possible to enhance an
individual's self-concept, based upon results of the intervention proposed in the
camping experience.
Means of enhancement in general deserve further study.
From the
available literature, however, we can derive the shape of two directions already
emerging:
one holding that self-concept/self-esteem is enhanced via self-
determination (Branden, 1969), and another holding that self-concept/selfesteem is enhanced in a process of self-actualization through the satisfaction of
human needs (Maslow, 1968).
Nathaniel Branden (1969),
emphasizes the importance of the rational
thinking mind, and maintains that self-esteem can be increased l:>y selfdetermination, which is defined by Branden as the knowledge of one's ability to
form the direction for his life and to make choices. In essence, whether we are
biologically, psychologically or environmentally conditioned in the development
of our self-concept, Branden, as do other existential writers, suggest that we
23
are free to choose through conscious training and learning and through our own
free will.
A counterpoint to this approach is the notion of a relation between the
enhancement of self-esteem and tne satisfaction of several basic human needs
(one of which is choice). Although Maslow {1968) focuses on what he calls "selfactualization" and goes the other way around by positioning the need for selfesteem within his hierarchy, we can assume for semantics' sake a positive
correlation between self-actualization and self-esteem and with this assumption
see a positive relation between the satisfaction of Maslow's list of basic human
needs and the enhancement of self-esteem.
Of demonstrable significance
is
the fact that there appears to be a holistic correlation between Maslow's range
of needs and the camping experience in which all the needs are in some way
dramatically played out.
The proposed intervention of therapeutic camping to enhance self-esteem
incorporates the enhancement of awareness of the need to satisfy one's needs.
Maslow lists these needs in a hierarchy as follows:
1)
Physiological needs.
2)
Safety needs, and Security needs.
3)
Love and belonging.
4)
Esteem needs.
5)
Self-actualization.
Maslow believes that a person needs a positive level of self-esteem as the
final prerequisite to self-actualization.
Maslow states tnat in order to build
self-esteem in a person, it is necessary to help the person expand his awareness
in addition to reprogramming it.
24
To clarify the goals for raising self-esteem, one is referred to Maslow's 13
components of the self-actualized person:
1)
Superior perception of reality.
2)
Increased acceptance of self, others, and of nature.
3)
Increased spontaneity
4)
Increase in problem centering
5)
Increased detachment and desire for privacy
6)
Increased autonomy, and resistance to enculturation
7)
Greater freshness of appreciation and richness of emotional reaction
8)
Higher frequency of peak experiences
9)
Increased identification with the human species
10)
Changed interpersonal relations
11)
More democratic character structure
12)
Greatly increased creativeness
13)
Certain changes in the value system.
Maslow feels that the self-actualized person has sufficiently gratified his
basic needs, i.e., safety, belongingness, love, respect and self-esteem. A high
self-esteem is then absolutely necessary in order for a person to reach his full
potentialities.
General Characteristics of High and Low Self-Esteem
A number of physical characteristics which appear repeatedly in the
literature typify a person with low self-esteem. These include one or more of
the following:
being grossly overweight, a slack and weak handshake, a
careless, sloppy appearance, humped and sagging posture, a timid and uncertain
voice, a sharply turned-down mouth, lack of luster in their eyes, habitually
25
tense and unhappy look about them, or an avoidance of another's gaze.
Coopersmith (1967) states that a person has low self-esteem who lacks
respect for the self and believes he is incapable, insignificant, unsuccessful and
unworthy. Given this negative belief in oneself, a person with low self-esteem
is frequently timid, withdrawn and self-effacing. On the other hand, he may be
arrogant, domineering, aggressive, and fiercely competitive. The person with
low self-esteem often hides behind masks, ls prideful and boasting. Other traits
include a tendancy to dominate, compulsive perfectionism, procastination,
impatience, excessive criticism of self and others, resentfulnesss, complaining,
rebelliousness against authority figures, inability to admit mistakes and inadequacies, and/or tendencies to try to make one's self right or better than others
by trying to make others appear wrong or inferior to themselves.
There are also a variety of psychological characteristics of persons who
have a low self-esteem. These characteristics are as follows: The individual is
unsure of himself or his decision-making.
This makes him anxious and
vacillating; he is absorbed in his own problems, has a sense of inadequacy,
thinks of himself as a loser, is jealous, envious, and suspicious of others
motives. These are people who dislike and reject, hate themselves, are ridden
with shame, guilt, blame and remorse.
They may have a burning need for
money, power, and prestige as well as an untiring need to win, to be liked and
accepted by everyone. They must be right all the time. They may also have an
insatiable need for recognition and approval, admiration, praise, love, and
respect for their perfect character. In each individual with low self-esteem,
there are different combinations and quantities of the above-mentioned traits.
Persons with low self-esteem can be said generally to be followers rather
than leaders, self-conscious, and preoccupied with inner problems.
They
26
perpetuate low self-esteem by having no purpose in life, by having a lack of
faith in self, and by not accepting responsibility for oneself. The following are
characteristics also related to low self-esteem: continuously comparing self to
others; sticking to false concepts, values and assumptions that produce blame
and guilt; not taking action for one's self with respect to one's capabilities;
being harsh, impatient and demanding with one's self.
By contrast, a person with high self-esteem exhibits confidence in his
perceptions and judgments, which enables h1m to trust himself.
Persons with
high self-esteem are characterized by varied reactions, flexibility, effectiveness, less sensitivity to criticism, lack of self consciousness, and lack of
preoccupation with personal problems. Individuals who have high self-esteem
respect themselves, feel competent and consider themselves worthy (Samuels,
1977).
Vargus (1968) found effective high-self-esteem individuals to evidence
generally healthier personalities and more warmth and openness in their
interpersonal interactions.
In summary, high self-esteem will generally result from an individuals'
acceptance of complete responsibility for his individual well-being, taking full
charge of his own life, and satisfying his needs. It is grounded in unconditional
acceptance of the self, despite mistakes, defeats and failures, as an innately
worthy and important being. High self-esteem is a quiet sense of self-respect,
a feeling of self-worth which is the basis to being motivated to reach one's full
actualization.
Sex Differences in Self-Esteem
The literature offers no definite answers as to whether there are sex
differences in self-esteem (Loney, 1972).
Fitts (1965) reports the following
27
conclusion from the original developmental data for the Tennessee SelfConcept Scale: that the variables of age, sex, education, and race apparently
exert no systematic effect upon self-concept. Piers-Harris (1964) evaluated a
test they had designed to measure self-concept, which is the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale, by using third, sixth, and tenth grade students.
Although no consistent sex differences were observed, an item analysis indicated that boys more often denied feeling nervous or worried.
Reed, et al.
{1972) explored class differences related to the self-concept of boys and girls in
elementary school. They found that on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale, lower-class girls had significantly lower self-concept scores than boys,
but middle-class boys and girls did not differ significantly in self-concept.
Consistent sex differences did occur on items relating to behavior and anxiety.
In summary, current findings indicate that boys and girls do not differ
significantly in total self-concept scores. However, boys and girls report their
self-concepts differently, especially on i terns about anxiety and social worth.
Importance of a Positive Self-Concept
The researcher believes that the importance of a positive self-concept is
of utmost importance in a person's life.
One's judgment of himself has an
effect on the types of friends a person chooses, how they relate to others,
whom they choose for a mate and how productive they will be.
Self-concept
also affects one's creativity, integrity, stability, and leadership qualities. The
way a person feels about himself determines the use he makes of his abilities.
and aptitudes. A person's attitude toward himself has a direct bearing on how
he lives all parts of his life. Jereild (1960) explained self-concept as "a
composite of a person's thoughts and feelings, strivings and hopes, fears and
28
fantasies, his views of what he is, what he has been, what he might become, and
his attitudes pertaining to his worth," (p. 42)
Williams and Cole (1968), and Pousissaint and Atkinson (1968) have noted
that the development of a self-concept is necessary for an individual's mental
health. It appears logical to this researcher that an individual's self-concept is
a good indicator of his mental health.
Piers-Harris (1964) worked from the
general theoretical framework of Snygg and Combs, Rogers, and Maslow in the
construction and development of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale.
Thus, it can be assumed that this measurement of self-concept is an
indicator of the individual's psychological health.
A positive self-concept is also important because it is one of the main
motivators to an individual's behavior.
As mentioned previously in the
literature, a person's self-concept helps determine an individual's behavior.
National Branden (1969) defines self-esteem as self-evaluation, the estimate one
possesses of himself. He goes on to state, "the nature of his self evaluation has
a profound effect on a man's thinking processes, emotions, desires, values and
goals.
It is the single most significant key to his behavior. To understand a
man psychologically, one must understand the nature and degree of his selfesteem and the standards by which he judges himself," (p. 113). In a sense, our
behavior will decide whether one succeeds or fails in a certain situation. Fitts
(1972) indicates that high self-concept is highly correlated with job performance, success and duration. High-esteem individuals behave in such a way as
to maximize the probability of success while low-esteem individuals make it
difficult for themselves to achieve success.
It is becoming clearer to this researcher that a healthy self-esteem is
essential to personal happiness and a rich enjoyment of life.
Happiness and
29
genuine lasting inner peace are only possible to the point that one accepts and
feels good about oneself, in spite of one's human mistakes and failures. Only to
the degree that one acknowledges his unique importance and serves one's own
basic needs is that person able to concern himself with the needs and problems
of others, to be truly understanding and compassionate, genuinely warm and
loving. Thorne (1967) stated that the self is always primarily concerned with
existence and its conditions. The self is concerned with conscious experiencing
of being happy and feeling positive.
The self is always concerned with being
somebody, with becoming as fully human as possible.
Self-Concept and Its Relationship to Drug Abuse
and Delinquency in Adolescents
The first area to be addressed in th1s section will be the relationship
between drug abuse and self-concept in adolescents. The second area will deal
with traditional treatment modes used with drug-abusing adolescents in changing their self-concepts.
The third area will address the relationship between
self-concept and delinquency in adolescents.
Before proceeding, it should be
noted that there is a lack of clarity in the literature regarding exactly which
classification the adolescents fall into. It is ambiguous in some studies whether
the classifications encompass one another. The adolescents in the present
research fall into all three classifications: delinquents, drug-abusers, and
emotionally disturbed.
The Relationship Between Drug Abuse and Self-Concept
Most of the literature describing self-concept in the relationship between
30
drug abuse and adolescents is broken down into the interaction of the two and
the comparison of drug-abusing adolescents with non-drug-abusing adolescents.
There is very limited research on this area, but there are some recurring
themes that do appear in the abstracts to follow.
Woititz {1976} compared the Coopersmith's Self-Esteem Inventory scores
of 150 sixth through twelfth grade children.
The subjects were divided into
three groups of equal size and matched according to age, sex, and by the parent
with whom they were currently living. The first group consisted of tnose who
did not attend Alateen but had at least one parent who belonged either to AlAnon or Alcoholics Anonymous. Alateen 1s a teenage support group for children
of alcoholics.
The second group consisted of children who did attend Alateen
and who had at least one parent who belonged to either Al-Anon or Alcoholics
Anaonymous.
The third group, the control group, consisted of children whose
families exhibited no excess drinking. The results indicated that children from
alcoholic homes have lower self-esteem scores and lie sub-scale scores than the
control group. Within alcoholic homes, children who participate in Alateen have
significantly lower self-esteem scores than either of the other two groups.
O'Gorman (197 5) found tendencies for lower distress in adolescents living
in recovering alcoholic or non-alcoholic homes than in homes presenting severe
drinking problems. These conclusions were drawn from a study involving
twenty-nine adolescents from severe problem-drinking homes, twenty-three
from recovering alcoholic homes, and twenty-seven from homes with no
drinking problem. The ages of the adolescents in all three of the groups ranged
from 12 to 18 years, and were all essentially middle class.
In this study, the
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale and the Nowicki and Strickland
Personal Reaction Survey for Children were administered to each group.
The
31
differences between the groups showed the adolescents from severe problemdrinking homes have a poorer self-concept and a more external locus of control
than the control group.
Weinrebe {1967) surveyed forty-five adolescent drug addicts involving an
inventory of reactions to problems arising in interpersonal relationship.
Weinrebe used a modified version of Worchel's Inventory to obtain a measure of
self appreciation, depreciation, and was modified for this study.
cents were broken down into their respective ethnic groups;
Rican, and White.
The adolesBlack, Puerto
Tne purpose of th1s study was as follows:
First, to
investigate whether the adolescent's mother depreciates her husband and sees
her son as more like him than like herself. The results indicated that the White
and Puerto Rican mothers tend to do this. The second purpose was to see if the
mother's appraisals of self, husband and son will be reflected in tne son's
appraisals. The results indicated that in all ethnic groups, the sons saw their
mothers and fathers as more similar than the mothers did and the son's selfconcept reflected their mothers' negative appraisals of them. The third purpose
investigated the discrepancy between the perceptions that mother and son have
of mother and those they have of the son. The results for this third hypothesis
were confirmed by the sample as a whole. This study verified the importance
of sociocultural factors in modifying the subjects' concepts of self relative to
the other members of the family studied.
It is also suggested, due to the
general validity of hypotheses one and three that rehabilitation of the addict
cannot be totally successful unless the mother is brought into the therapeutic
process.
This is suggested because it is proposed that the mother may be an
addictogenic factor in her son's deviant behavior.
32
Egger, et al. (1978) administered the Social Characteristics Questionnaire,
concerning early life and family background, to 400 subjects in Sydney,
Australia.
200 of these subjects were involved in treatment for narcotic
addition and these subjects were matched with 200 non-addictive peers.
The
subjects were asked to respond to the questionnaire by recalling material from
tne age of 12.
The purpose was to investigate characteristics and social
behavior patterns at age 12 that may be predictive of later narcotic addiction.
The findings of this study include family instability, problems caused by alcohol,
illness in the household, and an apparent need of either parent for psychiatric
help. Findings also indicate a high rate of drinking among the fathers of the
addicts and that an unsatisfactory relationship existed between the addictive
subjects and the subjects' fathers at an early age.
Rees (1979) compared the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI), the
Hereford Parent Attitude Survey (PAS) and the Child's Report of Parental
Behavior Inventory, revised (CRPBI-R) scores of twenty-six clinical in-patient
drug-abusing adolescents and their parents with those of twenty-six non-drugabusing adolescents and their parents. The purpose of this study was threefold;
to compare the two groups of adolescents on measures of self-esteem and
perceive parental behavior, to compare the two groups of parents on childrearing attitudes, and on distortion in perceived parental behavior, and to
identify the salient factors contributing to the prediction of drug-using behavior
in adolescents.
The findings of th1s study indicate that non-drug-abusing
adolescents have higher self-esteem and a better perception of parental
behavior than drug-abusing adolescents. Also, the parents of non-drug-abusing
adolescents appear to have a better ability to predict the child's parental
33
perceptions and professed parental attitudes toward confidence and responsibility in child-rearing than the parents of drug-abusing adolescents.
Samuels and Samuels (1974) used an open ended and forced choice
sentence completion instrument to determine if a low self-concept 1s a common
denominator as a causative factor of drug abuse among adolescents.
The
instrument was administered to thirty-seven former poly-drug-abusing adolescents and young adults who were members of a drug rehabilitation center. The
subjects' identities remained anonymous. The findings of this study indicated
that self-concept was not a common denominator as a causative factor of drugabuse in all ot the cases studied, but it did show up often enough (7 5.7%) to be
considered meaningful.
Traditional Treatment Modes
The traditional mode used in treating drug-abuse in adolescents is in
residence in a self-help community. The following abstracts will deal with the
effects of this type of treatment on the self-esteem of drug-abusing adolescents.
Higgins (1977) investigated the effects of self-help therapeutic community
treatment on self-esteem and related psychological variables in drug-abusers.
Seventy-six control subjects were selected from four prison pre-release centers
and one hundred two experimental subjects were selected from seven self-help
therapeutic communities. Both groups of subjects were administered a Personal
Data Form, the Personal Orientation Inventory, and the Tennessee Self-Concept
Scale. Twenty experimental subjects selected at random were interviewed using
the Psychiatric Status Schedule. The results showed there was a significant
difference in self-esteem between the experimental and the control groups in
34
terms both of higher scores for experimentals over-time (P<.05) and the
interaction effect (p<:::, .101). The results for total psychopathology showed that
there was a significant negative correlation between total psychopathology and
self-esteem (p <::. .01).
Gold and Coghlan (197 5) tested thirty-two poly-drug-abusing males and
twenty-one poly-drug-abusing females twice; once after thirty days in the
program and a second time six months later.
All subjects were residents of
Holy Cross Campus which 1s a residential treatment center for drug-abusing
adolescents. Rotter's Locus of Control (I-E) scale was administered to measure
changes in belief in internal vs. external control of reinforcement as a result of
treatment. The Self-Esteem Survey (SES) was also administered to measure
changes in self-esteem as a result of treatment.
The results of this study
report that both males and females have more internal scores after six months
and higher mean scores on the SES, reflecting more positive self-evaluation.
The Relationship Between Self-Concept and Delinquency in Adolescents
The research in the area of relationship between self-concept and
delinquency in adolescents is somewhat limited. The first area to be examined
in the following abstracts will be the sources of an individual's self-esteem.
The second area will compare the self-concept of delinquents with that of nondelinquents. The final area will look at some of the basic commonalities in the
self-concepts of delinquents.
Tsubouchi and Jenkins (1969) administered a questionnaire, Parent-Child
Relations Questionnaire, and the MMPI to one hundred residents of the Iowa
Training School for Boys. The subjects were classified into three groups; fortythree delinquents (SD); twenty-four unsocialized aggressive delinquents (UA);
35
and thirty-three runaways (RA).
The subjects were evenly matched between
groups regarding age, level of education, and intelligence. The purpose of this
study was to investigate the relationship between frustration and/or motivation
and how it contributes to delinquency.
Crowley (1978) interviewed adolescent probationers between the ages of
12 and 17 years, using a self-report method and police contact measures of
delinquency.
The probationers' mothers were interviewed separately for this
study. The effect of youth's emotional attachment to a conventional mother,
and the effect upon delinquency of the interactions of maternal perceptions of
the child with the youth's own self-concept were investigated. The only
, significant findings involved self-report measures and concluded that maternal
approval of the child seemed to reinforce the child's own tendencies and that
maternal attitudes are interpreted in light of youth relationships with their
mothers. The findings of this study interpreted the observed pattern of results
to imply that mothers who approve of delinquent-like traits and of delinquent
youths are giving permission for delinquent activity, either explicity or
covertly.
Sunlight (1980) compared forty delinquent adolescent males in residentiai
treatment centers, age 15 through 17, with forty non-delinquent adolescent
males not in residental treatment, age 15 through 17. The Piers-Harris SelfConcept Scale, the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, and the
Rokeak Value Survey were administered to both groups. The purpose of this
study was to see it the delinquent adolescent male in residential treatment has
different traits of self-concept. A different perception of locus of control and
different terminal and instrumental values that differentiate h1m from the nondelinquent.
This study concluded that the delinquent adolescent males in
36
residential treatment have a pattern of low self-concept, externallty in the
area of locus of control and have more self-centered values than the group of
non-delinquent adolescent males not in residential treatment.
Deitche (1959) using an earlier version of the Tennessee Self-Concept
Scale compared the self-concepts of delinquents and non-delinquents.
Each
group was composed of fifty white, 15 and 16 year old males. The subjects were
matched on age, Stanford-Binet I.Q., ethnic origin and home stability.
results were as follows:
The
the difference in total positive scores were statisti-
cally significant (p < .01); when analyzed as row and column subscores, it was
found that self-satisfaction and behavior are both significantly different
(p < .01); when analyzed as column scores, the groups differed on moral-ethical
self and family self (p <..01); and on social self {p < .05).
In every case the
direction of the difference in scores revealed a more positive mean selfconcept for the non-delinquents than for the delinquents.
Fitts and Hamner (1969) compared a number of different research studies
that have reported consistent patterns on the profiles of the group means of
delinquents on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The comparison of profiles
from investigations by Atchison (1958), Angelino {unpublished data), Deitch
(1959), Lefeber (1965), Richardson (unpublished data), Joplin {unpublished daa),
Kim (1969), and Rickard et al. (unpublished data) show striking similarities in
form as well as level. These eight investigators provide self-concept data on a
total of four hundred ninety-two adjudicated delinquents, three hundred ninety
males and one hundred two females. The results of this investigation postulate
that there are a number of similar characteristics of a delinquent's self-concept
on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale.
First, delinquents constitute a homo-
geneous group, with low self-concepts as shown by the mean in their total
37
positive scores.
The Row Positive Scores show significant deviation in the
negative direction which can be interpreted as the delinquent's feeling that he
is not much good and that his behavior is proof of this, but that he is not really
so uneasy with what he is.
Another important finding Is the delinquent's
perception of self in reference to his family. The delinquents scored very low
on the positive score in column D (Family Self). It appears the delinquent feels
unworthy as a family member. There are higher variability scores for delinquents than for non-delinquents.
From this it can be inferred that the
delinquents showed a greater tendency to compartmentalize different areas of
the self and rate them very differently from each other.
The Psychological
Harmony scores of the delinquents show that they are typically in a state of
extreme inner tension and dissonance. From these findings, it was proposed that
the rehabilitation of delinquents should concentrate first on the areas of selfregard that are the greatest trouble spots. It was further suggested that this
might mean helping the delinquents come to feel that they are needed, valued,
and worthy members ot some kind of surrogate family or group. In the present
investigation, the camping experience is seen as attempting to satisfy these
needs.
Therapeutic Camping and Its Effect on the
Self-Concept of Adolescents
The first area to be discussed in this section will be an overview of the
therapeutic benefits of a camping experience. The second will be camping's
therapeutic effect on changing the self-concept of the following groups of
adolescents: normal, emotionally disturbed, and delinquent. Noteably there is
38
a lack of research in the literature on the use of camping in changing the selfconcepts of drug-abusing adolescents.
Therapeutic camping may be seen as having its origin in the Protestant
Ethic. Camping was viewed as a means to overcome idleness and/or undirected
activity which was destructive to an individual's character. An orderly program
of character-building activities, under the supervision of adult role models, was
the essential pattern of camping in its early days. The therapeutic camping
experience evolved to offer the modern day camper the following benefits: 24
hour a day control without institutionalization, a relaxed environment without
punitive discipline, motor outlets for the reduction of tension, the chance for
exciting adventures without reverting to anti-social activities, a real living
situation for therapy in contrast to the more artificial interview contact of the
agency, and an opportunity to observe the adolescent in actual relationships to
peers, adults, nature, work and play. These benefits are related to the learning
goals for modern-day campers which are as follows:
(l)
to increase the
camper's sense of personal confidence and encourage personal growth, (2) to
develop interpersonal competence and sensitivity through mutual support within
the group, and (3) to develop a spiritual attitude which can be enhanced by an
increased familiarity and identification with the natural world.
One ot the most therapeutic benefits of camping is the joining of one with
nature in the wilderness environment.
It has to be theorized that the
configuration of stimuli present in the wilderness are conducive to improved
self-sufficient functioning. The wilderness stimuli include a low density of
human population, low levels of noise and movement, and a slow rate of change.
Therefore, the wilderness offers a high degree of predictability and little that is
conflicting or ambiguous.
These stimuli constitute a behavior setting which
39
evokes coping behavior over defensive behavior.
Defensive behavior is most
demanded in settings where the social environment 1s dominant over the
physical environment.
Hence, the wilderness environment of the camping
experience presents a behavior setting conducive to improved self-sufficient
functioning (Bernstein, 1972).
Self-reliance provides an opportunity to prove
one's worth which 1s a basic component of a positive self-concept.
The camping setting is an informal atmosphere which offers a great deal
of physical freedom. The feeling of confinement that an individual develops
while in an institution is contrasted by the great deal of physical freedom one
experiences while camping. It can proviae a complete therapy milieu in which
the adolescent is surrounded by his therapy program to such an extent that
every· facet of his living is incorporated into it.
An adolescent's defense
mechanisms can be weakened in a camping experience as survival becomes a
necessity, and this can help facilitate the therapeutic process.
The physical challenge of a camping experience has been postulated to
have a therapeutic e:tfect on delinquent adolescents.
Kelly and Baer (1969)
compared traditional training school experience and a program of severe
physical challenge on their effectiveness in reducing further delinquency in
adolescent boys who are adjudicated delinquents. The effectiveness was measured by comparing the recidivism rates between two matched groups.
Sixty
boys in an experimental group attended Outward Bound schools while a
comparison group of sixty boys were treated in a routine manner by the
Massachusetts Division of Youth Service. The recidivism rates of the two
groups were compared after one year of parole. Twenty percent of the
experimental group recidivated as opposed to forty-two percent of the comparison group. All subjects improved in their self-concept and in social attitudes
40
as measured by the Semantic Differential and Jesness Inventory, non-recidivists
showing greater positive change.
The results suggest that, for some delin-
quents, a program such as Outward Bound, which presents a severe physical
challenge, is a desirable alternative to traditional institutional care.
The
authors of this study also offer research suggestions which include the need to
conduct research on components of the Outward Bound program. Tne present
investigation is an attempt to look at several of these components.
Clifford and Clifford (1967) tested thirty-six adolescent males between
the ages of 16 and 21 before and after an Outward Bound survival training
experience. There was a statistically significant increase in the self-concept of
the adolescents. The design of this study is flawed due to the lack of a control
group.
Kale and Busse (1969) investigated trail camping as a means to reshape
delinquent behavior. The entire camping experience was designed to carry out a
number of principles that have been found effective in reshaping delinquent
behavior. These principles are:
exposure to non-delinquent models, intense
small group interaction, focus on specific behaviors, immediate rewards and
punishments and mutual interdependence. These principles were also incorporated into the present study's camping experiences.
Nye (1975) investigated the influence of an Outward Bound program on the
self-concept of the participants. The participants were thirty-eight male and
forty-six female high school students who participated in a 24 day coeducational course. A control group of fifty male and twenty-eight female students
taking summer courses were used. The two groups are considered comparable
because their pre-test scores for self-concept on the Tennessee Self-Concept
Scale were close. Nye concludes that the participants' self-concept increased
41
significantly. Since there were few male/female differences, the scores would
be unrelated to sex.
Risk (1976) investigated the effects of an experimental wilderness survival
experience on self-concept, personality and values. Two sets of pre-tests and
two sets of post-tests were administered to eleven subjects; six males and five
females. The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale was used to meausre self-concept,
the Sixteen Personality Test was used to measure personality, and the
Rokeach's Value Survey was used to measure values.
The findings on the
following variables of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale changed significantly;
total positive, self-satisfaction, physical self, moral ethical self, defensive
positive and general maladjustment. There were also significant alterations in
the findings of the Sixteen Personality Factors Test in relation to: atfected by
feelings vs. emotionally stable; sober vs. happy-go-lucky; trusting vs.
suspic-
ious; practical vs. imaginative; group dependent vs. self-sufficient; relaxed vs.
tense.
The findings on three terminal values on Rokeach's Value Survey -
freedom, mature love, and wisdom - changed while three instrumental values
showing shifts were:
broadminded, forgiving and polite. Subjects also kept
journals from which information was extracted to parallel the test data.
Journal entries and discussions with the participants showed very positive
reactions on the part of the group members.
Murphy (1976) found that there were positive self-concept changes for
those low socioeconomic children who attended decentralized camping programs. There also were no statistically significant differences found between
the low socioeconomic children and others on measures of self-concept. There
is a recommendation for further research on this point, as well as for
exploration of the concept of decentralized camps as alternative mental health
42
institutions. These conclusions were drawn from a study of four decentralized
camps. The subjects consisted of two hundred thirty-seven lower socioeconomic
children, pretested on the day after they arrived at camp and post-tested on the
day before they left camp. A control group of twenty-four low socioeconomic
children who did not attend camp were tested at a two week interval. A third
group of thirty fee-paying children, who were not of a low socioeconomic class
and did attend camp, was also used as a comparison group. The Piers-Harris
Self-Concept Scale and the Draw-a-Person test were used to evaluate the
groups.
Chapter 3
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Chapter three will present the methods and procedures of this study in
five descriptive sections; (1) the research hypotheses, (2) the subjects, (3), the
research instrument, (4) the procedures, and (5) treatment of data.
Research Hypotheses
There are two research hypotheses which will be investigated in this
study:
H 1.
There will be a significant difference in terms of improved self-
concept of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents participating in a short-term
therapeutic camping experience compared to a control group of peers.
H2.
There will be a significant difference in postive change between
drug abusing delinquent adolescents participating in a short term camping trip
compared to a control group of peers in the Physical Appearance and Attributes, and the Happiness and Satisfaction cluster scores of the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale.
Subjects
The population of Pride House during the month of July 1982 had the
potential to become the participants in either the experimental group or the
control group in this study. The subjects in the experimental groups were
selected by the clinical staff at Pride House.
43
44
The selection process took place in a clinical staff meeting setting. The
children chosen for inclusion in the experimental group were selected by a joint
decision making process of the entire staff. Regarding the children, the entire
staff reached a consensus on those who were chosen for inclusion in the study.
The subjects in the control groups were selected on a voluntary basis and
matched with the expenmental group on the demographic variables of age, sex
and race. Forty adolescents ranging from 13 to 18 years, with a mean age of 16,
comprised the study.
The sample for the experimental groups comprised ten males in one group
and ten females in the other group. The population for the control groups was
arranged similarly with ten males in one group and ten females in the other
group.
Of the total population, 60 percent (24) were White, 25 percent (10)
were Mexican American, 10 percent (4) were Oriental American, 5 percent (2)
were Black. The socioeconomic status of the adolescent's family was difficult
to assess since many of the subjects have primarily been living in institutions,
foster homes, or other placements. From the information obtainable, the range
in socioeconomic status appeared to exclude only upper/upper-class members.
The majority of the adolescents appear to be from a lower- middle-class background. The grade level of education completed ranges from seventh to
eleventh grades with 8.8 representing the mean grade level completed. The
drugs of abuse used by individual subjects varied.
Marijuana and alcohol had
been used at one time or another by all subjects. Other drugs of abuse included:
(1) over-the counter drugs, (2) hashish, (3), solvents, (4) inhalants, (5) hallucino-
gens, (6) amphetamines, (7) barbiturates, (8) PCP, (9) cocaine, and (10) heroin.
All residents of Pride House receive detoxification treatment, if necessary,
before being admitted to the program. The adolescents in this study are all
45
wards of the court and have been classified as emotionally disturbed by the
clinical professionals at Pride House.
Research Instrument
The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About
Myself, (1969)), was used to measure self-concept which was crucial to testing
the Null hypothesis. The Admission Form from Pride House was used to gather
demographic information.
The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale is a self-report assessment
instrument measuring self-concept.
The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale was administered to obtain a rating of each adolescent's self-esteem. The
scale consists of eighty self-referenced statements designed for children over a
wide age range with a third grade reading level. The scale is a "force-choice"
instrument, with each adolescent answering, "Yes, that is generally like me" or
"No, that is generally not like me." The items are declarative sentences, half
indicating a positive self-concept and a little over half indicating a negative
self-concept. Terms that are negative in nature, such as "don't", are not used
to avoid confusing the subject. The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
combined various components of self-esteem, including physical appearance and
attributes, behavior, intellectual and school status, anxiety, popularity, happiness and satisfaction.
Consequently, the Piers-Harris provided a generalized
score of the way a child felt about himself (i.e., his self-esteem).
The Piers-
Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale is self-administering, and the administration time varies between approximately fifteen and twenty minutes.
46
The Piers-Harris "Scale is a bipolar instrument. Bipolar instruments have
some characteristic limitations (McNeilly, 1972), and although they do not
negate the reliability of the Piers-Harris Scale, they do affect the validity
somewhat. Corrected odd-even reliability coefficients of .90 (Grade 6) and .87
(Grade 10), test-retest reliability of .77 (Grade 5 after four months), and KuderRichardson 21 coefficients, ranging from .79 to .93 have been reported in the
manual and other literature.
The validity of the Piers-Harris Scale is less explicit than its reliability.
A thorough review of this scale was done by Wylie (1974).
She explained that
"oblique evidence about the construct validity is provided by a few studies
which test theoretically predicted associations with other variables," (p. 176).
Supporting theoretical predictions were found with scores from the following
studies: Black children who showed Black preference in terms of puppet choice
had significantly higher Piers-Harris scores (Harris & Braun, 1971); Piers-Harris
scores correlated significantly with scores from the Children's Manifest Anxiety
Scale (MHlen, cited in Piers, 1969); and total Piers-Harris scores correlated
significantly with the subjects' perceptions of loving vs. rejecting parents (Cox's
unpublished data, cited by Piers, 1969). (Wylie, 1974, p. 179).
There is virtually no information available for the convergent validity of
the total self-concept score from Piers-Harris, but it is important to note that
Mayer (1965) compared scores on the Piers-Harris Scale with scores on Lipsitt's
Children's Self-Concept Scale (1958).
The sample population consisted of
ninety-eight special education students, 12 to 16 years of age. A correlation of
.68 was obtained. Even though the multi-trait/multi-method matrix technique is
indispensable for evaluating convergent and discriminate validity, it was not
included in any such matrix (Wylie, 1974).
47
There is one internal factor analysis available for the eighty-item form
(Piers-Harris, 1964; Piers, 1969).
This analysis showed that "ten factors
accounted for 42% of the variance and six were large enough to be interpretable ••• Presumably no evidence for a general factor was found, although the
authors apparently intended their test to reflect a child's 'general self-concept"'
(Wylie, 1974, p. 177). This point of contention was contrasted by Bentler in his
mostly favorable review of Piers-Harris in Buros (1971).
He argues that "a
principal-component's analysis of binary items tends to lead to too many
factors"; he goes on to speculate that "Piers-Harris may be more unidimensional
than the available factor analysis suggests." (p. 306).
In summary, despite its noted drawbacks, the Piers-Harris Children's SelfConcept Scale was chosen for this study as the best available means to gauge
self-esteem in subject individuals.
Procedures
In order to obtain permission to involve Pride House residents in this
study, a complete sample set of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
and a written proposal describing the study was submitted to the Director of
the facility. Testing times were agreed upon and written permission to proceed
was granted. Testing was administered in the following manner.
On the day
preceeding each camping trip, the pre-test was administered to both the
experimental and control groups. On the day of return of each camping trip, the
post-test was administered to both the experimental and control groups. Both
testing sessions occurred at the same location. The standard administration
48
procedures, according to the manual for the Piers-Harris Children's SelfConcept Scale were followed. An outside facilitator was present to administer
the tests and explain the instructions. Once completed, the tests were hand
scored according to the manual for the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale and filed.
A time period of five days was chosen for the camping trips, not only for
practical reasons, but also due to the time limitations of the agency. A short
time period, such as five days, appeared to be an appropriate length of time for
each camping trip, according to information found in the literature. Middleman
and Seever (1963) have stated a short-term camping experience is good,
especially with adolescents who have a hard time getting along with each other.
Hobbs and Shelton (1972) utilized a five day camping experience to elicit many
therapeutically inherent benefits of camping with emotionally distrubed adolescents.
Both camping experiences began with an approximate six hour van
excursion to a national park in Central California. The campers on each trip
were all of the same sex; they included two counselors from Pride House's
clinical staff and ten adolescent residents presently in treatment at Pride
House. The daily activities for the five days were jointly shared responsibilities
for both the adolescents and the counselors. The survival function activities
consisted of setting up the campsite, preparation of food and clean-up, the
supplying of water and wood, washing, etc.
The recreational activities
consisted of hiking, swimming, fishing, climbing, singing around the camp fire,
sunbathing and various communal sports. The agenda for each day was set up
during group meetings; one in the morning and one in the evening. The group
meetings were also used to discuss any problems that were apparent to the
49
campers, with the counselors acting as supervisors. At the end of the five day
camping period, there was a six hour return van excursion to Pride House.
Treatment of the Data
The data was treated using one method of statistical analysis. A one-way
analysis of variance was used to determine if the sample means of the two
groups were significantly different from one another. Both total scores and the
sub-scale scores of Physical Appearance and Attributes, and Happiness and
Satisfaction were analyzed in this manner. Pre-test scores were compared to
explore the possibility of pre-treatment differences between the two groups.
Post-test scores provided the major analysis and measures of change. The level
of significance established for rejection of the hypotheses was .05.
Chapter 4
Presentation of the Results
The presentation of the analyses of the data will be reviewed in the
following manner. The total self-concept scores obtained from pre and post
testing of all male and female groups will be analyzed. The two cluster scores
of all male and female groups, pre and post test, will be analyzed separately.
The following sections report the results associated with these procedures.
Analysis of Variance
Hypothesis 1
As was indicated, Hypothesis 1 states there will be a significant difference
in the self-concept of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents participating in a
short-term therapeutic camping experience compared to a control group of
peers.
Refer to Table I when examining the analysis of variance results. Therein
are found the mean scores for the total measure of self-concept, on the pre and
post test of both groups, separately for males and females. Table II summarizes
the ANOVA results for the total scores of the pre and post test.
50
51
Table I
Mean Scores- Total Self-Concept, Pre-Test and Post-Test
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
Group
Pre-Test
Mean
Pre-Test
Standard
Deviation
Post-Test
Mean
Post-Test
Standard
Deviation
Experimental
Group Males
51.9
12.98
57.4
10.75
Control
Group Males
42.6
11.51
44.6
8.77
Experimental
Group Females
43.0
9.76
42.8
12.29
Control
Group Females
40.7
21.33
37.7
24.43
52
Table II
Analysis of Variance
Pre-Test and Post-Test Total Scores
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
Source
Sums
of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F-Ratio
Total Score Pre-Test Males
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
432.45
3,009.30
3,441. 75
1
18
19
432.65
167.18
2.59
1
18.05
297.47
0.06
1
18
19
819.20
106.93
7.66*
1
18
19
130.05
415.54
0.31
Total Score Pre-Test Females
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
18.05
5,354.50
5,372.55
18
19
Total Score Post-Test Males
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
819.20
1,924.80
2,744
Total Score Post-Test Females
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
*P <. .05
130.05
7,479.70
7,609.75
53
After examination, it is evident that pre-test scores are not significant
for either the males or females, indicating that pre-treatment differences did
not exist. The females also showed no significant difference on the post-test.
However, there was significance in the total scores for the males on the posttest. The males in the experimental group scored significantly higher
(Mean= 57 .4) than males in the control group (Mean=44.6).
There was partial support found for HI in that males appeared to exhibit
higher self-concept scores after the camping experience.
Analysis of Variance
Hypothesis 2
Physical Appearance and Attributes
As was indicated, hypothesis 2 states there will be a significant difference
in change between the experimental and control groups in the Physical Appearance and Attribute cluster scores on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale.
Table III summarizes the mean scores for the cluster factors. It should be
noted that the control groups scored generally lower than the experimental
groups on both factors.
However, there was little difference in the scoring
patterns between the groups at the pre-test phase.
54
Table III
Mean Scores- Pre-Test and Post Test
Physical Appearance and Attributes and Happiness Satisfaction
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
Pre-Test
Means
Physical
Appearance
Attributes
Pre-Test
Means
Happiness
Satisfaction
Post-Test
Means
Physical
Appearance
Attributes
Post-Test
Means
Happiness
Satisfaction
Experimental
Group Males
9.5
7.0
10.7
8.4
Control
Group Males
8.5
7.1
9.0
7.3
Experimental
Group Females
7.1
5.9
7.5
6.3
Control
Group Females
6.4
5.4
6.7
4.9
55
Table IV summarizes the analysis of variance for the cluster factor,
physical appearance and attributes. There was no significant difference on the
pre-test scores for the males, again indicating few pre-treatment differences.
The females also showed no significant difference on the pre-test scores.
Accordingly, there were no post-test significant differences for either males or
females on physical appearance and attributes.
Hypothesis 2, as operational-
ized by the physical appearance and attributes factor, does not appear to be
supported.
56
Table IV
Anali:sis of Variance
Phi:sical AEEearance and Attributes
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
Grou2
Sums
of
Sguares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Sguare
F-Ratlo
Pre-Test Males
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
8.45
283.30
291.55
1
18
19
8.45
15.74
0.54
6.05
302.90
308.95
1
18
19
6.05
16.83
0.36
8.45
283.30
291.75
1
8.45
15.74
0.54
18
19
.80
374.20
375.00
1
18
19
0.80
20.79
0.40
Pre-Test Females
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Post-Test Males
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Post-Test Females
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
57
Analysis of Variance
Hr?othesis 2
Happiness and Satisfaction
As was previously stated in Hypothesis 2 proposes that there will be a
significant difference in change between the experimental and control groups in
the Happiness and Satisfaction cluster scores on the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale.
Table III summarizes the mean scores for this cluster factor. As was found
for the Physical Appearance factor, the control group scored generally lower
than the experimental groups. It is also important to emphasize that there was
little difference between groups at the pre-test phase.
Table V summarizes the analysis of variance for the cluster factor,
Happiness and Satisfaction. There was no significant difference on the pre-test
scores for the males. The females also showed no significant difference on the
pre-test scores. Accordingly, there was no post-test significant differences for
either males or females on Happiness and Satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2, as
operationalized by the Happiness and Satisfaction factor, does not appear to be
supported.
58
Table V
Anal~sis
of Variance
HaEEiness and Satisfaction
Piers-Harris Children's Self-ConceEt Scale
GrouE
Sums
of
Sguares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Sguare
F-Ratio
Pre-Test Males
Between Groups
Within Groups
TOTAL
6.05
184.90
190.95
18
19
6.05
10.27
0.59
1.25
191.30
192.55
1
18
19
1.25
10.63
.12
.05
100.50
100.55
1
18
19
.05
5.58
.01
9.8
181.0
190.8
1
18
19
9.80
10.06
.97
1
Pre-Test Females
Between Groups
Within Groups
TOTAL
Post-Test Males
Between Groups
Within Groups
TOTAL
Post-Test Females
Between Groups
Within Groups
TOTAL
59
In summary, the results of the study partially support Hypothesis 1 and
there does not appear to be any support for Hypothesis 2. A detailed discussion
of the results will follow in Chapter 5.
Chapter 5
Discussion
The final chapter will be divided into six sections. The first section will
provide a condensed review of the study.
The second section will present an
analysis of each hypothesis and draw conclusions about each hypothesis.
The
third section will discuss the interpretations of the results. The fourth section
will discuss the limitations of the study.
The fifth section will discuss the
practical implications of the study. The final section will present suggestions
for further research.
Review of the Study
This study was undertaken to add to the information regarding the
therapeutic value of camping in changing the self-concept of delinquent drugabusing adolescents. The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the
changes in self-concept which take place in drug-abusing delinquent adolescents
from a residential treatment facility who participate with those who do not
participate in a short-term therapeutic camping experience. The objectives of
this study were to demonstrate that adolescents participating in a short-term
camping experience will show positive changes in their self-concepts relative to
adolescents who do not participate in a short-term camping experience.
The literature review initially compared the various theories and empirical research regarding the development and definition of self-concept. It then
proceeded to explore self-concept's relationship to those adolescents who are
emotionally disturbed, drug-abusing, and/or delinquent. The final section of the
review discussed therapeutic camping and its effect on the self-concepts of
60
61
adolescents.
There is very limited and conflicting evidence in the literature
regarding the ability of a therapeutic short-term camping experience in
changing the self-concept of delinquent drug-abusing adolescents in a positive
direction. In summary, the literature is ambiguous on whether self-concept can
be changed in delinquent drug-abusing adolescents who participate in a therapeutic short-term camping experience.
Based on this researcher's intuition, and partially on the literature review,
it was hypothesized that there would be a significant difference in the selfconcept of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents participating in a short-term
therapeutic camping experience compared to a control group of peers.
The subjects used in the study consisted of forty adolescent residents of
Pride House, a drug-freed therapeutic community.
The study population was
evenly distributed with twenty males and twenty females. Each subject was
administered the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale on the day preceding their prospective camping trip and on the day of return of their camping
trip. The subjects were divided into same sex experimental and control groups
matched on the demographic variables of age, race and sex. The experimental
group participated in a therapeutic short-term camping experience and the
control group remained at Pride House. The pre and post test total scores on
the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale of the four groups were then
analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance. The two cluster scores (Physical
Appearance and Attributes, and Happiness and Satisfaction) of all male and
female groups, pre and post test, were also analyzed individually by a one-way
analysis of variance.
The purpose of the analyses was to determine if
statistically significant differences at the .05 level existed between the two
groups on either the total scores or the two cluster scores of the Piers-Harris
62
Self-Concept Scale.
Analysis of the Hypotheses
As stated in the preceding chapters, there are two research hypotheses
for this study.
The first hypothesis stated there would be a significant difference in
change in the total self-concept scores between the experimental and control
groups of both sexes, as a result of a short-term therapeutic camping
experience. There was a significant difference found between the experimental
and control groups of male subjects. The results of the one-way analysis of
variance produced an F-ratio of 7.66 on the total self-concept scores of the
male groups. A ratio of 4.41 was needed to demonstrate significance at the .05
level of confidence. The results of the one-way analysis of variance for the
female groups on total self-concept scores produced an F-ratio of 0.31, which is
below the ratio of 4.41 needed to demonstrate significance at the .05 level of
significance. Therefore, the null hypotheses would be rejected in reference to
the male sample and would be retained in reference to the female sample based
on the total self-concept scores.
The second hypotheses stated there would be a significant difference in
change in the two cluster scores of Physical Appearance and Attributes, and
Happiness and Satisfaction between the experimental and control groups of
each sex. There was no significant difference found between the experimental
and control groups of each sex for both of the cluster scores. The results of the
one-way analysis of variance pertaining to Physical Appearance and Attributes
produced an F-ratio of 0.54 for the males and an F-ratio of 0.04 for the
63
females. The results of the one-way analysis of variance pertaining to Happiness and Satisfaction produced an F-ratio of .01 for the males and an F-ratio of
.97 for the females. A ratio of 4.41 was needed for both cluster scores to
demonstrate significance at the .05 level of confidence. Therefore, the null
hypothesis would be retained for both Physical Appearance and Attributes and
Happiness and Satisfaction.
In summary, the results of this study have found no significant change in
the self-concept dimensions of Physical Appearance and Attributes, and Happiness and Satisfaction for either the male or female participants when compared
to a control group of their peers. There was also no significant change in the
total self-concept scores of the female participants in the camping trip. But it
should be emphasized that there was a significant change (p.
< 05)
in the total
self-concept scores of males who were involved in the camping trip. The total
post-test self-concept scores increased an average of 3.5 points on the PiersHarris Children's Self-Concept Scale for the male experimental group when ther
research.
Review of the Study
This study was undertaken to aad to the information regarding the
therapeutic value of camping in changing the self-concept of delinquent drugabusing adolescents. The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the
changes in self-concept which take place in drug-abusing delinquent adolescents
from a residential treatment facility who participate with tnose who do not
particiffers no definite answers as to whether there are sex differences in selfesteem (Loney, 1972). A number of researchers have found that sex differences
64
do not exert a systematic effect upon total self-concept scores, but may have
some effect on cluster scores (Piers-Harris, 1964; Fitts, 1965; Reed et al, 1972).
If what these researchers have postulated is able to be generalized to this
study, then there must be some reason for no significant results for the
females. The most basic reason would be a measurement. As stated in Chapter
3, the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale was chosen for this study
because it was the best available instrument, as supported by Bentler (1971) and
Wylie (1974).
Improper selection of the sample population would be the next
logical reason for no significant results for the females. This doesn't appear
feasible since the criteria for selecting the males and the females were the
same. A bad experimental design would also come into question. The present
study was set up in a quasi-experimental design because of the impossibility of
randomizing the assignment of the experimental subjects.
Because of its
failure to randomize subjects, this study cannot guarantee the equivalence of
the experimental and control groups in initial status on all factors that may
affect the dependent variable of self-concept. In support of the present studies
design, the reader is reminded that the pre-test total scores presented in Table
II, Chapter 3, are not significantly different for either the males or females.
This indicates that essentially relevant pre-treatment differences were negligible.
This researcher would conclude that after responding to these basic
questions, that drug-abusing delinquent adolescent females will not likely
benefit from this type of camping experience. This would be a real finding if
there were not some other considerations to be taken into account.
The
importance of positive role models in developing a positive self-esteem has
been stressed. The male camping trip had two counselors who have a strong,
loving relationship with each other, whereas the female camping trip had two
65
counselors who did not care for each other.
This researcher received verbal
reports from the female campers that there was a great deal of disharmony
between the female counselors.
Another possible factor is that males, as a
whole, in American society receive more exposure during socialization to
camping than females. Also, most females are conditioned, to a degree, to be
dependent on a male while camping.
This would especially be true with the
female drug addict who has learned to play a more dependent role than her
male counterpart in the drug culture. The adventurous component of camping
has been stressed in the literature (Hughes and Dudley, 1973, Lounghmiller,
1965, Rickard, 1971), and males are typically considered more adventurous than
females. This may be due to the fact that young males deny being nervous or
worried more than young females.
(Piers-Harris, 1964).
In conclusion, the
findings in this study pertaining to the male campers significantly raising their
self-concept and the female campers not, in relation to a control group of
peers, are ambiguous.
This ambiguity arises when the numerous above-
mentioned considerations and the inconclusive research on the effect of sex
differences in relationship to self-concept are taken into account.
A similar argument in regard to measurement, selection, and experimental design can be used when discussing why there was no significant
difference for either males or females on both of the tested cluster scores. It
is this researcher's contention that these findings may be real findings in
reference to both clluster scores.
The additional considerations to take into
account when interpreting the results in regard to Physical Appearance and
Attributes cluster scores shall be discussed.
First, the length of time of the
camping trips was not long enough to raise significantly the component of selfconcept related to physical appearance. It was inferred in the literature that a
66
general characteristic of individuals with low self-esteem is a dislike of their
physical appearance. The majority of the subjects in this study are individuals
who have, on the averge, a low self-esteem. Therefore, in order to try to
change such a central component of an individual's self-concept as physical
appearance, an extended time period is probably necessary. Also, it should be
noted that during adolescence, one goes through a great deal of physical growth
and change. This may further complicate the issue on the stability of the
physical appearance component of an adolescent's self-concept.
When interpreting the results in regard to Happiness and Satisfaction
cluster scores, the following additional considerations need to be taken into
account. The most obvious consideration is that all the adolescents in the study
are involuntarily placed at Pride House by the Probation Department or the
Department of Public Social Services.
This restraint on the adolescent's
freedom could possibly affect the happiness and satisfaction factor of his/her
self-concept. Adolescence is generally a time of questioning and deciding many
facets of an individual's life.
This uncertaintity and the anxiety produced by
adolescence is a central factor of an adolescent's self-concept in reference to
happiness and satisfaction. It was also inferred in the literature that a general
characteristic of individuals with low self-esteem is a dissatisfaction and
unhappiness with the way they feel about themselves. As previously mentioned,
the majority of the subjects in this study are individuals who have, on the
average, a low self-esteem. The importance of a high self-esteem for happiness
in life is also stated in the literature review.
Purkey (1970) states that an
indivual's view of the world is in the terms in which they view themselves. It
should be noted that the centralness of the happiness and satisfaction component of one's self-concept is fairly resistant to change.
It is this researcher's
67
belief that a longer time period would be needed to effect this facet of one's
self-concept.
In conclusion, it is this researcher's opinion that the findings of this study,
in reference to the two cluster scores tested, may be real findings.
It is
impossible to state conclusive findings due to the many considerations that have
to be taken into account with both of these factors. There is also very limited
published research with which to compare this study's findings. The only finding
that appears to be significant and conclusive in this study is that camping was
able to raise the total self-concept scores for male delinquent drug-abusing
adolescents when compared to a control group of their peers. Further research
on the effect of a therapeutic short-term camping experience in raising the
self-concepts of delinquent drug-abusing adolescents is needed to more specifically define the meanings of these findings.
Limitations of the Study
There were several limitations and problems that were encountered in this
research study which should be considered when interpreting the data.
The
small size investigated constitutes the major limitation of this study. An
increased sample size would reduce the probability of error. To permit valid
generalizations, the sample must be random and representative. As previously
mentioned, the sample was not randomly assigned even though there were no
significant pre-test differences between the experimental and control groups.
The sample was not representative of the total population because the subjects
selected for the camping trips were the one's whose behavior was considered
best at Pride House during that time period by the clinical staff. The size of the
68
sample also affects the validity of the findings. When replicating this study, it
would be recommended to use a larger sample size, as well as a random and
representative selection process in order to increase the validity of the
findings.
Another problem encountered in this study is the lack of control of the
treatment. The female and male camping trips were impossible to make
identical. The camping trips involved two different sets of counselors and were
held at two different time periods.
This study included drug-abusing delinquent adolescents from only one
residential program, therefore, there is no way of determining if the significant
result found on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale for the males
may be generalized to other programs.
In replications of this study, it is
recommended that the sample population be drawn from more than one
adolescent treatment facility treating the same type of clients.
Practical Implications
Due to lack of significant findings related to totally disproving the
hypotheses of this study, the practical implications are limited.
null
Further
investigation into the ability of a therapeutic short-term camping trip in
positively changing the self-concept of drug-abusing delinquent adolescents may
have practical implications for those involved in residential drug-abuse and
delinquency treatment. This information may be beneficial in various manners.
Camping may be utilized as a valuable therapeutic intervention in raising the
self-concepts of a population that generally possess a low self-concept. The use
of camping in positively changing the self-concepts of male drug-abusing
69
delinquent adolescents may help treatment facilities in determining who would
most benefit from this type of intervention. Another value of this study is the
identification of the need for compatible and well trained staff to supervise the
camping trips.
Suggestions for Further Research
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, replication of this study with a larger
population drawn from several residential treatment facilities may clarify some
of the inconsistencies found in the results of this study. The selection process of
the sample subjects should be random and representative of the total population. It would also be recommended to have the camping trips at the same time
and also have a co-ed camping trip for comparison purposes. A more structured
content of the camping experience would also be beneficial.
A clear cut definition of the classifications of adolescents as drugabusing, delinquent, and/ or emotionally disturbed is also recommended.
It is
also highly recommended by this researcher that more post-testing be done to
see if the change in self-concept is steadfast or not.
Emphasis and research
should also be given to the general theapeutic effect nature has on man and his
psyche.
70
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77
7447 N. Sepulveda Blvd.
Van Nuys. CA 91405
213988·5660
May 25, 1982
Pride House grants permission for Joseph Fitzgerald Pascale
to utilize the residents of Pride House in a research study
i nvesti gating the ability of a the rape uti c camping experience
in changing the residents' level of self-esteem.
~b~~
Elliot Goldstein, MA, MFCC
Clinical Director
EB/dn
•
Af!il~te o< '\~HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SERVICES. INC.
78
Portions of
information:
the
Admission
Questionnaire
used
to
gather
demographic
ADMISSION FORM
INSTRUCTIONS:
1.
Please be sure to complete all items on this page. If you
have any questions about how to answer, please ask the
Intake Counselor for help.
NAME
LAST
FIRST
3.
What is your sex?
4.
What is your age as of today?
5.
What is your birth date?
Male
Female
Month
7.
MIDDLE
Day
Year
What is your race or ethnic group?
--
White
Mexican-American
--
Black
--
Puerto Rican
--
American Indian
--
Other Latin
--
Asian
_ _ Filipino
- - Other (Specify)
Highest grade completed: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
10.
Drug
Heroin
Cocaine
Bar bi tur a tes
or other
sedatives
Amphetamines
Cough Syrup
Hallucinogens
lnhalents
Marijuana
Hashish
Ever Used
First Use
Continued Use
Use
79
12.
Has Client ever O.O.'d?
13.
Did Client ever drink ALCOHOL heavily
and regularly? __ Yes __ No
14.
"Are you an Alcoholic?" __ Yes
Yes
No
No.