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IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
Food is essential for all living organisms to live. We depend on plants and animals for food. The increase in population
has created much demand for food.
The green revolution contributed to increased food-grain production, and the white revolution contributed to increased
availability of milk. Yellow revolution increased oil production.
Sustainable Agriculture: It is the successful management of agricultural resources that maximizesyield while maintaining
the quality of environment and conserving the natural resources. For sustained livelihood, one should undertake mixed
farming, intercropping, and integrated farming practices, for example, combining agriculture with livestock/ poultry/
fisheries/bee-keeping.
Food Resources:
Cereals (Wheat, rice, maize, millets and sorghum) provide us carbohydrates;
Pulses (Grams, pea and lentil) provide us proteins;
Oil seeds (Soya bean, ground nut, sesame, and castor) provide us fats;
Vegetables, spices and fruits provide us a range of minerals, nucleic acids and vitamins.
In addition to these food crops, fodder crops like berseem, oats or sudan grass are raised as food for the livestock are
called as fodder crops.
Types of crops
Based on the climatic conditions required for growth, crops are categorized into three types namely, kharif crops, rabi
crops and zaid crops.
• Kharif crops are grown in the rainy season as they require more water, which extends from June to October. Kharif
crops include paddy, soyabean, maize, cotton, green gram and black gram.
• Rabi crops are grown in the winter season which extends from November to April as they require less water. Rabi
crops include wheat, gram, peas and linseed.
• Zaid crops are grown from March to June. Zaid crops include muskmelon, Watermelon, vegetables of cucurbitaceae.
Improvement in crop yield
The three scientific approaches in farming for improving crop yield can be classified as:
1. Crop varietal improvement,
2. Crop production management and
3. Crop protection management.
1.Crop variety improvement:
Crop variety improvement brings in following advantages.
a)Increase in the crop yield
b)Increase in the desirable qualities of the crop.
c)Development of biotic and abiotic resistant crops like resistance from diseases, insects, heat, cold, flood, drought,
waterlogging, etc.
d)Development of crops with shorter maturity duration.
e)Development of crops with wider adaptability.
f) Introduction of desirable agronomical traits in crops e.g. profuse branching in fodder crops .
Crop variety improvement can be achieved by the process of
• Selection: The criteria for selection are high yield, disease resistance, response to fertilisers, tolerance to climate, etc.
• Hybridization:It refers to crossing between genetically dissimilar plants; It is all to get higher yield, improved quality,
biotic and abiotic resistance, change in maturity duration, wider adaptability and desirable agronomic characteristics.
Hybridization occurs by a cross between two different varieties, which is known as inter-varietal crossing, or between
two different genera, known as inter-generic crossing, or between two different species, known as inter-specific
crossing.
• Genetic Improvement: Another way of improving the crop is by introducing a gene that would provide the desired
characteristic.Crop yield is related to factors like weather, soil fertility, and availability of water etc. This results in
genetically modified crop (GMC) plants that are able to survive in a drought or flood.
2. Crop production management:
It is the protection of crops that are growing or have been harvested. Nutrient management, irrigation and cropping
patterns can help improve crop production.
Nutrients required by the plant are classified into macronutrients and micronutrients. Air supplies carbon and oxygen.
Water supplies hydrogen and oxygen. Soil supplies the remaining 13 nutrients to plants. Deficiency of any one of these
diseases makes the plant prone to many diseases.
a)Macronutrients are the nutrients required in larger amounts by the plant. Macronutrients include Nitrogen,
Phosphorous, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur.
b)Micronutrients are the nutrients required in smaller amounts by the plant. Micronutrients include Iron, Manganese,
Boron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum and Chlorine.
Harmful effects of lack of nutrients: 1. No proper growth 2. Low resistance to diseases 3. No proper fruits or flowers.
Nutrient management refers to controlling the selection, timing and amount of nutrient supplied to the crops. Soil is the
most important reservoir of plant nutrients. Mineral replenishment is done through the addition of manures and
fertilizers to the field.
MANURES
• Manure is produced naturally by the decomposition of animal excreta and plant waste. It contains organic matterand
also some nutrients in small amounts, and thus, improves the water-holding capacity in sandy soils, and prevents water
logging in clayey soils and also improves soil fertility. Based on the biological material used, manures are of three types:
• Compost is prepared by decomposing animal excreta, farm waste, vegetable waste, domestic and sewage waste in
pits by the process of composting.
• Vermicompost is prepared by using earthworms to hasten the decomposition of plant and animal waste by the
process of vermi-composting. Earthworms eat up the waste and worm casting rich in nutrients also gets added.
• Green manure is provided to the plants by ploughingand mulching plants rich in nitrogen and phosphorous like sun
hemp and gaur that decay to form organic matter in the soil, before sowing seeds of the main plant.
FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are commercially produced chemical substances containing organic or inorganic compounds having one or
more essential plant nutrients used to increase soil fertility, enhance plant growth and yield. Excess fertilizers destroy
the soil fertility.
• The continuous use of chemical fertilisers kills useful micro-organisms and even destroys soil fertility. Hence, chemical
fertilisers are being replaced by bio-fertilisers.
• Biofertilisers are used in organic farming to increase soil fertility. They are prepared by using organisms like blue-green
algae, bacteria and fungi which bring about soil nutrient enrichment and are renewable and non-pollutant source of
plant nutrient such as nitrogen. Neem leaves and turmeric are used as biopesticides.
Manure
Fertilizers
1. Manure is prepared by the decomposition
Fertilizers are commercially produced plant
of animal excreta and plant waste. It decides nutrients. Excess fertilizers destroy the soil
the texture of the soil and increases fertility.
fertility.
2. It is cheap and prepared in rural homes and
It is costly and is prepared in factories
fields.
3. It is voluminous and bulky
It is compact and concentrated
4. It is inconvenient to store, transport, handle.
It is easy to store, transport, handle.
5. It is not nutrient specific.
It is nutrient specific and can provide
specifically nitrogen, phosphorus etc.
6. Add great humus to the soil
Does not add humus to the soil.
7. Slowly absorbed as is less soluble in water.
Rapid absorption due to easy solubility in water.
IRRIGATION
Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to the soil by different methods.India has variety of water resources: Wells,
canals, river lift system, tanks, rainwater harvesting, water shedding management to increase in ground water levels and
to check the water flowing away to the sea.
 Irrigation provides water to the plants.
 To provide sufficient moisture for the germination of seeds as seeds do not germinate in dry soils.
 For proper growth and elongation of the roots of the crop plants.
 For the absorption of nutrients by the plants from the soil.
 Nutrients dissolved in water get transported to every part of the crop plant.
 Irrigation water helps in replacement of water lost through transpiration.
Irrigation Systems
1. WELLS – These are constructed at places where enough ground water is available. They are of 2 types:
i) Dug Wells – In the dug wells water is collected by bullock operated devices or by pumps. This method is
cheap.
ii) Tube Wells – It makes very deep underground water available for irrigation. Motor pump is used for lifting
water. This method requires high cost.
2. CANALS – Man made water channels originating from river water or water reservoirs. They are specifically made to
take water to various agricultural plots.
3. RIVER LIFT SYSTEM - In this system water is directly taken from rivers through pumps. This system is useful for
irrigation in areas close to river.
4. TANKS – Tanks are small storage reservoirs which are used to store rain water.
5. RAIN WATER HARVESTING – Accumulation of rain water in tanks for later use. This also prevents soil erosion. Soil
erosion is unwanted removal of top layer of soil due to flowing water or wind. This method requires high cost.
6. WATER SHED MANAGEMENT – Small check dams are built in water shed areas, to increase ground water level.
These stop rain water from flowing away, thus preventing soil erosion.
Cropping Patterns
A. Mixed cropping - Two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same pieceof land. Ex. Wheat+ Gram; Wheat+
Mustard; Groundnut+ sunflower.
Crops are chosen:
 Should require similar environmental conditions like rain, temperature, growth.
 Waste of one crop stimulates the growth of the other.
 Should require different nutrients so that all nutrients of the environment are used.
Advantages
 Risk of complete crop failure is reduced.
 It increases the yield of both the crops due to complementary effect of both the crops.
 Farmers tend to harvest a variety of products such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, fodder etc.
 It improves soil fertility and reduces the requirement of fertilizers.
 Chances of pest attack are also reduced.
Disadvantages
 Pesticides and fertilizers cannot be applied to individual crops.
 Harvesting and threshing of crops separately is not easy.
B. Intercropping
Two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same pieceof land in a definite pattern. Example;Wheat+
gram;Soyabean + maize; bajra+Cowpea.
Crops are selected:
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Their nutrient requirements are different. This ensures the maximum utilization of the nutrients supplied and
prevents pests and diseases spreading in the crop field.
Advantages:
 Intercropping increases productivity per unit area.
 It saves time and labour of farmers and makes better use of resources.
 Pests and diseases do not spread to all the plants due to intervening row of other crops.
 Fertilizers, pesticides and weedicides can be applied as per the need of each crop.
 Each crop can be harvested, threshed d marketed separately.
 Soil erosion is checked as the field is not left uncovered for any long period.
C. Crop rotation
Growing different crops on apiece of land in a pre-plannedsuccession.
If a crop is grown continuously in the same field for many years, it results into:
 Deficiency of same type of nutrient in the soil.
 Increased chances of pests and diseases.
Crops are chosen: Generally leguminous crop is rotated with non-leguminous crop to replenish the deficiency of
nitrogen created by non-leguminous crop.
 Environmental conditions
 Nutrients required by the crop.
 Duration of crop
 Marketing and processing facilities.
Advantages
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Soil fertility is maintained
Less use of fertilizer
High yield
Minimizes attack of pests and growth of weeds
One soil preparation is used for several crops grown in succession.
Chemical nature of soil is not altered
Higher returns for farmers
MIXED FARMING
Raising of different types of crops and animals on the same farm is called mixed farming. It is useful for farmers due to
easy availability of varied food products. It also ensures good return to farmers.
Organic farming
Organic farming: Farming in which there is no use of chemicals fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides etc. Culturing blue
green algae (bio-fertilizer), neem leaves (bio-pesticide), organic manure along with healthy cropping systems like inter
cropping, crop rotation etc. Organic farming does not cause any pollution of crop plants, soil, water or air.
3.Crop Protection Management
It involves the protection the protection of crops from various kinds of weeds, insect pests, diseases etc. Methods used
to control these problems are:
 Pest control during growth
 Storage of grains
Pest Control During Growth
Pests are any destructive organisms which can harm or destroy crops or products obtained from them.These are
transmitted through soil, water and air. Pests are of many types – insects, weeds and pathogens
Insects:
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Different types of insect pests attack plants and reduce their yield. They harm the plant by:
They cut the leaves, stem and roots,
They bore into the stem and fruits.
They suck the cell sap.
Different types of insect pests attack the crop plants:
 Chewing Insect – These insects cut roots, stem and leaves of crop plants. E.g. locusts, grasshoppers, caterpillars
etc.
 Sucking insects – They suck the cell sap from various parts of the plant. E.g. Aphids (aphis), plant bugs (pyrilla),
leaf hoppers (Gundi bug of rice) etc.
 Borer insect – These insects bore holes into stems, roots, leaves, fruits, seeds etc. They live inside the plant
parts. E.g. Pod borer, sugarcane borer, grain weevil etc.
Methods to control Insect Pests
a) Chemical Control – Pesticides like herbicides, fungicides, insecticides etc. are chemicals used to kill pests.
 Root cutting types of insects are controlled by mixing insecticide in soil, e.g. chloropyriphos.
 Stem and leaf cutting and boring type of insects are controlled by spraying insecticides like
Malathion, Lindane, Thiodon etc.
 Sap sucking insects can be controlled by spraying insecticides like Dimethoate, Metasystox etc.
b) Biological control - Some insects, birds or other organisms are deliberately put in the affected crop fields
which can kill the pests but do not harm the crops. It is highly specific and non-polluting, but acts slowly.
Natural insecticides are also obtained from plants e.g. neem, tobacco etc.
Pathogens: Disease causing organisms are called pathogens. Common pathogens are bacteria, fungi, viruses and
nematodes. These are present in soil, water and air. On getting favourable conditions they become active and infect
plants. Diseases reduce the growth and yield of crop.
 SEED- BORNE DISEASE – Transmitted through seeds e.g. ergot of bajra, leaf spot of rice, red rot of sugarcane
etc. – all are caused by fungi.
 SOIL-BORNE DISEASE – Transmitted through soil e.g. smut of bajra, tikka disease of groundnut.
 AIR-BORNE DISEASE – Transmitted by air e.g. rust of wheat, blast of rice.
 WATER-BORNE DISEASES – Transmitted by water e.g. bacterial blight of rice.
Control of crop diseases: Apart from growing disease resistant variety
a) Seed borne diseases can be controlled by:
i) Sowing healthy seeds.
ii) Pre-treating seeds with chemicals like agrosan, ceresin etc. in order to kill pathogens.
b) Soil-borne diseases can be controlled by:
i) Using soil disinfectants.
ii) By crop rotation.
c) Air-borne diseases canbe controlled by:
i) Spraying chemicals like insecticides, fungicides etc. `
Preventive Measures
 Use of disease resistant varieties
 Proper time of sowing
 Clean cultivation
 Crop rotation, inter-cropping etc.
 Summer ploughing as heat destroys most pathogens and pests
Weeds: Weeds are the unwanted plants competing with the crop plants for food, space and light, and finally reduce
crop growth. Therefore removal of weeds at the early stages is essential. Weeds help in spreading main crop pests and
diseases by acting as alternate hosts. During harvesting, weeds get mixed with crops and degrade its quality.
Removal of weeds from a crop field is called weeding.
 Mechanical Methods :Removal of weeds by pulling out with hand, using trowel, ploughing, burning and flooding
the field before sowing.
 Cultural Methods : Proper seed bed preparation, timely sowing of crops and utilizing various cropping patterns.
 Chemical Methods : Using weedicides like 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2, 4-D) and 2, 4, 5-Trichlorophenoxy
acetic acid (2, 4, 5-T)
 Biological Methods : Certain insects or organisms selectively destroy the weeds but do not harm the crops. They
are deliberately put into the crop field to destroy weeds. Cochineal insects are used to eradicate the weed,
Opuntia, Aquatic weeds are removed by fish, Grass carp.
STORAGE OF GRAINS
Food grains are stored in safe storage for getting seasonal foods regularly throughout the year.
Storage is done at 3 levels:
1) Producer level – Rural storage
2) Trader level – Keeping food grains in gunny bags
3) FCI (Food Corporation of India) level – Storing grains in silos.
Storage losses in crops are due to
 biotic factors like insects, rodents, fungi, mites and bacteria.
 Abiotic factors like inappropriate levels of moisture and temperature in the storage area also damage crops.
These factors cause infestation of insects, degradation of quality, loss in weight, poor germination ability,
discoloration of produce, poor marketability and economic loss.
Prevention and Control Measures
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Grains should be cleaned and properly dried in the sunlight and shade before storage.
Fumigation is the process by which grains are exposed to chemical fumes to get rid of pests.
Godowns and warehouses should be properly cleaned, dried and repaired, thermally insulated and insect proof.
Pesticide solution is sprayed to disinfect the godown before arrival of grains, and on the gunny bags.
Natural pesticides like neem are added to stored grains to protect them.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Animal Husbandry – The science of rearing, feeding, caring, breeding and utilization of animals is called animal
husbandry.
Cross Breeding –When two individuals of desirable characters are crossed to obtain a new breed of animals. The
offspring produced are called hybridsand show good characters of both parents.
Daily average feed ration of a cow:
 Green fodder and dry grasses (roughage) -15 to 20 kg
 Grain mixture (concentrate) – 4 to 5 kg
 Water – 30 to 35 litres
Certain feed additives are also required. These contain micronutrients, minerals, hormones etc. to improve health
and milk yield.
DO DISEASE TABLE FROM THE BOOK
Symptoms of sick animals
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Loss of appetite
Tired and inactive
Milk yielding or working capacity decreases
Passes loose or watery dung
Discoloured urine
Excessive salivation
High temperature with shivering
Watery nose
Redness in eyes and drooping ears
POULTRY
Poultry farming refers to rearing of birds for eggs and meat.
Egg laying poultry bird is known as layer and poultry bird reared for meat is called broiler.
Poultry diseases: Some poultry diseases and causal organisms  Ranikhet – Virus
 Bird Flu – Virus
 Fowl Cholera –Bacteria
 Diarrhoea of Chick – Bacteria
 Aspergillosis – Fungus
 Coccidiosis – Protozoa
Huge increase in egg production in India is known as Silver Revolution.
FISH PRODUCTION
Fisheries are establishments associated with capture, preservation and utilization of various type of fishes, prawns,
lobsters, oysters etc.
Depending on the mode of obtaining fish, fishery is of two types:
 Capture fishery
 Culture Fishery
Pisciculture – Rearing, harvesting and management of fishes on a large scale in a given water body.
On the basis of source of water, fisheries can be classified into 2 types:
 Marine fisheries – These include fish catching areas found in oceans and seas. In India the areas are Arabian
Sea, Bay of Bengal, many small bays, gulfs, lagoons, coral reefs etc. Popular sea fish or table fish lnclude
Pomphret, Mackerel, Tuna, Eel, Flat fish, Bombay duck, Salmon, Sardines, Hilsa, Seer. Some other fish of high
economical value are also cultured. Finned fish include mullets, Bhetki, Pearl spots; shell fish such as Prawns,
Mussels, Oysters as well as sea weeds. Cultivation or culturing of marine organisms for food and other products
is called Mariculture.
 Inland Fisheries – It is a collective term used for both fresh water and brackish water fisheries. Fresh water
sources are rivers, canals, lakes, reservoirs, tanks, ponds, paddy fields etc. Brackish water is slightly salty water
where sea water and fresh water mix together. Sources of brackish water include estuaries, lagoons, mangrove
swamps etc. Yield from inland capture fisheries is not very high, therefore most inland production is through
aquaculture.
Aquaculture – Growing of various types of aquatic organisms in water bodies is called aquaculture. It pertains to
production of useful aquatic plants and animals such as fish, prawns, cray fish, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, mussels, oysters
and sea weeds by proper utilization of available waters in the country.
Integrated Fish Culture – Fish culturing along with cultivation of an agricultural crop is referred to as integrated fish
culture. The crops include paddy, banana, coconut etc. Fish cultured include Catla, Rohu etc.
Composite Fish Culture – A combination of 5 or 6 fish species is used in a single fish pond. Both Indian and exotic species
can be used. The fish selected should not compete with each other for space, nutrition etc. Fish species used are silver
carp, grass carp, common carp, Catla, Rohu and Mrigal. These have different types of food habits:
 Silver carp (eat Phytoplanktons) and Catla (eat Zooplanktons) are surface feeders.
 Rohu feeds on decaying plants in the middle zone of the pond.
 Mrigal (decaying plants) and common carps (omnivore) are bottom feeders.
 Grass carp feeds on weeds not eaten by others.
So the food available in all parts of the pond is used without competing with each other.
Only drawback is the non-availability of good quality seeds as these fish do not breed in the pond. Fish seeds
collected from the wild are not pure.
The problem of quality seeds and breeding of fish in the pond was solved by Alikunhi who developed the technique
of induced breeding which involves injecting fish pituitary hormones to the fish, which led to Blue Revolution
through fish culture.
BEE KEEPING
Bee keeping or Apiculture is the practice of rearing , care and management of honeybees for obtaining honey, bee wax
and other useful substances. Apiary is a place where a number of bee hives are kept in wooden boxes in a systematic
manner at desirable locations.
Honey contains sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose and dextrin), moisture, vitamins, amino acids, enzymes and pollen
grains. Uses of honey are :
 It is an immediate source of energy.
 It is a blood purifier.
 It helps in correcting problems related to digestion, dysentery, vomiting, liver , cough and cold, ulcer of tongue
and stomach etc.
 It is rich in iron and calcium thus helps in body growth.
 Helps in formation of haemoglobin.
 As sweetener in confectionary industry.
Bee Wax is used in cold creams, shaving creams, cosmetics, candles, polishes, lipsticks etc. It is used in some medicinal
preparations also.
Poisonof bee is used in manufacturing certain Ayurvedic and Homeopathic medicines.
Propolisis used to repair the comb.
Variety of honey bees: Indigenous :
 Apisceranaindica (Indian bee)
 Apisdorsata (Rock bee)
 Apisflorea (little bee)
Exotic:
 Apismellifera (European or Italian bee)
 Apisadamsoni(South African bee)
Apismellifera is domesticated in India because it has:
 High honey collection capacity
 Gentle nature
 Longer stay period in a given hive
 Very well breeding capacity.
 Good ability to protect itself from enemies.
Honey bees are social insects and live in colonies. There are 3 kinds of individuals (castes) on the basis of their roles.
1. Queen: Queen Bee is diploid, fertile female responsible for laying eggs. Emerges out from fertilized eggs.
2. Drones: They are haploid fertile males. Their sole function is to fertilize the young queen. Emerges out from
fertilized eggs.
3. Workers: They are diploid sterile females. They are most active and others depend on them for their food.
Emerges out from unfertilized eggs.
Factors required to obtain good quality and high yield of honey:
1) Pasturage – It refers to the flowers available for nectar and pollen collection. Quantity and kind of flowers
determine the quality, quantity, taste and value of honey produced.
2) Location – Apiary should be established in localities rich in vegetation for maximum nectar collection.
3) Beehive – Artificial beehives with separate chambers for egg laying, honey collection etc. should be arranged in
a systematic manner.
4) Honey flow and seasons – Apiaries should be established where there is abundance of flowers for longer
duration. The total time during which honey bees collect nectar and pollens is called honey flow period.
5) Swarming – When a young bee is ready to take over the function of a queen, The old queen with some workers
and drones, leave to build a new colony. This process is called swarming. Frequent transfers result in low yields
of honey.
6) Selection of bee – Good bee variety is important for production of good quality honey. Italian honey bee
(Apismellifera) is commonly used.
7) Protection from pests and diseases – Wasps, wax moths, mites, black ants, green bee-eaters and king crows are
common pests of honey bee.
Wasps are controlled manually by destroying their nests from the locality. Wax moths are destroyed by exposing
bees in bee hive to sun. Bee-eater birds are scared away by some devices.
Honey bees are also infected by virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa.