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MAJOR CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERNS IN INDIA
Three distinct agricultural seasons in India:
Kharif (July- October): Rice, Millets, Maize, Groundnut, Cotton
Rabi (November-March): Wheat, Sorghum, Gram, Barley, Oats
Zaid (April- June): Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Vegetables
Crop
Rice
Season, temperature, rainfall etc.
Kharif
High temperature (25+)
Wheat
High rainfall (annual 100cm +); in areas with
low rainfall, irrigation is required (canal/
tubewell irrigation has made it possible to
grow rice in Haryana and Punjab; but is leading
to declining water tables. In contrast, Bihar’s
water tables are not being utilized well enough
due to lack of energy and other infrastructure)
Rabi
Cool climate, with sunshine at the time of
harvest
50-75 cm annual rainfall, evenly distributed
through the growing season
GRAINS
Factoid
India is 2nd largest producer of
rice in the world after China
Soil
Areas/ States
Under the
right climatic
conditions,
soil is usually
not a
constraint,
but alluvial
soil is
preferred
Major: Eastern, North-Eastern
and South-Eastern states
Loam is best
(Loam is soil
containing
almost equal
proportions
of sand and
silt, and some
clay)
Major: Ganga-Satluj plains in the
north, and black soil region in
Deccan (Punjab, Haryana, UP,
Bihar, Rajasthan, MP)
Minor: Northern plains (Punjab,
Haryana, Western UP); a strip
along the Western Coast
% of
cultivate
d area
Millets
(Jowar,
Bajra, Ragi)
Mainly Kharif crops (require temperature of
25-35 degrees)
1. Jowar: Rainfed (60-70 cm rain required)
1. Jowar is 3rd most important
food crop wrt area and
production
1. Jowar and
Bajra: Sandy/
black soil
1.
Mainly Kharif
Food and fodder crop
3. Ragi: Red/
black/
laterite soil
(Laterites ar
e soil types
rich in iron
and
aluminium,
formed in hot
and wet
tropical
areas. Nearly
all laterites a
re rusty-red
because of
iron oxides.
They develop
by intensive
and longlasting
weathering of
the
underlying
parent rock
)
Old alluvial
21-27 degree temp.
50-75 cm rainfall
Both Rabi and Kharif (mainly a warm climate
crop, but recently people have started growing
India is the largest producer and
consumer of pulses in the world;
Grown in
variety of
2. Bajra and Ragi: can be grown in drier
regions, with rainfall of 35-50 cm (Ragi is
especially well-suited to grow in drier regions)
Maize
Pulses
1. Jowar: Maharashtra, Karnataka,
AP, MP
2. Bajra: Rajasthan, UP,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana
3. Ragi: Karnataka, TN, HP,
Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Jharkhand
(The state whose name is
mentioned first in each of the
above 3 millets is the largest
national producer of that
particular millet)
Karnataka, UP, Bihar, AP, MP
MP, UP, Rajasthan, Karnataka,
Maharashtra
these during Rabi as well)
Need less moisture, can grow in dry
conditions
Crop
Sugarcane
Oilseeds
(Groundnut
accounts for
½ of all
oilseeds)
Tea
Season, temperature, rainfall etc.
however, still the demand
outstrips supply and lots of
pulses have to be imported from
abroad
soils, from
sandy loam to
heavy black
cotton soil
Being leguminous crops, pulses
help in restoring soil fertility by
fixing nitrogen from the air; so,
they are generally grown in
rotation with other crops
NON-GRAINS
Factoid
Soil
Kharif crop: needs hot, humid climate, and
high rainfall
India is second largest
producer, after Brazil
21-27 degree temp.
Sugarcane needs manual labour
for all the processes involved in
cultivation
India is largest producer of
oilseeds.
75-100 cm rainfall
Kharif (Groundnut)
Warm, moist, but frost-free climate
throughout the year; requires frequent
showers evenly distributed all through the
year
Groundnut accounts for about
half of the total oilseed
production in the country.
India is the leading producer and
exporter of tea
The government recently
introduced the Plant Protection
Code, which contains guidelines
to reduce chemical inputs in tea
cultivation
Alluvial/
Black/
Laterite
Areas/ States
% of cult.
area
Tropical as well as subtropical
crop:
UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, TN,
AP, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana
Loamy
(groundnut)
Groundnut: AP, TN, Karnataka,
Gujarat, Maharashtra
Mountain soil
Assam, West Bengal, TN, Kerala
Deep and
fertile welldrained soil,
rich in
humus and
organic
matter
12%
Coffee
15-25 degrees temperature
150-250 cm rainfall
Horticulture
crops
India produces about 4% of the
world’s coffee
Nilgiri hills in Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu
Arabica variety is produced here
India is the largest producer of
fruits and vegetables
(produces about 13% of the
world’s vegetables)
9%
Although these cover only 9% of
total cropped area, they provide
25% of value of total agri
produce!
Crop
Rubber
Season, temperature, rainfall etc.
25 degree+
Moist and humid climate-200 cm + rainfall
required
Still, relative productivity
compared to other countries is
very low for horticultural
products in India
NON-FOOD CROPS
Factoid
Mainly an equatorial crop, but
also grown in tropical and
subtropical areas
Soil
Areas/ States
Mainly Kerala, Tamil Nadu, AP,
and Andamans
% of cult.
area
Cotton
Grows well in drier parts of the black soil of
deccan plateau
India is 2nd largest producer, and
world’s largest exporter
Requires high temperature, light rainfall (50
cm) or irrigation (REQUIRES HUMIDITY),
mostly frost-free days (210 in the year
minimum), and lots of sunshine
Almost 90% of the cotton
cultivation area is under Bt
Cotton. Bt cotton dramatically
changed the relationship between
farmer and seed. Before Bt, less
than 40% seeds used were
hybrids. Now it’s over 90%.
Making hybrid seeds is a
laborious, technical process and
costly, whereas varieties are a
result of generations of selective
breeding. They can be reused,
have lower yields, and are pretty
much given away for free by state
agriculture departments. Hybrids
have higher yields, can’t be
reused and are costlier.
Black soil
Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP,
Karnataka, AP, TN, Punjab,
Haryana, UP
Alluvial soil
(needs welldrained
West Bengal, Bihar, Assam,
Orissa, Meghalaya
On the surface, anti GM activists
usually stress the toxicity and the
‘contaminative’ aspects of Bt
seeds to push for its ban, but it is
really this corporatisation of seed
that is at the heart of most
friction between activists and
crop companies who are now
pushing for Bt to be introduced in
other plants such as brinjal
Jute
High temperature required: 27+
High rainfall: 170-250 cm
Used to make gunny bags, mats,
ropes, carpets etc., but due to its
high cost, it is losing market to
synthetic fibers such as nylons
Temp--->
Rainfall (down)
Dry (less than 50 cm p.a.)
Moderate (50-75)
Wet (75+)
Cool
Rice
Wheat
Coffee
fertile soils in
flood plains,
that are
replaced
every year)
Moderate
Pulses
Maize, Cotton
Sugarcane, Tea, Jowar
Hot
Bajra, Ragi
Rubber, Jute
Cropping systems in any area are determined by:
 Soil and climatic patterns
 Productivity and monetary benefits for the farmers
 Available infrastructure facilities, such as irrigation, transport, storage,
marketing, post-harvest handling and processing etc.
 Socio-economic factors: size and type of land holdings, labour
availability etc.
 Technological factors: Access to information, culture and history,
availability of mechanized tools and seeds etc.
India has a multiplicity of cropping systems because of:
 High dependence on rain-fed agriculture (65% of all cultivated area; this
provides only 45% of total foodgrain produce!) means low productivity,
which necessitates intercropping to reduce risks associate with mono
cropping
 Due to high poverty and very high pressure on land due to dependence on
a large fraction of the population on agriculture, agriculture remains to be
considered as a subsistence rather than a commercial activity. To fulfill
household needs, many farmers grow multiple crops
Due to these reasons, India’s cropping patterns remain dynamic in time and
space:
 The major change in cropping pattern is a substantial area shift from
cereals to non-cereals; since 1966, about 5% of the Gross Cultivated Area
(GCA) has shifted from cereal to non-cereal crops. Major gainers of this
shift are oilseeds
 This area loss can be almost entirely attributed to the declining area share
of coarse cereals, especially sorghum, bajra, barley etc.; rice and wheat
have maintained their shares
 Area under other commercial crops has also increased, but the result isn’t
as dramatic as that of oilseeds
Cropping systems of irrigated ecosystems:
Only 35% of all cultivated area in India is irrigated, but it provides about 55% of
all foodgrain production. Broadly, two distinct irrigated ecosystems emerge:
Indo-Gangetic Plain Region (Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar), and Coastal Areas of
Tamil Nadu and AP.
Principal crops having sizeable irrigated %ages are: Sugarcane, Wheat, Barley,
Mustard, Rice, Cotton etc. Among states, top 3 are Punjab, Haryana, and UP.
Issues in irrigated ecosystems:
 Inefficient land use planning and resource deployment
 Low water use efficiency (improper land leveling, growing crops not
suited to a region, indiscriminate use of ground water using high
energy consuming water pumps)
 Land degradation (soil salinity etc. due to receding water tables, use of
ever higher quantities of fertilizers to sustain falling yield levels)

 Inefficient land use, diversion of agricultural land to industry
Top-down approach of agricultural innovation and R&D, while ignoring
farmer participation
DIFFERENT TYPES OF IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Irrigation simply means watering the agricultural fields by any means other than
rain. Irrigation in India means supply of water to the fields from rivers, tanks,
wells, canals etc. Irrigation reduces dependence on monsoons, helps control
floods and droughts, brings more area under cultivation, reduces instability in
production etc.
Only about 35% of all cultivated land in India has access to any kind of irrigation;
rest is rain-fed. Productivity is much higher on irrigated land, as can be seen by
its high share of 55% in all foodgrains produced in India.
The type of irrigation system used in a particular area depends on: natural
conditions (soil, topography), type of crops being grown, technology, required
labour and other inputs, costs and benefits etc.
Irrigation systems can be divided in multiple ways:
1. Flow v/s lift systems (depending on the height of water table v/s the land
to be irrigated)
2. Capacity of irrigation: major, medium, and minor irrigation projects
3. Source: Most important classification is by source- Canals (40% of total
area under irrigation is served by canals), Wells (40%), Tanks (12%),
Misc. (8%)
i. Canal irrigation: About half of all canal irrigated area lies in Punjab,
Haryana, UP, and AP, where its easy to dig canals since the land is level
and soft. Canals can be perennial or inundation based, with the latter
being effective inly during floods. Canals, though expensive to
construct, can serve an area for many years, meaning that the total
lifetime cost is low. They also bring lots of sediments with them, and
thus help replenish soil productivity
However, excessive flow of water in the fields raises the ground water
level. Capillary action brings alkaline salts to the surface and makes
large areas unfit for agriculture. Vast areas in Punjab, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh suffer from the problem of ‘reh’ caused by canal
irrigation. About 36,000 hectares have been rendered useless in Nira
Valley of Maharashtra due to high concentration of salts in the soil
resulting from canal irrigation. Also, many canals overflow during rainy
season and cause flooding
ii. Well irrigation: A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain subsoil
water. Wells are of two types: open wells (5m depth) and tube wells
(15+ meters depth). Wells are easy to dig in areas with soft and porous
soil, as it allows rainwater to seep in and create a high water table.
Thus, wells are commonly used in Great Northern Plains, the deltaic
regions, and weathered layers of the deccan trap. Well irrigation is
popular in UP, Bihar, and black cotton soil area of the Deccan. Open
wells are cheap and easy to construct, and hence widely used. Since
tubewells usually require use of power pumps, well irrigation is
expensive, and utilized for crops that give high returns, such as
horticultural crops
iii. Tank irrigation: Farmers of groups of farmers build small reservoirs
by raising bunds across seasonal streams. This is usually used in areas
where soil is hard and stony, and land unsuitable to cut canals.
Widespread in peninsular part of India. About 4% of all irrigated land
is served by tanks. While tanks do not require huge investments and
costs, and allow for subsidiary activities such as fishing, many of them
dry up during the dry season, and suffer from regular silting,
evaporation of large quantities of water etc.
iv. Misc.: Ditch irrigation, Terrace irrigation, Drip irrigation (most
efficient method; water drops right near the root zone of the plant in a
dripping motion, so loss of water to evaporation and runoff is minimal;
also known as micro-irrigation and localized irrigation), Sprinkler
system (suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per
unit area is very high, such as oilseeds and other cereal and vegetable
crops, and is suitable for all types of soil except heavy clay), Rotary
Systems (best suited for large areas; means mechanically driven
sprinklers moving in a circular motion and hence reaching great
distances; waters a large area with small amounts of water over a
longer period of time), Center Pivot Irrigation (a form of overhead
irrigation, again using sprinklers)
 The government provides varying levels of monetary support for
farmers who want to implement the above mentioned kinds of
micro-irrigation techniques via the National Mission on Micro
Irrigation
E-TECHNOLOGY TO THE AID OF FARMERS
After witnessing green, white, blue yellow, and biotechnology revolutions, Indian
agriculture now needs to undergo the ICT revolution.
ICT’s most important role in agriculture comes from communication
facilitation. IT helps farmers have better access to real-time information, which
helps improve productivity. Central, state governments and private
organisations have taken ICT measures for agriculture extension which include
ITC- e-choupal, Kisan Kerala, Aaqua, Rice knowledge management portal, ekrishi etc.
ICT offerings for the farm sector can be classified into 3 categories: aimed at
empowerment (eg: e-chaupal, which gives farmers timely information about
weather, market prices etc.; Kisan Call Centres), aimed at enablement (emaintenance of land records, AADHAR cards etc.), and aimed at market
expansion (facilitation of setting up of agro-enterprises).
Apart from communication, technology can also be used at various points in the
farming value chain:
 Irrigate via smartphone
 GPS mapping to assess how much fertilizer to use where
 Webcam use to monitor crops, and seek remote expert advice
 Precision Agriculture or satellite farming (also known as site-specific
crop management (SSCM) is based on responding to inter and intra-field
variability in crops. It reduces use of fertilizer and pesticides, prevents
soil degradation, promotes optimal use of water, and raises productivity,
by innovatively using GPS and GNSS technologies
Thus, use of ICT in agriculture aids improved decision-making, better planning,
greater community involvement, spreading knowledge of agricultural
breakthroughs etc.
There are several central and state government plans to use ICT for agricultural
development:




E-agriculture is a mission-mode project under the NeGP (National eGovernance Plan). This is being operationalized by the Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC), and aims to provide information on
seeds, fertilizers, government schemes, soil recommendations, crop
management, and marketing of produce
National Policy for Farmers (2007) and National Mission on
Agricultural Extension and Technology identify use of ICT as a strong
factor in agricultural development
Kisan Credit Card scheme is being used to provide affordable credit to
farmers. It allows easy credit facilities, flexible repayment schedules, and
extensions up to four years
Kisan Call Centre, Kisan SMS Portal, and Village Knowledge Centres
are operational in various places across the country
Going forward, the extent of crop losses can be determined by using satellite
imagery; each farm can be captured on a pixel, and linked to the farmer’s bank
accounts and UID numbers. If there is a hailstorm, say, tonight, then the
compensation money can be transferred to the farmer’s account with 24-48
hours.